Journal articles: 'Privatization – Europe, Central'

1

Myant, Martin. "The privatization process in central Europe." International Affairs 70, no. 4 (October 1994): 814. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2624629.

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2

Moskoff, William, Roman Frydman, Andrzej Rapaczynski, and John S. Earle. "The Privatization Process in Central Europe." Russian Review 53, no. 4 (October 1994): 603. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/131006.

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3

Cooper, Richard, and Roman Frydman. "The Privatization Process in Central Europe." Foreign Affairs 73, no. 2 (1994): 145. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20045940.

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4

Kiss, Yudit. "Privatization Paradoxes in East Central Europe." East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 8, no. 1 (December 1993): 122–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0888325494008001005.

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5

ESTRIN, Saul. "PRIVATIZATION IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE." Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics 62, no. 2 (April 1991): 159–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8292.1991.tb01480.x.

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6

Bolton, Patrick, Gerard Roland, John Vickers, and Michael Burda. "Privatization Policies in Central and Eastern Europe." Economic Policy 7, no. 15 (October 1992): 275. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1344544.

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7

Pringle, John J., and Dennis A. Rondinelli. "Privatization and Corporate Restructuring in Central Europe." Journal of East-West Business 3, no. 2 (August 18, 1997): 43–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j097v03n02_03.

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8

Miljković, Miloš, and Bruno Đuran. "Specificity of transition in the countries of Central and Southeast Europe." Odrzivi razvoj 4, no. 2 (2022): 45–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/odrraz2202045m.

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Privatization was one of the largest reform processes in the countries of Central and Southeastern Europe. In the economic literature, privatization in countries in transition is seen as an integral part of the process of liberalization and stabilization of the economy, which transfers property rights from the state to private entities. The main goal of privatization should be to increase the efficiency of business operations through better management, lower operating costs and increased competitiveness. The main problem that arose before the creators of the economic policy of countries in transition in the case of privatization was, among other things, how to transfer the ownership of the largest part of companies in an economy in which there is no private savings and not enough foreign direct investments into private hands. The paper presents the methods of company privatization, market reactions, the level of employment, and finally, the transition of this part of Europe was compared with the events characteristic of Serbia.

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9

Bjørnskov, Christian, and Niklas Potrafke. "Politics and privatization in Central and Eastern Europe." Economics of Transition 19, no. 2 (March 15, 2011): 201–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0351.2010.00404.x.

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10

Splichal, Slavko. "Media privatization and democratization in Central-Eastern Europe." Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands) 49, no. 1-2 (February 1992): 3–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001654929204900102.

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11

Caristi, Dom. "Standpoint: Privatization and broadcasting in east and central Europe." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 40, no. 2 (March 1996): 281–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08838159609364350.

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12

Kovách, Imre. "Privatization and family farms in Central and Eastern Europe." Sociologia Ruralis 34, no. 4 (December 1994): 369–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.1994.tb00819.x.

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13

Stark, David. "Path Dependence and Privatization Strategies in East Central Europe." East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 6, no. 1 (December 1991): 17–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0888325492006001003.

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14

Kozminski, Andrzej K. "Restitution of Private Property: Re-privatization in Central and Eastern Europe." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 30, no. 1 (March 1, 1997): 95–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0967-067x(96)00025-6.

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The article deals with the relatively little researched problem of the restitution of property confiscated by the communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe, After the fall of communism, new democratic governments and parliaments were faced with the problem of compensating former owners. This problem has practical aspects related to investors' confidence, as well as moral, symbolic, and emotional ones. Quite often it becomes a pawn in the political game. Legislation adopted and proposed in the key countries of the region is examined and compared. The political, economic, and institutional context of re-privatization is analysed. From the point of view of the key objectives of property restitution, the different re-privatization formulas, practised throughout the region, are assessed.

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15

Kudrov, V. "Central and Eastern Europe Countries: Experience of System Transformation." Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 5 (May 20, 2006): 97–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2006-5-97-114.

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Theoretical prerequisites, basic stages and mechanisms of the system market democratic transformation of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe are considered in the article. Special attention is paid to the methods of realization and strategic features of privatization of former state enterprises as well as to succeeding economic growth, rise in economic efficiency, increase of competitiveness and improving of living standards.

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16

Cox, Tony, Graham Hooley, József Berács, Krzysztof Fonfara, and Boris Snoj. "The Achievement of Privatization Objectives in Central and Eastern Europe." Journal of East-West Business 4, no. 1-2 (August 28, 1998): 99–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j097v04n01_05.

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17

Wassersug, Stephen R. "Limiting environmental liabilities in privatization in central and Eastern Europe." Environmental Claims Journal 6, no. 3 (March 1994): 391–419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10406029409379221.

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18

Boyd, James. "Environmental liability reform and privatization in Central and Eastern Europe." European Journal of Law and Economics 3, no. 1 (March 1996): 39–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00149082.

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19

FABIAN, KATALIN. "Privatization in Central Europe: The Case of Housing Policy in Hungary." Governance 8, no. 2 (April 1995): 218–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0491.1995.tb00207.x.

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20

Thomas, Scott. "The politics and economics of privatization in Central and Eastern Europe." Columbia Journal of World Business 28, no. 1 (March 1993): 168–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-5428(93)90063-u.

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21

Orenstein, Mitchell A. "Out-liberalizing the EU: pension privatization in Central and Eastern Europe." Journal of European Public Policy 15, no. 6 (September 2008): 899–917. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13501760802196853.

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22

Bird, R. M., and C. Wallich. "Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe." Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 12, no. 3 (September 1994): 263–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/c120263.

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Extensive decentralization, both political and fiscal, is taking place in many of the countries newly emerging from behind the socialist veil. Decentralization represents both a reaction from below to the previously tight political control from the center and an attempt from above to further the privatization of the economy and to relieve the strained fiscal situation of the central government. Although there are of course many variations in this process from country to country, some important common elements arise from the similar institutional starting point in all countries and the common transitional problems most of them are facing. The on-going reforms of subnational finance in the transitional economies are more important than seems generally to be recognized. The design of a well-functioning intergovernmental fiscal system is key to many of the major reform goals of the transition economies—macroeconomic stability, privatization, and the social safety net.

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23

van Brabant, Jozef M. "Privatization, Liberalization and Destruction—Recreating the Market in Central and Eastern Europe." Comparative Economic Studies 36, no. 3 (September 1994): 95–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ces.1994.34.

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24

Wegren, Stephen. "Agricultural Privatization, Land Reform and Farm Restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe." Comparative Economic Studies 40, no. 3 (September 1998): 137–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ces.1998.26.

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25

Estrin, Saul, Jan Hanousek, Evžen Kočenda, and Jan Svejnar. "The Effects of Privatization and Ownership in Transition Economies." Journal of Economic Literature 47, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 699–728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.3.699.

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In this paper, we evaluate what we have learned to date about the effects of privatization from the experiences during the last fifteen to twenty years in the postcommunist (transition) economies and, where relevant, China. We distinguish separately the impact of privatization on efficiency, profitability, revenues, and other indicators and distinguish between studies on the basis of their econometric methodology in order to focus attention on more credible results. The effect of privatization is mostly positive in Central Europe, but quantitatively smaller than that to foreign owners and greater in the later than earlier transition period. In the Commonwealth of Independent States, privatization to foreign owners yields a positive or insignificant effect while privatization to domestic owners generates a negative or insignificant effect. The available papers on China find diverse results, with the effect of nonstate ownership on total factor productivity being mostly positive but sometimes insignificant or negative.

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26

McDermott, Gerald A. "Institutional Change and Firm Creation in East-Central Europe." Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 2 (March 2004): 188–217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414003260978.

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A central debate about the transformation of postcommunist countries is how political approaches to institution building affect firm restructuring and creation. This debate has largely been dominated by theories that emphasize either the depoliticization of institutional designs or the determining impact of preexisting social structures. By examining the relative economic performance of Poland and the Czech Republic in the 1990s, this article offers an alternative, embedded politicsanalysis that views firm and institutional creation as intertwined experiments. Czech attempts to implant a depoliticized model of reform impeded institutional development and the reorganization of sociopolitical networks, in which firms are embedded. Poland facilitated institutional experiments not only in the ways it promoted negotiated solutions to restructuring but also in the ways it empowered subnational governments. The study utilizes data on manufacturing networks, privatization, bankruptcy, and regional government reforms collected between 1993 and 2000.

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27

Bornstein, Morris. "Privatization and Economic Performance in Central and Eastern Europe: Lessons to be Learnt from Western Europe." Economic Systems 25, no. 2 (June 2001): 171–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0939-3625(01)00015-2.

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28

Uhlenbruck, Klaus, and Julio O. De Castro. "Foreign Acquisitions in Central and Eastern Europe: Outcomes of Privatization in Transitional Economies." Academy of Management Journal 43, no. 3 (June 2000): 381–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/1556401.

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29

Rondinelli, Dennis A., and Sylvia Sloan Black. "Multinational strategic alliances and acquisitions in Central and Eastern Europe: Partnerships in privatization." Academy of Management Perspectives 14, no. 4 (November 2000): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ame.2000.3979818.

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30

Spicer, Andrew, Gerald A. McDermott, and Bruce Kogut. "Entrepreneurship and Privatization in Central Europe: The Tenuous Balance between Destruction and Creation." Academy of Management Review 25, no. 3 (July 2000): 630. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/259315.

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31

Spicer, Andrew, Gerald A. McDermott, and Bruce Kogut. "Entrepreneurship and Privatization in Central Europe: The Tenuous Balance Between Destruction and Creation." Academy of Management Review 25, no. 3 (July 2000): 630–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amr.2000.3363531.

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32

Uhlenbruck, K., and J. O. De Castro. "FOREIGN ACQUISITIONS IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE: OUTCOMES OF PRIVATIZATION IN TRANSITIONAL ECONOMIES." Academy of Management Journal 43, no. 3 (June 1, 2000): 381–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1556401.

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33

Czarniawska-Joerges, Barbara. "Painful Transformations: Privatization In East And Central Europe—Introduction: The Tragicomedy Of Errors." Industrial & Environmental Crisis Quarterly 8, no. 1 (January 1994): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/108602669400800101.

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34

FARROW, SCOTT. "The duality of taxes and tradable permits: A survey with applications in Central and Eastern Europe." Environment and Development Economics 4, no. 4 (October 1999): 519–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x99000315.

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Economic instruments such as taxes and tradable permits have been promoted as efficiency improving policies in the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and elsewhere. The little noticed potential for a symmetric equity impact from the two instruments in a world without distortions is first discussed. A specific policy option is suggested in which existing environmental taxes in Central and Eastern Europe can be increased without imposing additional financial burdens in industry if appropriate tax credits are provided. Second, conditions in Central and Eastern Europe are identified that reduce the change of efficiency losses in a general equilibrium setting when distortions exist. The trade-off between efficiency and equity in such a setting is found to depend on country-specific parameters and to be reduced if: (1) a cost-effective policy is implemented, (2) environmental assets can be distributed prior to privatization, and (3) government expenditures can decline.

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35

Fitzgerald, Elizabeth M. "IDENTIFYING VARIABLES OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP, PRIVATIZATION, AND COMPETITIVE SKILLS IN CENTRAL EUROPE: A SURVEY DESIGN." Competitiveness Review 12, no. 1 (January 2002): 53–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb046434.

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36

Panayotou, Theodore, Randall A. Bluffstone, and Vladislav Balaban. "Lemons and liabilities: Privatization, foreign investment, and environmental liability in Central and Eastern Europe." Environmental Impact Assessment Review 14, no. 2-3 (March 1994): 157–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0195-9255(94)90032-9.

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37

GrzymañA-Busse, Anna. "Political Competition and the Politicization of the State in East Central Europe." Comparative Political Studies 36, no. 10 (December 2003): 1123–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414003257610.

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The expansion and politicization of the postcommunist state, even among the reform leaders of Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, has confounded early expectations that the state would shrink and grow autonomous once the communist regime collapsed. The variation in these patterns is a function of the distribution of party power in parliament, both over time (turnover) and among parties (fragmentation and effective opposition). Where several strong opposing parties competed for governance, the resulting electoral uncertainty led them to constrain each other through formal regulations and informal practices. In contrast, where one party dominated political competition, lax (or nonexistent) regulations allowed the informal extraction of resources from state firms, the procurement of favorable privatization deals, and the accumulation of positions in public administration. This explanation contrasts with existing accounts, which emphasize either broad communist regime legacies or the functional need for state growth in newly independent states.

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38

Estrin, Saul. "Competition and Corporate Governance in Transition." Journal of Economic Perspectives 16, no. 1 (February 1, 2002): 101–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/0895330027139.

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This paper examines the elements of institutional development critical to the enhancement of company performance in transition economies. This includes initial conditions, forms of privatization, institutional frameworks and the competitiveness of markets. Comparing empirical evidence, the paper concludes that there is a clear distinction in effectiveness of policies followed and their impact between Central Europe and CIS countries. This divergence is attributed to fundamentally different political attitudes toward reform, the need of CIS governments to gain political support for reform and as a consequence of the desire of Central European countries to join European Union.

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39

Aliu, Ing Florin. "Privatization Process in Kosovo." ILIRIA International Review 4, no. 1 (June 30, 2014): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.21113/iir.v4i1.58.

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Privatization is considered an initial step toward market economy, restructuring financial and economic sector that enables competition in the economy. Privatization is the most painful process in economy where beside legal establishment and political will, it includes also the aspect of fairness and honesty. Analysis of this process is based on the models and comparisons between Kosovo and countries of central and Eastern Europe, in order to give a clearer picture on the overall process of privatization in KosovoMethodology that is used to analyze this issue is based on empirical results and also qualitative interpretation of the models and also on studying particular asset privatization process. A widely discussed case of privatization in Kosovo is that of Post and Telecom of Kosovo (PTK). Since each company has its own value, I have focused my appraising analysis on the financial statements with a special observation on Cash Flow from Operation, as the most significant indicator on showing how company is using her physical and human recourses to generate money. I have based my research on using methodology of discounted cash flow from operation analysis, even though the company valuation was done using net cash flow from operation analysis. Cash Flow valuation then was discounted by the T-bonds interest rate.This paper tries to bring a conclusion that privatization process in Kosovo have not brought the results excepted, firstly by setting an inappropriate price of assets and lastly by restructuring overall privatization sector and the overall industry. Kosovo, consequently, lost a big opportunity to create a competitive environment of financial industry: starting from the banking industry followed the pension trust which remained at their initial steps of development

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40

Standing, Guy. "Arbeitsmärkte und Arbeitsbeziehungen in Osteuropa." PROKLA. Zeitschrift für kritische Sozialwissenschaft 29, no. 114 (March 1, 1999): 95–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.32387/prokla.v29i114.824.

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This article provides an overview of recent changes in the former Soviet Union and other countries of Central and Eastern Europe. State regulation has been reduced through relaxation of statutory prescriptions and through privatization. Trade unions often retain significant nominal representative status, but have little effective regulatory power, and employers’ representation is fragmented. Although most countries have introduced tripartite institutions, real decision making takes place at company level where management is in the driving seat.

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41

Nguyen, Manh Hoang, and Thi Quy Vo. "Residual State Ownership and Firm Performance: A Case of Vietnam." Journal of Risk and Financial Management 15, no. 6 (June 9, 2022): 259. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15060259.

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Privatization has played an important role in national economic reform in Vietnam. However, unlike other transitional countries in Central and Eastern Europe, Vietnam has chosen a partial and gradual privatization where the government still holds significant ownership in most privatized firms. Whether partial privatization can enhance privatized firms’ performance or full privatization should have been implemented is a critical question that needs to be answered. This paper utilizes semiparametric regressions to study the relationship between residual state ownership and firm performance. The results indicate an inverted U relationship between state ownership and firm performance. We show that the performance of privatized firms improves with an increase in the level of state ownership until around 40%, after which the effect of state ownership on firm performance tends to decline. This demonstrates that in a transitional context, relinquishing governmental control via privatization can significantly benefit privatized firm performance. However, further reduction of state ownership may decrease the performance of privatized firms. Overall, the study contributes significantly to the growing body of evidence on the nonlinear effects of state ownership. This suggests that in the transitional context of Vietnam, due to weak corporate governance and limited protection of minority shareholders, there could be a temporary optimal position where state and private investors hold balanced ownership to simultaneously supervise operations and promote the performance of privatized firms.

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42

Bluffstone, Randall. "Privatization and contaminated site remediation in Central and Eastern Europe: Do environmental liability policies matter?" Ecological Economics 63, no. 1 (June 2007): 31–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.08.006.

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43

Clarke, George R. G. "The effect of privatization and government policy on competition in transition economies." Corporate Ownership and Control 3, no. 4 (2006): 35–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv3i4p2.

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Recent studies have emphasize how important role competition is for enterprise productivity in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. This paper looks at the effectiveness of government policy in promoting competition in these countries. Improving enforcement of competition law and reducing barriers to trade increase competition. Firms are considerably less likely to say that they could increase prices without losing many customers when competition policy is better enforced and when tariffs are lower. In contrast, there is little evidence that privatization increases competition in of itself. State-owned enterprises face no less competition than other enterprises and the overall level of competition is no lower in countries with more state-owned enterprises. Although privatization might have other benefits, there is little evidence that it will increase competition unless governments take complementary actions such as reducing trade barriers or enforcing competition laws

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44

Rhee, Yangho, Hyeok Yong Kwon, and Eunju Chi. "Privatization and Inequality in Post-Communist Transition Economies : Comparative Approach to the Central and Eastern Europe and the Central Asia." Journal of international area studies 20, no. 1 (April 30, 2016): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.18327/ijfs.2016.04.20.1.3.

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45

Rhee, Yangho, Hyeok Yong Kwon, and Eunju Chi. "Privatization and Inequality in Post-Communist Transition Economies : Comparative Approach to the Central and Eastern Europe and the Central Asia." Journal of international area studies 20, no. 1 (April 30, 2016): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.18327/jias.2016.04.20.1.3.

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46

Enyedi, György. "The transition of post-socialist cities." European Review 3, no. 2 (April 1995): 171–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798700001460.

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After World War II, the European semi-periphery—southern, Mediterranean and the eastern one—underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization. During this process. East-Central European socialist countries also replicated the forms—but not the social content and mechanism—of earlier Western European urbanization. Post-socialist transition has introduced important changes into urban processes as follows: (a) growing inequalities; (b) development of transboundary relations and the beginning of city competition across the whole of Europe; (c) independent urban governments; (d) transformation of urban society; and (e) privatization of urban land and housing.

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47

Marangos, John. "Preventive Therapy: The Neoclassical Gradualist Model of Transition from Central Administration to Market Relations." Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 1604 (January 1, 2002): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/cbp.2002.119.

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The fundamental basis of the neoclassical gradualist approach to transition in Russia and Eastern Europe was to establish economic, institutional, political, and ideological structures before attempting liberalization. Without this minimum foundation, radical reforms would have inhibited the development of a competitive market capitalist system. This was because "privatization, marketization, and the introduction of competition cannot be contemplated in an economy reduced to barter" (Carrington 1992, 24). Also, implementation of the reform program required minimum standards ofliving; otherwise the social fabric of the whole society would have been at risk. The reform had to foster a social consensus that endorsed a system of secure private property rights (Murrell, 1995, 171) and had to be guided by the principles of voluntariness and free choice (Kornai, 1992b, 17).

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48

Boguszyńska, Iwona. "Restrukturyzacja przedsiębiorstw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i Azji Centralnej w dobie transformacji." Przedsiębiorczość - Edukacja 8 (January 1, 2012): 373–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.24917/20833296.8.27.

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In 1991 a process of post-socialist transformation has begun together with the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and Central Asia. This process was chiefly about a transition from centrally planned economy to a free market. Individual countries were introducing economic reforms to a different degree and scope – some countries tried to catch up highly developed countries of the West (mainly the Central European states) more quickly, the others have chosen the path of slow modernization different from the western model of capitalism (the Central Asian states).This article aims to analyse the processes that take place in the corporate sector during the political changes in countries undergoing transitions from centrally planned economy to market economy. The analysis will employ an enterprise reform index (developed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development) for the years between 1991–2009. These processes include both changes in ownership (privatization), and changes within a company (restructuring including assets, products, employment).In the analysed countries, restructuring processes were carried out differently – much faster in Central – Eastern Europe countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Estonia, Hungary) than in the countries of Central Asia, where reforms were introduced slowly and on a much smaller scale (such as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan).

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49

Voszka, Éva. "The dynamics of state ownership: The decisive role of crises." Acta Oeconomica 71, no. 2 (June 23, 2021): 235–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/032.2021.00012.

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AbstractThe big waves of change in state ownership in the 20th-century Europe moved in the same direction ‒ either nationalization or privatization. Yet this homogeneity has fallen apart in the last decade: globally and within several countries, the two directions have changed quickly or even have been appearing in parallel. So, it is worth returning to the question: what is the reason for these reversals? Are there any cycles in the extension and contraction of public ownership? Most studies in this field analyse nationalizations and privatizations separately. They examine closely the aims and motivations, but remarkably few focuses on the causes of changes in direction. Based on the lessons of these latter analyses, this paper attempts to interpret the expansion and contraction of public property within an integrated framework, identifying the emergency situations as key factors of fluctuation. The central role of crises in ownership changes is not fundamentally new in the literature. The novelty of the recent approach is the attempt to unfold the mechanism of their impact, including also the explanation why the previously uniform direction of big waves has been broken up after 2008. We argue that the main reason behind the parallel occurrence of large-scale nationalizations and privatizations in this period is the eclipse of a dominant economic-policy (and theoretical) paradigm, rendering the previously firm background of ownership waves uncertain.

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50

Waverman, Leonard, and Esen Sirel. "European Telecommunications Markets on the Verge of Full Liberalization." Journal of Economic Perspectives 11, no. 4 (November 1, 1997): 113–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.11.4.113.

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January 1, 1998 is the date when voice telephony is fully liberalized in most European countries. The process of privatization and liberalization has been uneven across Europe; actively embraced by countries such as the U. K., Sweden, and Finland, while opposed in others. The role of the European Commission which uses its powers under the single market to push recalcitrant operators and countries is key. No two countries in Europe are following the exact same path, which makes the Commission's role difficult; it is unclear to what extent rules interconnection, access, and universal service funding should be identical. New entrants in country markets include other incumbent operators as well as other utilities; alliances are forming among many participants. The central issue is the degree to which the marketplace will be allowed to function, rather than forced to compete, through politics.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Privatization – Europe, Central'

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