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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Nefedov, Sergey. "On the formation of the phenomenon of the economic lag of Russia in the first half of the 19th century." St Petersburg University Journal of Economic Studies 37, no. 3 (2021): 489–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu05.2021.306.

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The article is devoted to the analysis of the reasons for Russia’s economic lagging behind during the Great Divergence. The author tests the well-known hypotheses that industrial development was hampered by the opposition of the nobility and the cheap labor of serfs. Upon closer examination, these assumptions are not confirmed. The economic lag was primarily due to the lag in railway construction, which in the 19th century was the main driver of the development of heavy industry. The article analyzes the policy in the field of railway construction during the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825–1855). It is shown that the formation of this policy took place in a conflict between the emperor and the ministerial bureaucracy, headed by the Minister of Finance, Count Kankrin. While Nicholas I was guided by military-strategic considerations, the ministers proceeded from economic interests. Economic calculations pointed to the unprofitability of railways compared to transportation by waterways. The technical conservatism of the bureaucracy did not allow adequately assessing the prospects for new technology and the possibility of reducing the cost of transportation in the future. The article analyzes the difference between economic policy in Russia and in England, the United States, France and Germany, which led to the lag of Russia. In the West (with the exception of France), economic policy developed spontaneously on the basis of private initiative. The Russian bureaucracy blocked private initiative, it sought to preserve the capital stored in state banks to finance the great power politic. On the other hand, the railroad “mania” in England was accompanied by a speculative boom and the ruin of many railroad companies. For the Russian bureaucracy, this was another argument in favor of refusing to attract private capital. Meanwhile, “mania” promoted the mobilization of capital from small shareholders for railway construction and spurred the development of industry. Another way of using controlled private initiative was possible, which was implemented in France in the “Legrand project”. But the Russian bureaucracy refused to use private initiative, which doomed the country to an economic lag.

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Nebolsina, Maria A. "Private Military and Security Companies." Russia in Global Affairs 17, no. 2 (2019): 76–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.31278/1810-6374-2019-17-2-76-106.

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3

Renou, Xavier. "Private Military Companies Against Development." Oxford Development Studies 33, no. 1 (March 2005): 107–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600810500099717.

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4

Kinsey, Christopher. "Private military companies: options for regulation." Conflict, Security & Development 2, no. 03 (December 2002): 127–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14678800200590624.

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5

JONES, CLIVE. "Private Military Companies as ‘Epistemic Communities’." Civil Wars 8, no. 3-4 (September 2006): 355–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13698240601060660.

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6

Vestner, Tobias. "Targeting Private Military and Security Companies." Military Law and the Law of War Review 57, no. 2 (December 2019): 251–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/mllwr.2019.02.02.

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7

Shishmonin, Sergey Vladimirovich. "EVOLUTION OF PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES IN THE WORLD." Current Issues of the State and Law, no. 9 (2019): 107–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/2587-9340-2019-3-9-107-113.

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In a rapidly changing and unstable situation on the world stage, private military companies are present and developing very effectively in the military sphere. Relation to private military companies is a relatively new actors in the military sphere, is not clear. The history of formation and development of these organizations is short, but very bright. Mercenarism and prototypes of private military companies were known in ancient times. We show the evolution of private military companies from mercenaries to modern companies. In the modern sense of the term private military companies began to be actively created only in the middle of the 20th century. European states, in particular, the United States, played an active role in these processes. This state also went down in history as the first legally regulate the activities of military companies. In just over half a century, private military companies have been involved in many military conflicts and have proven to be a highly mobile and versatile tool for addressing geopolitical and state tasks. Since the early of 21th century, international private corporations and enterprises have become interested in the services of these organizations. The private-military segment of the market is developing very actively and steadily in the conditions of the modern world situation.

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Rogozhina, Evgeniya Mikhailovna, Igor' Valer'evich Ryzhov, and Roman Nikolaevich Sokolov. "Specificity of work of private military companies in the XXI century (on the example of Near East)." Конфликтология / nota bene, no. 4 (April 2020): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0617.2020.4.34041.

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  This article is dedicated to examination of the phenomenon of private military companies as a regional actor of security. Leaning on the analysis of international normative legal documents, the authors derive the definition of private military companies due to the fact that neither academic nor applied spheres have precise understanding of this phenomenon. The key research method is the structural and functional analysis, which allows authors considering the object of study from the perspective of various systems of actors. With the increased demand for private military services, private military companies gradually shift from the category of organizations serving military operations to the category of full-fledged independent military organizations that are capable of fulfilling the functions of regular army. For the past two decades, the market for private military services has grown from $ 55 billion to over $200 billion in 2010. The scientific novelty consists in comprehensive overview of various aspects and trends that take place in the market of private military services, as well as in classification of motives and consequences of usage of private military companies in armed missions. The authors discuss the question of international legal status of private military companies, provide practical examples of their activity with the prolonged consequences for regional systems of international relations, analyze the mechanisms of use of these companies in the current context, as well as synthesize the key factors of the increased demand for their services. The absence of regulation of the work of private military companies and ambiguous status of their employees in international law make it virtually impossible to impose international responsibility upon them.  

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Manoilo, A. V., and A. Ya Zaytsev. "International Legal Status of Private Military Companies." Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences 90, no. 1 (January 2020): 49–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1019331620010098.

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10

Ryngaert, C. "Litigating Abuses Committed by Private Military Companies." European Journal of International Law 19, no. 5 (November 1, 2008): 1035–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chn056.

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11

Cameron, Lindsey. "Private military companies: their status under international humanitarian law and its impact on their regulation." International Review of the Red Cross 88, no. 863 (September 2006): 573–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1816383106000683.

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AbstractStates are increasingly hiring private military companies to act in zones where armed conflicts are occurring. The predominant feeling in the international community is that it would be best to regulate such companies. Cognizant of much confusion as to the status of the employees of private military companies under international humanitarian law, this article explains the laws on mercenaries, combatants and civilians and explores how private military companies' employees may fall into any of those categories. It demonstrates that the concept of mercenarism is unhelpful for regulating these companies and that it is unlikely that many of the employees of these companies can be considered to have combatant status. The article considers possible consequences of private military companies' employees having the status of civilians under international humanitarian law and their potential impact on regulating these companies effectively.

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12

Shishmonin, Sergey Vladimirovich. "Private military companies: problems and prospects of legal regulation in Russian Federation." Current Issues of the State and Law, no. 10 (2019): 235–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/2587-9340-2019-3-10-235-242.

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In today’s world in a market economy condition and a complex geopolitical situation quite actively began to develop private military companies. However, the activity of these companies is a very urgent problem of legislative consolidation. We show European experience of private military companies legislative regulation. Especially great success in this field has reached the country, which is the main consumer of military companies services - the United States. However, this issue is becoming more and more urgent for Russia. On the territory of Russia there is a kind of “de facto”: private military companies exist, their activities are not regulated, and all this in the conditions of a legislative ban on mercenarism. Therefore, the need for legislative regulation of the military organizations activities expressed by many representatives of state power. The adoption of the law on private military companies would be a very relevant and safe way to legalize the private military companies activities. We show the main directions of possible decisions implementation by representatives of state bodies of Russia. Small steps in this direction have been taken, however, a full-fledged law has not been adopted at the moment, and the prospects for the implementation of bills in this direction are quite vague.

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13

Denisov, R. A., and R. S. Ayriyan. "Private Military Companies. Situation in the World Ocean." IZVESTIYA VUZOV SEVERO-KAVKAZSKII REGION SOCIAL SCIENCE, no. 2 (206) (July 6, 2020): 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.18522/2687-0770-2020-2-39-44.

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The article analyzes the policy of private military companies, their capabilities and actions in the oceans. Emphasis is given to the compliance of companies with international law of the sea. The article indicates main directions of PMC activities in the oceans and their most popular functionality. An attempt to reveal the main problems of companies in this area, which impede their free activity was made. In conclusion, the most conflictogenic zones were identified and, as well as the areas where functional companies would be useful, were identified.

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Петров, Владислав, and Vladislav Petrov. "Psychological characteristics of the activities of private military companies." Applied psychology and pedagogy 3, no. 3 (July 2, 2018): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/article_5b1ee0e6b670a3.92123818.

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The article is devoted to the analysis of psychological characteristics of private military companies. The phenomena "private military company" and "mercenary" are considered. The Genesis of mercenary activity in the military sphere is investigated. Systematized main modern function of hired troops, as well as the psychological characteristics of mercenarism. The limitations of scientific researches in the field of psychology of activity of private military companies are shown. The author substantiates the thesis that the mercenary is permeated with psychological problems. To improve the military-professional activity of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation the author substantiates the need to develop a wide range of scientific and applied issues, such as the personality of mercenaries, the system of motivating the activities of mercenaries, the specifics of interpersonal relations among mercenaries, etc. the Study of psychological aspects of mercenaries will create additional advantages of domestic military psychology, as well as improve psychological work with the military.

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15

Khan, Dr Muhammad Asif, Dr Muhammad Fayaz, and Umar Niaz Khan. "Liability of the Private Military Companies for Violations of International Humanitarian Law." Journal of Law & Social Studies 4, no. 2 (June 30, 2022): 247–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.52279/jlss.04.02.247261.

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In the wake of the privatization of war, new international players known as private military companies have been given the opportunity to actively engage in many armed conflicts throughout the world. They provide a variety of services such as combat services, logistical support, operational support, intelligence, border monitoring, and providing security guards in exchange for monetary compensation. During armed conflicts workers of these military companies can violate international law, including provisions of international humanitarian law. Under the international humanitarian law, the individual criminal responsibility exists to be applied on the employees of these firms, but the international legal framework is unable to identify the liability of these private military companies. Especially, the idea of criminal corporate liability for these companies is nonexistent. This research paper proposes that the idea of corporate criminal responsibility should be introduced at the state level, with the goal of holding Private Military Companies accountable for breaches of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Laws. In addition, it is also argued that the special regulations are required to govern private military companies.

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16

Skuratova, A. Yu, and E. E. Korolkova. "Private military and security companies in international law." Moscow Journal of International Law, no. 4 (December 31, 2020): 81–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/0869-0049-2020-4-81-94.

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INTRODUCTION. The article analyses the sources of international law, national legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as that of certain foreign States regulating the operation of private military and security companies (PMSCs) in armed conflict. The article highlights the out-comes of the work of the UN Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups to study the activity of PMSCs and the impact it had on the observance of human rights. The authors further analyze the status of PMSC personnel under international humanitarian law. The article also looks at the positions expressed by the delegations of Member States during the discussion of the 2010 Draft Convention on Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) and provides recommendations for developing an appropriate international regulatory framework. The authors also examined State practice of the implementation of the The Montreux Document on Pertinent International Legal Obligations and Good Practices for Statesт Related to Operations of Private Military and Security Companies During Armed Conflict related to the operation of private military and security companies during armed conflict.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The article contains an analysis of the main sources of international law, the documents drafted by the United Nations International Law Commission, special rapporteurs and working groups on the matter, and State practice. It also addresses Russian and foreign legal scholarship. From a methodological perspective, this study relied on the general scientific (analysis, synthesis, systemic approach) and private legal methods of knowledge (formal-legal, comparative legal studies).RESEARCH RESULTS. Based on the study, it is argued that an international treaty should be adopted to regulate the activities of PMSCs, which would establish mechanisms to monitor and hold PMSCs and their employees legally accountable.

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17

Saifullin, E. "Private military and security companies and international law." Pathways to Peace and Security, no. 2 (2018): 51–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/2307-1494-2018-2-51-63.

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18

Spearin, Christopher. "NATO, Russia and Private Military and Security Companies." RUSI Journal 163, no. 3 (May 4, 2018): 66–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2018.1494676.

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19

Malamud, Marina. "Private Military and Security Companies in UN Missions." Peace Review 26, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 571–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402659.2014.972275.

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20

Zabci, Filiz. "Private military companies: ‘Shadow soldiers’ of neo-colonialism." Capital & Class 31, no. 2 (July 2007): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030981680709200101.

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21

Bures, Oldrich. "Private military companies: A second best peacekeeping option?" International Peacekeeping 12, no. 4 (December 2005): 533–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13533310500201951.

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22

Cilliers, Jakkie. "A role for private military companies in peacekeeping?" Conflict, Security & Development 2, no. 03 (December 2002): 145–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14678800200590626.

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23

Fahn, Matthias, and Tahmina Hadjer. "Optimal contracting with private military and security companies." European Journal of Political Economy 37 (March 2015): 220–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2014.10.004.

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24

Adams, Thomas K. "Private Military Companies: Mercenaries for the 21st Century." Small Wars & Insurgencies 13, no. 2 (August 2002): 54–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592310208559181.

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25

Soares, Salvador, and David Price. "REGULATING PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES (PSCs) AND PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES (PMCs) UNDER THE LAW OF TIMORLESTE." Mimbar Hukum - Fakultas Hukum Universitas Gadjah Mada 26, no. 3 (February 8, 2015): 472. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/jmh.16035.

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Use of Private Security Companies (PSCs) and Private Military Companies (PMCs) in conflict and post-conflict countries has been the subject of ongoing critical discussion among scholars and media for many years. This paper assesses the legal status and responsibilities of PSCs and PMCs, and their operation in Timor-Leste where they are not properly regulated. It examines key legal issues, such as their definition and roles, scope and limits of operations, approved and prohibited activities, accountability, and monitoring. The paper also examines the impact of PSCs and PMCs on Timor-Leste law and society and offers astatutory framework for their management and regulation. Implementasi Private Security Companies (PSCs) dan Private Military Companies (PMCs) dalam negara yang sedang berkonflik dan pasca berkonflik telah menjadi subjek pembahasan penting diantara akademisi dan media massa selama bertahun-tahun. Penulisan ini akan menilai status hukum dan kewajiban PSCs dan PMCs, dan pelaksanaan kerja kedua lembaga tersebut di Timor-Leste dimana belum ada pengaturan yang mumpuni. Penulisan ini menganalisa isu-isu krusial mengenai beberapa pengaturan, seperti definisi dan peran, batasan dan ruang lingkup kerja, aktivitas yang diperbolehkan dan yang dilarang, akuntabilitas, serta pengawasan. Penulisan ini juga menganalisa implikasi dari PSCs dan PMCs di tatanan hukum dan masyarakat Timor-Leste, serta menawarkan sebuah kerangka undang-undang untuk manajerial dan pengaturan kedua lembaga tersebut.

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Singh Gautam, Vijaya, and Vijay Mishra. "Revisiting the Legal Framework for Private Military and Security Contractors: Maritime Perspective." Groningen Journal of International Law 8, no. 1 (September 30, 2020): 166–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/grojil.8.1.166-182.

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The paper aims to analyse legal lacunas and suggest possible solutions for the acts and wrongdoings of Private Military and Security Companies within the lens of maritime activities. The paper has been divided into three parts. Part I deals with the necessity and role of Private Military and Security Companies in the present times. Part II discusses the legal status of Private Military and Security Companies and ways of ensuring responsibility for their acts. Part III examines the legal framework for the acts of Private Maritime Security Companies. An assessment of the rules of international humanitarian law (IHL), state responsibility, applicability of the Montreux document and efforts such as GUARDCON have been discussed to highlight the inadequacy of the laws on Private Maritime Security Companies. There has been an upsurge in the employment of Private Maritime Security Companies since 2008 to cope with a myriad of problems at sea including piracy and robbery. However, an umbrella of rules including employment procedures, agreements, training techniques, responsibility in peacetime as well as in times of conflict and the guidelines of IHL must be restructured or enhanced in order to be made applicable to Private Maritime Security Companies.

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27

Perrin, Benjamin. "Searching for Accountability: The Draft UN International Convention on the Regulation, Oversight, and Monitoring of Private Military and Security Companies." Canadian Yearbook of international Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 47 (2010): 299–317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0069005800009899.

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SummaryThe proliferation of private military and security companies has attracted significant public and scholarly attention during the last decade. This comment examines the United Nations Draft International Convention on the Regulation, Oversight and Monitoring of Private Military and Security Companies (Draft Convention). It discusses the significance of the Draft Convention and then describes the approach taken to the regulation of this controversial topic. Several problematic elements of the Draft Convention are identified including the definition of prohibited activities, State responsibility for the conduct of private military and security companies and the proposed International Criminal Court referral mechanism. Finally, specific policy recommendations are made for the government of Canada as a home state and contracting state of private military and security services, irrespective of the progress of negotiations on the Draft Convention.

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28

Stryzhak, I. V., and L. A. Filianina. "PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES: THE PHENOMENON OF MILITARY POLICY OF THE 21ST CENTURY." Comparative-analytical law, no. 6 (2019): 514–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.32782/2524-0390/2019.6.129.

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29

Patel, Faiza. "Regulating Private Military and Security Companies: A Comprehensive Solution." Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 107 (2013): 201–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/procannmeetasil.107.0201.

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30

Krahmann, Elke. "Regulating Private Military Companies: What Role for the EU?" Contemporary Security Policy 26, no. 1 (April 2005): 103–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13523260500116091.

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Andreopoulos, George, and Shawna Brandle. "Revisiting the Role of Private Military and Security Companies." Criminal Justice Ethics 31, no. 3 (December 2012): 138–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0731129x.2012.743339.

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32

Baker, Deane-Peter, and Sabelo Gumedze. "Private military/security companies and human security in Africa." African Security Review 16, no. 4 (December 2007): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2007.9627440.

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33

Hoppe, C. "Passing the Buck: State Responsibility for Private Military Companies." European Journal of International Law 19, no. 5 (November 1, 2008): 989–1014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chn074.

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34

Gaiko, Oleg. "PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES AND THE “PRIVATIZATION” OF MILITARY CONFLICTS IN THE CONTEX OF THE DEMONOPOLIZATION OF THE STATE VIOLEN." Journal of V. N. Karazin Kharkov National University. Issues of Political Science, no. 40 (December 29, 2021): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.26565/2220-8089-2021-40-07.

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The prerequisites for the emergence of private military companies and private security companies, the features of their functioning in the context of the demonopolization of state violence are considered. The influence of the establishment of a monopoly on the use of violence in the process of the formation of states of the modern type (states of the Modern era) is highlighted. In a historical retrospective, the reasons for the formation of a state monopoly on the use of violence, factors that contributed to the strengthening of royal power, led to the centralization of state power and the formation of depersonalized rational-bureaucratic state institutions are presented. The role of wars in the emergence of regular armies in the context of the formation of modern-type states is analyzed. The influence of the Cold War on the emergence of private military companies and low-intensity military companies is considered, structural prerequisites for the spread of private military companies both in developed countries and in developing countries are identified. The connection between the loss of the monopoly on the use of violence by states and the emergence of low-intensity wars is shown. The main reasons for the disappearance of high-intensity wars are analyzed. It is shown that the loss of a monopoly on the use of violence by states is not a constant, but is the result of the spread of low-intensity wars that arise due to the loss of advantages in waging high-intensity wars.

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35

CAUIA, Alexandr, and Corina ZACON. "HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF PRIVATE MILITARY AND SECURITY COMPANIES (PART I)." Administrarea Publica, no. 3(115) (October 2022): 39–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.52327/1813-8489.2022.3(115).04.

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From the earliest civilizations to the Middle Ages, in addition to the participation of mercenaries in hostilities, the presence of well-organized private structures that acted for material benefits, regardless of the nature and purpose of the armed conflict, can be highlighted. The Middle Ages are considered to be the period in which private structures made up of well-trained people reached their peak. Some states have built their own private military and security companies to meet their colonial claims. This article reflects on the historical evolution of the place and role of private structures in armed conflict, aiming at the complex analysis of this phenomenon.

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Olszanecka, Natalia. "Rosyjskie prywatne firmy wojskowe i ich rola w polityce wewnętrznej i zagranicznej." Athenaeum Polskie Studia Politologiczne 74, no. 2 (2022): 119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/athena.2022.74.07.

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Russia’s use of private military companies has strengthened in recent years, reflecting lessons learned from past actions, an expansive mindset and a desire for economic, geopolitical and military benefits. Military operations in Ukraine, starting from 2014, were one of the first tests for PMC. Since then, the Russians have perfected their model of operation. Even though the activities of private contractors are illegal under the Russian Constitution, they play an important role in pursuing Russian interests, mainly abroad. They weaken US influence and support Russia’s geopolitical, military and economic interests. They are present in as many as 30 countries on four continents. The purpose of this article is to define the role of Russian private military companies in the internal and external policy of the Russian Federation.

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Joachim, Jutta, Marlen Martin, Henriette Lange, Andrea Schneiker, and Magnus Dau. "Twittering for talent: Private military and security companies between business and military branding." Contemporary Security Policy 39, no. 2 (January 11, 2018): 298–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2017.1420608.

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38

Buriakovska, Kateryna. "Human Rights Obligations of Private Security and Military Companies: A Review of the Current Legal Framework and Practices." Philosophy of law and general theory of law, no. 1 (December 21, 2021): 262–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21564/2707-7039.1.247620.

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The rapid growth in demand for private military and security services among states,international organizations and non-state actors has turned this activity into a powerful industry withmillions of people who perform – on a contractual basis and in exchange for monetary rewards – actions,which, however, often pose risks to the rights of others, local communities and nations around theworld. The author explains the urgency of the article by high-profile cases of possible participationof private military companies in the events of the occupation of Crimea and the armed conflict inDonbas, initiation of new legislation on military consulting in Ukraine and, at the same time, by themodest attention of Ukrainian jurisprudence to human rights obligations of companies providingsecurity services as non-governmental entities. The author examines the evolution of some approaches to the international legal regulation of private military and security activities and their compliance with modern approaches to humanrights. The author analyzes the features of corporate responsibility in the field of human rights ofprivate military and security companies, the content of which is embodied in the InternationalCode of Conduct for Private Security Providers (ICoC). The analysis compares the approaches ofthe International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers and the UN Guiding Principleson Business and Human Rights.

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Karska, Elzbieta. "Human rights violations committed by private military and security companies: an international law analysis." Espaço Jurídico Journal of Law [EJJL] 17, no. 3 (December 20, 2016): 753–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.18593/ejjl.v17i3.12377.

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Abstract: This paper is devoted to the growing phenomenon of the private military and security industry with respect to human rights obligations. In the first part, it will analyze the concept of a private security company, which is not clear in national regulations and has few relevant provisions in international conventions. The second part will contain a short description of examples of human rights violations committed by private military and security companies, or with their participation, during service delivery or other forms of activity. The third part of this paper discusses possible methods of responsibility enforcement, with respect to the transnational character of many private security companies involved in human rights violations worldwide. One of the most important elements of the discussion in international community should focus on binding international instrument, preferably a convention, which would be able to establish at least very elementary rules for states and international organizations, responsible for using private military and security companies. The international community has witnessed a lot of initiatives from non-governmental entities, also model laws and self-regulations of the private security industry, but still the real problem has not even been reduced. The number of human rights violations has grown. Keywords: Human rights. Private security companies. Liability.

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40

Perrin, Benjamin. "Promoting compliance of private security and military companies with international humanitarian law." International Review of the Red Cross 88, no. 863 (September 2006): 613–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1816383106000713.

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AbstractPrivate security and military companies have become a ubiquitous part of modern armed conflict and post-conflict reconstruction. Their diverse clients include governments in the developed and developing world alike, non-state belligerents, international corporations, non-governmental organizations, the United Nations, and private individuals. The implications of this proliferation of private security and military companies for international humanitarian law and human rights are only beginning to be appreciated, as potential violations and misconduct by their employees have come to light in Iraq and Afghanistan. The author critically examines the theoretical risks posed by private military and security company activity with respect to violations of international humanitarian law and human rights, together with the incentives that these companies have to comply with those norms. Empirical evidence is also presented to expand on this theoretical framework. Taking a multidisciplinary approach, the author draws on law, international relations theory, criminology, economics, corporate strategy and political economy, as well as psychology and sociology, to analyse the competing “risk-factors” and “compliance levers” that interact at each level of private military and security company activity to enhance or reduce the likelihood of a violation occurring. These findings are then applied by the author to assess emergent measures to deal with private security and military companies outside the legal sphere, including a programme of the International Committee of the Red Cross and the advent of the International Peace Operations Association.

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Vinten, Robert. "The Morality of Private War: The Challenge of Private Military and Security Companies." Socialism and Democracy 29, no. 1 (January 2, 2015): 201–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08854300.2014.1001569.

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Spearin, Christopher. "Since you left: United Nations peace support, private military and security companies, and Canada." International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis 73, no. 1 (March 2018): 68–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020702017740158.

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In the late 1990s when Canada was largely removing itself from United Nations peace support endeavours, private military and security companies were heralded as likely replacements. Canada has indicated its desire to reengage in a United Nations peace support milieu in which there is now a private military and security presence. It is not the type of presence initially envisioned, but it is one with multiple impacts regarding training and operations. This article emphasizes the interventions in the first decade of the twenty-first century and the corresponding, defensively minded regulations that came about in the private military and security industry. The article reveals that commercial logics are now insinuated in United Nations peace support operations and the private military and security presence therein is indicative of a larger shift in United Nations activities towards insularity and protection.

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Nebolsina, M. A. "Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) in the Modern International Processes." Journal of International Analytics 13, no. 2 (June 28, 2022): 107–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.46272/2587-8476-2022-13-2-107-133.

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The period of rapid growth and development of the phenomenon, that is presently characterized as private military and security companies (PMSCs), coincided with the two processes of modern history of international relations: the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the U.S. Global War on Terror (GWOT) in Afghanistan. At the same time state attitude towards violence and transformation of warfare has been changing as well. Two diff erent approaches to the history of the private security market’ rise unveil the fact, that, in one way or another, the originators of the private security services were associated with the defense industry and armed forces. Non-state security actors look back on a history, that stretches to the middle and the second half of the 20th century – the period of national liberation movements across the world. Meanwhile, the 90-s of the 20th century marked the fast growth in the number of PMSCs and in the development and enlargement of the private security services’ market. Its growth is ongoing to date with gaining more new states that are interested in utilizing its capacity as an instrument of politics. Against the backdrop of the world political processes the private security market experienced technological growth and enhancement. Together with that, both the normative regulation and the approaches of the international community to the phenomenon of private military and security companies have been evolving and changing. Despite its functionality, fl exibility and technological advantages, the market of private security can challenge human rights as well as bare responsibility for the facts of corruption and improper fulfi llment of contractual obligations. Still the episodes of revealed grieve violations rarely reach courts, with infrequent cases of sentencing the perpetrators to punishment. These and other problems occurring in the private security industry require close attention by the states and international community, which has been making eff orts for elaboration of the applicable normative mechanisms to regulate private military and security activity for more than fi fteen years.

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LUDVÍK, Zdeněk. "The role of French private military companies in the security privatization sector." Obrana a strategie (Defence and Strategy) 13, no. 1 (June 15, 2013): 19–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3849/1802-7199.13.2013.01.019-030.

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The realm of privatization of security and the consequent existence of private military companies is an important constitutive element of security with regard to international relations. This phenomenon is most strongly developed in the Anglo-Saxon world. However, in the case of the French Republic, we can observe significant developmental and functional disparities. This paper examines externalization processes in the context of the French approach to the legitimacy, legality and territoriality of the privatization of security functions of the state and explains the different causes of their development. It discusses the main aspects of externalization, defines the typical activities of French private military companies, describes their strengths and weaknesses and outlines the problems and possible solutions that lie before the French, which cannot be ignored in the future. Finally, this paper describes the most important French private military companies and their characteristics.

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de Groot, Tom, and Salvador Santino F. Regilme. "Private Military and Security Companies and The Militarization of Humanitarianism." Journal of Developing Societies 38, no. 1 (December 25, 2021): 50–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0169796x211066874.

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The widespread use of private military and security companies (PMSCs) in United Nations peacebuilding missions often undermines the effectiveness of these missions. PMSCs tend to encourage, in unnecessary ways, what is called security risk management and promote the militarization of humanitarian efforts. They encourage humanitarian aid organizations to protect their personnel with barbed wire fences, security guards, armed convoys, and secure aid compounds, even if the security risks are relatively low. Consequently, these militarized humanitarian efforts heighten the perception of risks and intensify security measures, which create physical and psychological barriers between humanitarian aid personnel and the local communities in which they carry out their tasks. This situation undermines local ownership of peacebuilding efforts and makes them less responsive to the local communities involved in these efforts. This article provides a comparative analysis of the nature of this problem and its effects in the Global South.

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Østensen, Åse Gilje, and Tor Bukkvoll. "Private military companies – Russian great power politics on the cheap?" Small Wars & Insurgencies 33, no. 1-2 (September 29, 2021): 130–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2021.1984709.

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Sánchez, Mario Iván Urueña. "Private Military and Security Companies: The End of State Responsibility?" Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 10, no. 5 (September 1, 2019): 72–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/mjss-2019-0068.

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Abstract The objective of this article is to observe the redefinition of state responsibility based on its interaction with Private Military Security Companies. The boom, consolidation and decline of these companies between the end of the Cold War era and the first decade of the 21st century pose a dilemma to international law regarding State responsibility towards security issues within its territory. The lack of effective international law mechanisms and the political agenda of the States are both limitations for preserving human dignity in institutional and humanitarian fragile contexts. Hence, an interdisciplinary approach must be considered in order to seek an alternative path to this dilemma. This research used empirical data and documental analysis to achieve this objective.

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Joachim, Jutta, and Andrea Schneiker. "New Humanitarians? Frame Appropriation through Private Military and Security Companies." Millennium: Journal of International Studies 40, no. 2 (January 2012): 365–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305829811425890.

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Korac, Srdjan. "Use of private military companies in international conflicts: Ethical controversies." Vojno delo 67, no. 3 (2015): 9–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/vojdelo1503009k.

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Milošević, Nenad, and Jadranko Jukić. "Private military and security companies: Legal, moral and social implications." Vojno delo 69, no. 7 (2017): 161–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/vojdelo1707161m.

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