Relevant bibliographies by topics / Pressure transducer

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Pressure transducer'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 30 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Pressure transducer"

1

Banaszak, David, and Michael Camden. "Static and Dynamic Calibration of Pressure Transducers at Elevated Temperatures." Journal of the IEST 38, no. 4 (July 31, 1995): 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.17764/jiet.2.38.4.u61473348th04987.

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The Air Force conducts tests requiring measurement of high dynamic pressures in high-temperature environments. Such tests require measurement of dynamic pressures created by jet engines, turbulent air-flow along hot areas of aircraft structures, and acoustic levels in Air Force test chambers such as acoustic chambers, wind tunnels, and engine test stands. Several commercial industries also have requirements for high-temperature dynamic measurements. To address these Air Force needs for dynamic pressure measurements at high temperatures, the Structures Division of the Flight Dynamics Directorate of the Wright Laboratory evaluated dynamic pressure transducers for use in extreme acoustic and thermal environments. Transducer manufacturers were surveyed and three off-the-shelf pressure transducers capable of measuring dynamic pressures at extreme environments were identified. The first model measures up to 194 dB(A) and operates up to 260°C (500°F). This model has an extended operating temperature up to 1649°C (3000 °F) when used with a water-cooled jacket. The second model is an air-cooled transducer advertised to operate up to 593°C (1100°F). The third model is a water-cooled transducer advertised to operate up to 2802°C (5075 °F). Two of the models have low sensitivity and thus require more output amplification. These two models are also larger and require larger mounting holes. The transducers were evaluated at various static pressures, acoustic levels, and temperatures. This paper describes the procedures used to calibrate these transducers up to a 172-dB sound pressure level (SPL) and a temperature of 732°C (1350°F). The results for these transducers are summarized for different static pressures, operating SPLs, and temperatures.
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Feeney, Andrew, Lei Kang, William E. Somerset, and Steve Dixon. "The Influence of Air Pressure on the Dynamics of Flexural Ultrasonic Transducers." Sensors 19, no. 21 (October 30, 2019): 4710. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19214710.

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The flexural ultrasonic transducer comprises a piezoelectric ceramic disc bonded to a membrane. The vibrations of the piezoelectric ceramic disc induce flexural modes in the membrane, producing ultrasound waves. The transducer is principally utilized for proximity or flow measurement, designed for operation at atmospheric pressure conditions. However, there is rapidly growing industrial demand for the flexural ultrasonic transducer in applications including water metering or in petrochemical plants where the pressure levels of the gas or liquid environment can approach 100 bar. In this study, characterization methods including electrical impedance analysis and pitch-catch ultrasound measurement are employed to demonstrate the dynamic performance of flexural ultrasonic transducers in air at elevated pressures approaching 100 bar. Measurement principles are discussed, in addition to modifications to the transducer design for ensuring resilience at increasing air pressure levels. The results highlight the importance of controlling the parameters of the measurement environment and show that although the conventional design of flexural ultrasonic transducer can exhibit functionality towards 100 bar, its dynamic performance is unsuitable for accurate ultrasound measurement. It is anticipated that this research will initiate new developments in ultrasound measurement systems for fluid environments at elevated pressures.
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Liu, Z., and C. W. Higgins. "Does temperature affect the accuracy of vented pressure transducer in fine-scale water level measurement?" Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems Discussions 4, no. 2 (September 29, 2014): 533–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gid-4-533-2014.

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Abstract. Submersible pressure transducers have been utilized for collecting water level data since early 1960s. Together with a digital datalogger, it is a convenient way to record water level fluctuations for long-term monitoring. Despite the widely use of pressure transducers for water level monitoring, little has been reported for their accuracy and performance under field conditions. The effect of temperature fluctuations on the output of vented pressure transducers were discussed in this study. The pressure transducer was tested under both laboratory and field conditions. The results of this study indicate that temperature fluctuation has a strong effect on the transducer output. Rapid changes in temperature introduce noise and fluctuations in the water level readings under a constant hydraulic head while the absolute temperature is also related to sensor errors. The former is attributed to venting and the latter is attributed to temperature compensation effect in the strain gauges. Individual pressure transducers responded differently to the thermal fluctuations in the same testing environment. In the field of surface hydrology, especially when monitoring fine-scale water level fluctuations, ignoring or failing to compensate for the temperature effect can introduce considerable error into pressure transducer readings. It is recommended that a performance test for the pressure transducer is conducted before field deployment.
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Liu, Z., and C. W. Higgins. "Does temperature affect the accuracy of vented pressure transducer in fine-scale water level measurement?" Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems 4, no. 1 (March 3, 2015): 65–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gi-4-65-2015.

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Abstract. Submersible pressure transducers have been utilized for collecting water level data since the early 1960s. Together with a digital data logger, it is a convenient way to record water level fluctuations for long-term monitoring. Despite the wide use of pressure transducers for water level monitoring, little has been reported regarding their accuracy and performance under field conditions. The effects of temperature fluctuations on the output of vented pressure transducers were considered in this study. The pressure transducers were tested under both laboratory and field conditions. The results of this study indicate that temperature fluctuation has a strong effect on the transducer output. Rapid changes in temperature introduce noise and fluctuations in the water level readings under a constant hydraulic head while the absolute temperature is also related to sensor errors. The former is attributed to venting and the latter is attributed to temperature compensation effects in the strain gauges. Individual pressure transducers responded differently to the thermal fluctuations in the same testing environment. In the field of surface hydrology, especially when monitoring fine-scale water level fluctuations, ignoring or failing to compensate for the temperature effect can introduce considerable error into pressure transducer readings. It is recommended that a performance test for the pressure transducer is conducted before field deployment.
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Ott, P., A. Bo¨lcs, and T. H. Fransson. "Experimental and Numerical Study of the Time-Dependent Pressure Response of a Shock Wave Oscillating in a Nozzle." Journal of Turbomachinery 117, no. 1 (January 1, 1995): 106–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2835625.

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Investigations of flutter in transonic turbine cascades have shown that the movement of unsteady normal shocks has an important effect on the excitation of blades. In order to predict this phenomenon correctly, detailed studies concerning the response of unsteady blade pressures versus different parameters of an oscillating shock wave should be performed, if possible isolated from other flow effects in cascades. In the present investigation the correlation between an oscillating normal shock wave and the response of wall-mounted time-dependent pressure transducers was studied experimentally in a nozzle with fluctuating back pressure. Excitation frequencies between 0 Hz and 180 Hz were investigated. For the measurements, various measuring techniques were employed. The determination of the unsteady shock position was made by a line scan camera using the Schlieren flow visualization technique. This allowed the simultaneous use of unsteady pressure transducers to evaluate the behavior of the pressure under the moving shock. A numerical code, based on the fully unsteady Euler equations in conservative form, was developed to simulate the behavior of the shock and the pressures. The main results of this work were: (1) The boundary layer over an unsteady pressure transducer has a quasi-steady behavior with respect to the phase lag. The pressure amplitude depends on the frequency of the back pressure. (2) For the geometry investigated the shock amplitude decreased with increasing excitation frequency. (3) The pressure transducer sensed the arriving shock before the shock had reached the position of the pressure transducer. (4) The computed unsteady phenomena agree well with the results of the measurements.
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Zhao, Guozhu, Kaibo Shi, and Shouming Zhong. "Research on Array Structures of Acoustic Directional Transducer." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2021 (January 2, 2021): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6670277.

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This paper focuses on the directivity design of array structures of acoustic directional transducers. Based on Huygens principles, the directivity formula of transducer arrays under random distribution in xyz space is derived when the circular piston transducers are used as the array element, which is used to analyze the directivity and acoustic pressure of conical transducer arrangements. In addition, a practical approach to analyze the directivity and acoustic pressure of transducer arrays under random arrangements is proposed. Findings. The conical transducer arrays show side lobes at higher frequency. Below the frequency of 2 kHz, array directivity shows rapid changes. Above the frequency of 2 kHz, array directivity varies slowly with frequency. Besides, the beam width is Θ − 3 dB ≤ 29.85 ° .
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Wang, Zi Ping, and Ying Luo. "Focusing Actuating Performance of OPFC Phased Array Transducer Based on DPSM." Key Engineering Materials 609-610 (April 2014): 1299–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.609-610.1299.

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As a new functional composite material, Orthotropic Piezoelectric Fiber Composite (OPFC) may be developed conveniently actuators and sensors. By constructing multi-element linear array, the phased array transducers can generate special directional strong actuator power and high sensitivity. The advantage of the transducers is that no mechanical movement is needed to scan an object. Focusing beam is obtained simply only by adjusting a parabolic time delay. The DPSM (distributed point source method) is used to model the ultrasonic field by OPFC linear array transducer. Using this approach, beam directivity and pressure distributions are studied to predict the behavior of focusing as compared to current formulation of traditional transducer. The interaction effect of two OPFC phased array transducers is also modeled in the same medium. Which shows the pressure beam produced by the OPFC array transducer is narrower or more collimated than that produced by the conventional transducer at different angles.
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Iizumi, Hideaki, Hiroaki Kajikawa, and Tokihiko Kobata. "Calibration values uninfluenced by the kind of pressure medium and the setting posture for quartz Bourdon-type pressure transducers." ACTA IMEKO 8, no. 3 (September 30, 2019): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.21014/acta_imeko.v8i3.666.

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<p class="Abstract">The effects of the kind of gas medium and the setting posture on the calibration values of a quartz Bourdon-type pressure transducer mounted vertically are evaluated in this study. The transducer, at the upward and downward settings, was calibrated both with nitrogen and with helium. The difference between the calibration values of the transducer with nitrogen at the upward and downward settings was about 7.0 kPa at 100 MPa. At the same setting posture, the maximum difference in the calibration values between nitrogen and helium was 3.4 kPa. For precise pressure measurement, it is recommended that the transducers are used with the same pressure medium and the same setting posture with which they were calibrated. The methods of reducing the effects of both the kind of gas medium and the setting posture are discussed. The average of two calibration values at the upward setting and at the downward setting was not affected by the kind of gas medium. When the sensing elements of two pressure transducers arranged in point symmetry with each other, the average values of two transducers were independent of both the kind of gas medium and the setting posture.</p>
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Lin, Hank, and Chih‐Ming Ho. "Optical pressure transducer." Review of Scientific Instruments 64, no. 7 (July 1993): 1999–2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1143989.

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Robertson, Bob K. "High pressure transducer." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 89, no. 1 (January 1991): 494. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.400399.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Pressure transducer"

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Ma, Jinge. "Design of Frequency Output Pressure Transducer." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2015. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc804933/.

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Piezoelectricity crystal is used in different area in industry, such as downhole oil, gas industry, and ballistics. The piezoelectricity crystals are able to create electric fields due to mechanical deformation called the direct piezoelectric effect, or create mechanical deformation due to the effect of electric field called the indirect piezoelectric effect. In this thesis, piezoelectricity effect is the core part. There are 4 parts in the frequency output pressure transducer: two crystal oscillators, phase-locked loop (PLL), mixer, frequency counter. Crystal oscillator is used to activate the piezoelectricity crystal which is made from quartz. The resonance frequency of the piezoelectricity crystal will be increased with the higher pressure applied. The signal of the resonance frequency will be transmitted to the PLL. The function of the PLL is detect the frequency change in the input signal and makes the output of the PLL has the same frequency and same phase with the input signal. The output of the PLL will be transmitted to a Mixer. The mixer has two inputs and one output. One input signal is from the pressure crystal oscillator and another one is from the reference crystal oscillator. The frequency difference of the two signal will transmitted to the frequency counter from the output of the mixer. Thus, the frequency output pressure transducer with a frequency counter is a portable device which is able to measure the pressure without oscilloscope or computer.
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Patel, Darshan Shyam. "A Real-Time Technique for the Correction of Invasive Blood Pressure Measurements using Counter Pressure." University of Akron / OhioLINK, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=akron1205764260.

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Guilhem, Mathieu. "Conception and optimization of a piezo-optic pressure transducer : application to high hydrostatic pressures sensing." Strasbourg, 2010. https://publication-theses.unistra.fr/public/theses_doctorat/2010/GUILHEM_Mathieu_2010.pdf.

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La mesure de pression est un domaine vieux de plusieurs siècles, dont le développement a été motivé par l’importance de ses applications technologiques. Le but de ce travail est de proposer une technique de mesure de fortes pression hydrostatiques par capteur optique à bas coût. De nombreux types de capteurs de pression ont été développés au cours du temps, et la première partie de ce document présente une vue d’ensemble du domaine. Nous nous concentrons ensuite sur les techniques optiques et présentons leurs avantages et inconvénients. Au vu de notre cahier des charges, nous choisissons de développer un capteur de pression basé sur l’effet piezo-optique, c’est à dire l’apparition d’une biréfringence dans un matériau diélectrique soumis à une force extérieure. La Partie II du mémoire présente les différents outils qui seront par la suite utilisés pour modéliser le capteur proposé : tout d’abord nous rappelons les détails de la théorie de la polarisation, son origine physique ainsi que le formalisme de Mueller-Stokes. Nous nous intéressons ensuite aux interactions entre une lumière polarisée et un milieu diélectrique, en présentant l’effet piezo-optique ainsi que les effets polarisant des réflexions à une interface. Les effets présentés sont modélisés par leur matrice de Mueller afin de simplifier l’étude à suivre. Dans la Partie III nous proposons un concept original de capteur de pression, utilisant une approche novatrice par rapport à celle usuellement mise en œuvre. Le capteur proposé est basé sur l’analyse d’une lumière dont la polarisation est modifiée par la traversée d’un milieu diélectrique rendu biréfringent par la pression à mesurer. Certains aspects du capteur sont optimisés, et ses inconvénients discutés. Cette étude aboutit à la proposition d’un capteur dans lequel les éléments polarisant discrets ont été remplacés par des réflexions successives. Ce nouveau concept est modélisé, puis nous présentons les différentes sources potentielles d’erreur de mesure et proposons des solutions pour compenser celles qui prédominent. La Partie IV présente la validation expérimentale des concepts précédents. Nous décrivons la conception, la calibration et la validation d’un polarimètre de Mueller par Transformée de Fourier, conçu dans le but d’étudier la dépendance de l’effet piezo-optique à la température. Ensuite nous présentons la réalisation d’un démonstrateur de capteur piezo-optique de pression. Les essais effectués sont en accord avec les prédictions théoriques et valident donc le principe du capteur développé au cours de ce travail
The measurement of pressure is a field that has been studied for centuries due to its important technological implications. Our goal is to propose an original method to measure high hydrostatic pressures using a low cost optical sensor. A number of pressure sensors have been developed over the years, and the first part of this work presents an overview of the main ones. We then focus on optical pressure sensors, discuss the advantages and inconveniences of each method with regards to our constraints, and decide to develop the concept of a sensor based on the piezo-optic effect, i. E. The stress-induced birefringence in a transparent dielectric subjected to a force. We presents the tools that will be used to modelize the piezo-optic pressure sensor: we first review the theory of polarization of light, from its physical origin to the Mueller-Stokes formalism; we then focus on the interaction of polarized light with matter: we discuss the theory of the piezooptic effect and the polarization effects of total and partial reflections at an interface. Both effects are modelized in terms of their Mueller matrices. We then propose an original concept for a pressure sensor, using an approach different from the one usually seen in polarimetric sensors. First the concept of a piezo-optic pressure sensor is presented where polarized light interacts with a dielectric material subjected to a pressure; the resulting state of polarization is analyzed by a second polarizer and a photodetector. Some aspects of the sensor are optimized while its shortcomings are listed. In light of this analysis we propose a revised concept to addresses these issues. The new proposal uses carefully oriented reflections to replace all polarizing elements, enabling simpler and cheaper production. We modelize this device, analyze its optical behavior, and then present the different sources of measurement error. Most of them are negligible, and we present methods to mitigate the influence of these that are not. Part IV focuses on the experimental validation of the concepts presented so far. We describe the conception, calibration and validation of a Fourier Transform Mueller polarimeter that we intend to use to study the temperature dependence of the piezo-optic effect. We build a prototype based on the initial concept of the piezo-optic pressure sensor presented in Part III, and test its response to pressure. Its behaviour is found to be coherent with theoretical predictions, and these measurement serve to validate the concept of the sensor that was developed during this work
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Vincent, David Robert. "Integrated design for an optically driven micromachined silicon pressure transducer." Thesis, University of Southampton, 1993. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/394151/.

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Pakdel, Zahra. "Characterization, Modeling of Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer for Facilitation of Field Calibration." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/76791.

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Currently in the marketplace, one of the important goals is to improve quality, and reliability. There is great interest in the engineering community to develop a field calibration technique concerning piezoelectric pressure sensor to reduce cost and improve reliability. This paper summarizes the algorithm used to characterize and develop a model for a piezoelectric pressure transducer. The basic concept of the method is to excite the sensor using an electric force to capture the signature characteristic of the pressure transducer. This document presents the frequency curve fitted model based on the high frequency excitation of the piezoelectric pressure transducer. It also presents the time domain model of the sensor. The time domain response of the frequency curve fitted model obtained in parallel with the frequency response of the time domain model and the comparison results are discussed. Moreover, the relation between model parameters and sensitivity extensively is investigated. In order to detect damage and monitor the condition of the sensor on line the resonance frequency comparison method is presented. The relationship between sensitivity and the resonance frequency characteristic of the sensor extensively is investigated. The method of resonance monitoring greatly reduces the cost of hardware. This work concludes with a software implementation of the signature comparison of the sensor based on a study of the experimental data. The software would be implemented in the control system.
Master of Science
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Sorvoja, H. (Hannu). "Noninvasive blood pressure pulse detection and blood pressure determination." Doctoral thesis, University of Oulu, 2006. http://urn.fi/urn:isbn:9514282728.

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Abstract This thesis describes the development of pressure sensor arrays and a range of methods suitable for the long-term measurement of heart rate and blood pressure determination using a cuff and a pressure sensor array on the radial artery. This study also reviews the historical background of noninvasive blood pressure measurement methods, summarizes the accuracies achieved and explains the requirements for common national and international standards of accuracy. Two prototype series of pressure transducer arrays based on electro-mechanical film (EMFi) were designed and tested. By offering high (∼TΩ) resistance, EMFi is an excellent material for low-current long-term measurement applications. About 50 transducer arrays were built using different configurations and electrode materials to sense low-frequency pressure pulsations on the radial artery in the wrist. In addition to uniform quality, essential requirements included an adequate linear response in the desired temperature range. Transducer sensitivity was tested as a function of temperature in the range of 25–45 °C at varying static and alternating pressures. The average sensitivity of the EMFi used in the transducers proved adequate (∼2.2 mV/mmHg and ∼7 mV/mmHg for normal and high sensitive films) for the intended purpose. The thesis also evaluates blood pressure measurements by the electronic palpation method (EP) and compares the achieved accuracy to that of the oscillometric method (OSC) using average intra-arterial (IA) blood pressure as a reference. All of these three measurements were made simultaneously for each person. In one test group, measurements were conducted on healthy volunteers in sitting and supine position during increasing and decreasing cuff pressure. Another group, comprising elderly cardiac patients, was measured only in the supine position during cuff inflation. The results showed that the EP method was approximately as accurate as the OSC method with the healthy subjects and slightly more accurate with the cardiac patient group. The advantage of the EP method is that also the wave shape and velocity of arterial pressure pulses is available for further analysis, including the assessment of arterial stiffness.
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Dowden, Matthew Richard Barcroft. "Using Pressure Transducers for Noninvasive Heart and Respiratory Monitoring." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/34214.

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Detecting heart and respiratory rates is an essential means of providing emergency medical care. Current methods of detecting such signals include the widely used electrocardiography (ECG) method. Other more manual methods of heart and respiratory rate estimation require a practitioner to constantly observe the patient. These methods are time consuming and detract valuable time from emergency medical care. This thesis presents a novel, hands off, heart and respiratory monitor (HARMONI). It uses pressure transducers and medical tubing placed on a personâ s chest. The tubing is plugged off at one end, and then attached to a pressure transducer at the other end. The transducer sees spikes in voltage whenever the pressure inside the tubing changes. Heart and respiratory rates both cause expansion in the chest, increasing the pressure in the tubing, and causing the transducer to see a change in voltage. The method was first validated, and then tested in a simulated environment. Finally, the device was transformed in to a full system prototype. Human tests were conducted to correlate the signal with that of an industry standard ECG device. This thesis explains how heart and respiratory rates can be derived using signal processing techniques and a simple non-invasive sensor. This device is a rapidly deployable tool that has the potential to save lives specifically in mass casualty situations. It would be a force multiplier, allowing a single responder to monitor multiple casualties, saving time and lives.
Master of Science
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CABRERA, LIZETH STEFANÍA BENAVIDES. "HIGH SENSITIVITY PRESSURE TRANSDUCER FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS, BASED ON GMI SENSOR PHASE READING." PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2017. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=31070@1.

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PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
PROGRAMA DE EXCELENCIA ACADEMICA
Esta dissertação tem por objetivo o desenvolvimento de um transdutor de pressão de alta sensibilidade, baseado nas características de fase da impedância de sensores de Magnetoimpedância Gigante. A configuração do dispositivo visa a aplicações biomédicas, tais como medições da onda de pulso arterial e de sua velocidade de propagação. Projetou-se um sistema de transdução de pressão em tensão, que contém um módulo intermediário baseado em um magnetômetro GMI. O protótipo implementado inclui uma estrutura mecânica, responsável pela transdução de pressão em campo magnético, e um circuito eletrônico, responsável pela conversão deste em uma tensão elétrica de saída. A conversão de pressão em campo magnético é feita por meio de uma fonte de campo magnético aderida a uma membrana elástica. Foram realizados estudos comparativos empregando agulhas magnetizadas e ímãs permanentes como fontes móveis de campo. Por sua vez, o elemento sensor GMI utilizado foi experimentalmente caracterizado, a fim de se obter suas curvas características de módulo e fase, em função do campo magnético. O circuito eletrônico de transdução foi projetado e avaliado de forma computacional e experimental. As principais características do mesmo são detalhadas ao longo do texto e as previsões teórico-computacionais são comparadas com os resultados experimentais obtidos. Por sua vez, parâmetros chave do protótipo desenvolvido são minuciosamente analisados, tais como: sensibilidade, linearidade e resposta em frequência. Também, avalia-se a densidade espectral de ruído do transdutor desenvolvido e estima-se sua resolução na banda de passagem. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o protótipo de baixo custo desenvolvido apresenta alta resolução e alta sensibilidade, além de uma banda de passagem compatível com a requerida pelas aplicações biomédicas nas quais deseja-se empregá-lo. Dessa forma, espera-se que o dispositivo desenvolvido contribua para o avanço tecnológico do ferramental utilizado no setor da saúde.
This dissertation aims at the development of a high sensitivity pressure transducer, based on the phase impedance characteristics of Giant Magnetoimpedance sensors. The configuration is intended to employ the developed device in biomedical applications, such as in measurements of arterial pulse wave and pulse wave velocity. A transduction system of pressure into voltage was designed, which contains an intermediate module based on a GMI magnetometer. The idealized prototype contains a mechanical structure, responsible for converting pressure into magnetic field, and an electronic circuit, responsible for converting the latter into a voltage output. The conversion of pressure into magnetic field is performed by means of a magnetic field source adhered to an elastic membrane. Comparative studies were carried out using magnetized needles and permanent magnets as field sources. In turn, the GMI sensor element was experimentally characterized in order to evaluate how its impedance magnitude and phase are affected by the magnetic field. The influence of the cable length used to interconnect the GMI sensor to the electronic circuit is also discussed. The electronic transduction circuit was designed and analyzed by computational and experimental evaluations. The main features of the circuit are detailed throughout the text and the theoretical and computational predictions are compared with the obtained experimental results. Furthermore, the key parameters of the developed prototype are meticulously analyzed, such as: sensitivity, linearity and frequency response. Also, the spectral noise density of the developed transducer is evaluated and its resolution in the passband is estimated. The obtained results indicate that the developed prototype presents low cost of manufacture and operation, high resolution, high sensitivity and a passband compatible with the requirements imposed by the biomedical applications of interest. In this way, it is intended that the device developed in the present Dissertation contributes to the technological enhancement of measurement equipment used in health sector.
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Panhorst, Eric M. "Evapotranspiration Measurement and Simulation due to Poplar Trees at a Phytoremediation Site." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/33648.

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A railroad yard in Oneida, Tennessee was contaminated with creosote in the 1950s and 1960s through cross tie treatment. The problem was discovered in 1990 and phytoremediation in combination with an interception trench was chosen as the remediation strategy. Hybrid poplar trees (1,036) were planted in 1997 within 0.7 acres. The goals of the phytoremediation system are to prevent migration of the contaminant off the site and clean up the contaminant in-situ. This study is focused on quantifying the rate of evapotranspiration of the phytoremediation system and then determining the effect on groundwater flow. This will be accomplished by quantifying evapotranspiration using a water budget, applying White's Equation, comparing groundwater recession curves, creating a groundwater flow model, and examining water table elevations obtained at the site. Calculations of water use by the poplar trees in early September 1999 ranged from 0.62 to 1.34 gal/day/tree. The volume of evapotranspiration calculated for the trees during 1999 is 140,292 gallons. Total evapotranspiration determined by the water budget for 1998 is 1,570,064 gallons. Evaluation of the water level data over a period of several years shows significant lowering of the water table (fluctuations of up to four feet) during the summer and fall months due to evapotranspiration. Although calculated evapotranspiration rates are not as high as seen in the literature, continued monitoring of the site should show large increases in evapotranspiration rates in the future as the poplar trees mature.
Master of Science
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Ferezin, Evaldo. "Modelagem dinâmica de transdutor de pressão piezorresistivo para sistemas hidráulicos através de dados experimentais da resposta à entrada degrau." Universidade de São Paulo, 2006. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/18/18149/tde-05022016-133734/.

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Este trabalho apresenta a modelagem da parte dinâmica de dois transdutores de pressão tipo piezorresistivo. Geralmente processos de calibração dinâmica usam bancadas sofisticadas, mas neste trabalho procurou-se um processo simples e de baixo custo. A metodologia baseou-se em aumentar lentamente a pressão, fornecida por um sistema hidráulico básico, até que ocorresse a explosão de um diafragma e, com isso, obteve-se um degrau de pressão, supostamente ideal. Considerado como sistemas lineares, com a resposta obtida verificou-se qual a ordem e o tipo de sistema correspondente à resposta do transdutor. Através dos dados experimentais determinou-se os parâmetros dinâmicos do modelo matemático. Foram obtidos modelos matemáticos lineares de segunda ordem de cada transdutor. As respostas dos modelos mostram ter uma concordância satisfatória quando comparadas aos dados experimentais.
This work presents a dynamic modeling method for two hydraulic piezoresistive pressure transducers. Usually the dynamic calibration processes apply sophisticated devices, but in this work a simple and low cost process was searched. The methodology was based on increasing the pressure slowly, supplied by a basic hydraulic system, up to a diaphragm explosion, assumed as an ideal step pressure variation. Considered as linear systems, the responses obtained were verified and compared with a second order linear system. Using the experimental data, the dynamic parameters of the mathematical model were determined for each of the two transducers. The theoretical responses of the models showed to have a satisfactory agreement when compared with the experimental data.
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Books on the topic "Pressure transducer"

1

Jensen, Jørgen Arendt. A high-precision transducer measurement system. Lyngby, Denmark: Electronics Laboratory, Electronics Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 1988.

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Pressure sensors: Selection and application. New York: M. Dekker, 1991.

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Optical-fiber velocity and pressure transducers. New York: Hemisphere Pub. Corp., 1990.

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Gillum, Donald R. Industrial pressure, level& density measurement. Research Triangle Park, N.C., U.S.A: ISA, 1995.

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United States International Trade Commission. In the matter of certain pressure transmitters: Investigation no. 337-TA-304 : temporary relief (Commission decision of March 19, 1990). Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1991.

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Commission, United States International Trade. In the matter of certain pressure transmitters: Investigation no. 337-TA-304 : temporary relief (Commission decision of March 19, 1990). Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1991.

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Zhilin, V. G. Volokonno-opticheskie izmeritelʹnye preobrazovateli skorosti i davlenii͡a︡. Moskva: Ėnergoatomizdat, 1987.

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Industrial pressure, level, and density measurement. 2nd ed. Triangle Park, NC: Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, 2009.

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Micro mechanical transducers: Pressure sensors, accelerometers, and gyroscopes. New York: Elsevier Science B.V., 2000.

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Morris, Bruce J. Set-up under a natural wave. Monterey, Calif: Naval Postgraduate School, 1997.

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Book chapters on the topic "Pressure transducer"

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Gooch, Jan W. "Pressure Transducer." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, 586–87. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8_9425.

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Statham, P., S. Midgley, N. M. Dearden, C. McIntosh, and J. D. Miller. "A Clinical Evaluation of an Intraparenchymal Intracranial Pressure Transducer." In Intracranial Pressure VIII, 7–10. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-77789-9_2.

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Zhang, Linli, Weiyuan Zhang, Feng Xu, Hong Xiao, and Xiaoli Hu. "Wireless Transducer for Clothing Pressure Measurement." In 2011 International Conference in Electrics, Communication and Automatic Control Proceedings, 1293–99. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8849-2_166.

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Barlow, P., A. D. Mendelow, J. O. Rowan, A. Lawrence, and M. Barlow. "Clinical Evaluation of the Gaeltec ICT/b Pressure Transducer Placed Subdurally." In Intracranial Pressure VI, 181–83. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-70971-5_33.

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Lemar, E. R., J. W. Forbes, D. G. Tasker, and A. J. Bur. "Polyvinylidene Fluoride Transducer for Dynamic Pressure Measurements." In Shock Waves in Condensed Matter, 503–8. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-2207-8_71.

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Chambers, I. R., A. D. Mendelow, J. Sinar, and P. Modha. "Clinical Evaluation of the Catheter Tipped Camino Transducer Inserted via a Subdural Screw." In Intracranial Pressure VII, 27–30. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73987-3_4.

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Echternach, P. M., Inseob Hahn, and U. E. Israelsson. "A Novel Silicon Micromachined Cryogenic Capacitive Pressure Transducer." In A Cryogenic Engineering Conference Publication, 1837–42. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0373-2_232.

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Kowar, R. "Reconstruction of Transducer Pressure Fields from Schlieren Data." In Progress in Industrial Mathematics at ECMI 2006, 548–52. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-71992-2_88.

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Zhanhui, Li. "Effect of Contact Interface Pressure on Ultrasonic Transducer." In Advances in Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, 171–77. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31507-7_29.

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Golubovsky, Vitaly, Vladimir Konovalov, and Marina Dontsova. "Pressure Amplification Coefficient of the “Nozzle-Flap” Transducer." In Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, 201–13. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85057-9_17.

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Conference papers on the topic "Pressure transducer"

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Liou, Jim C. P., and Guohua Li. "Transient Pressure Measurements by Recess-Mounted Transducers." In ASME/JSME 2003 4th Joint Fluids Summer Engineering Conference. ASMEDC, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/fedsm2003-45252.

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Recess-mounted diaphragm-type pressure transducers are often used in measuring transient pressures. When the rise time of the source pressure is very fast, ringing of the transducer may occur. This study investigates the ringing of such a transducer numerically and experimentally for the purpose of developing a general method to recover transient source pressures. The approach is based on modeling the transient hydraulics of the measurement system. Favorable comparisons between the recovered pressure traces with those measured by a flush-mounted transducer were obtained. The proposed method makes recess-mounted transducers viable for measuring rapidly changing pressures in both liquid and gaseous media.
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Jatlaoui, M. M., P. Pons, and H. Aubert. "Radio frequency pressure transducer." In 2007 European Microwave Conference. IEEE, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/eumc.2007.4405297.

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Gutierrez, C. A., and E. Meng. "SUBNANOWATT MICROBUBBLE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER." In 2010 Solid-State, Actuators, and Microsystems Workshop. San Diego: Transducer Research Foundation, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.31438/trf.hh2010.15.

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Ferguson, D. G., and P. C. Ivey. "Unsteady Pressure Measurement in a High Temperature Environment Using Water Cooled Fast Response Pressure Transducers." In ASME 1995 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/95-gt-345.

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Measurement of unsteady pressure is a requirement in many proposed aero-engine active control systems. In the high temperature environment associated with the engine, thermally unprotected transducers may not measure accurately or even survive. This paper reports an examination of two water cooled, commercially available unsteady pressure transducers, which assesses the ability of the transducer to accurately measure unsteady pressure when mounted in a water cooling adapter and the effectiveness of the thermal protection at high temperatures. Mounting the transducer in a cooling adapter was shown to have no adverse effect upon its ability to measure dynamic pressure. Deliberately recessing the adapter back from the flow provided the most stable and predictable output at all flow conditions tested. Thermal protection allowed the transducer to survive at flow temperatures of up to 500°C with a potential to survive at higher temperatures. No reduction in performance is shown at elevated temperatures relative to performance at ambient conditions.
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Guo, Peng, Hongyuan Li, Zhenhua Tian, and Hong Xu. "Guided Wave Damage Detection in Power-Plant-Tubes by Using Magnetostrictive Transducer Arrays." In ASME 2015 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/pvp2015-45845.

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This paper presents an efficient damage detection technique for power-plant-tubes by using guided waves and magnetostrictive transducer arrays. Particularly, our detection technique focuses on the small diameter and thick wall power-plant-tubes, such as superheater tubes, reheater tubes and water wall tubes. Firstly, the damage effects on guided waves in small diameter and thick wall tubes were studied by using three-dimensional finite element method. The wave reflections and mode conversions induced by damage were investigated. Secondly, based on T (0, 1)-F (n, 2) modes, magnetostrictive transducers were designed for guided wave generation and sensing in small diameter and thick wall tubes. The designed magnetostrictive transducers can effectively generate and measure guided waves, especially the non-dispersive torsional T (0, 1) wave mode. Finally, a magnetostrictive transducer array was developed for damage detection in small diameter and thick wall tubes. Through a virtual focusing array imaging algorithm, intensity images were constructed, which can show both the location and size of damage.
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Murata, Yorinobu, Hiroki Toda, Masataka Ikeda, Yoshiyuki Nii, and Jiro Yohso. "Development of a Focused Ultrasonic Transducer for the Testing of the Wheel Seat in the Hollow Axle of Shinkansen Vehicles." In ASME/JSME 2004 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/pvp2004-2822.

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In order to test the fretting fatigue cracks with high sensitivity, which occurred on the wheel seat of hollow axles of Shinkansen vehicles, the design of a focused ultrasonic transducer was proposed by a new method. The method was achieved by designing a suitable surface shape of the ultrasonic transducer through a reverse analysis of the wave propagation in the axle so that all radiated waves from the transducer were focused into a point region of the wheel seat with a same phase. A composite piezoelectric material was applied to the focused ultrasonic transducers in order to test with a shorter ultrasonic pulse. As the result of evaluating the performance of the developed focused ultrasound transducer, comparing with the previous plate-like ultrasonic transducer made using PZT, a great improvement was demonstrated in respect of sensitivity and directivity. Furthermore, the method inclining the ultrasonic beam slightly to the circumference direction and the method making the frequency characteristic of the transducer high were devised in order to reduce the influence of echoes by press fit. Consequently, it was demonstrated that a focused incline ultrasonic transducer of 10 MHz was possible to evaluate up to an artificial crack of about 0.17 mm depth with the SN ratio of 9 dB.
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Burgon, Bret. "RSRM operational pressure transducer characterization." In 36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2000-3137.

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Platte, Thomas, Martin Iwanczik, and Michael Mende. "Dynamic Pressure Transducer Calibration – Traceable?" In 18th International Congress of Metrology, edited by Cosimi Corletto. Les Ulis, France: EDP Sciences, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/metrology/201714003.

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de Jong, Paul C., and Gerard C. M. Meijer. "High-temperature pressure transducer interface." In 5th Annual International Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, edited by Vijay K. Varadan, Paul J. McWhorter, Richard A. Singer, and Michael J. Vellekoop. SPIE, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.320180.

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Hurst, Adam M., Scott Goodman, Boaz Kochman, and Alex Ned. "Enhanced Static-Dynamic Pressure Transducer for the Detection of Acoustic Level Flow Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines." In ASME 2011 Turbo Expo: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2011-45750.

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The push to advance the performance and longevity of gas turbine engines requires better characterization of flow instabilities within the compressor and most importantly the combustor. Detecting the earliest onset of these flow instabilities can help engineers either manipulate the flow to restabilize it or make informed design changes to the engine. The pressures within gas turbine engines are typically composed of an undesired, low-level oscillatory pressure of less than 1kPa to several kPa superimposed on top of a large, relatively constant pressure of several thousand kPa [1–7]. The high-pressure transducers used to measure the pressures within these environments are often unable to resolve these low-level oscillatory pressures that characterize the flow instabilities because the signal output for such pressures is often the same level as the noise within the sensor-data acquisition system. This paper presents an engine test ready, high temperature, combined static and dynamic pressure transducer that uses static pressure compensation in order to measure these low-level dynamic pressures with an excellent signal to noise ratio and, at the same time, captures the overall static pressure within a gas turbine [8–10]. Test bench experiments demonstrate the static-dynamic transducer’s unique ability to capture both large static or quasi-static pressures of 1,380kPa or greater and simultaneously measure the acoustic-level dynamic pressures superimposed on top of these pressures. The static-dynamic transducer achieves this advanced sensitivity through the use of a low-pass acoustic filter that passes the large static pressure to the reference port of a high sensitivity dynamic pressure sensor within the transducer such that the overall static pressures cancel out and the sensor measures all acoustic-level dynamic pressures. These bench tests additionally demonstrate the transducer’s ability to operate reliably when exposed to the harsh, high temperature environment (up to 500°C) within a gas turbine [8–10].
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Reports on the topic "Pressure transducer"

1

Haritonidis, Joseph H. The Development of a Fiber-Optic Readout Pressure Transducer. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, June 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada238393.

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Benedetti, G. A., and J. Z. Benson. Dynamic response of a transducer mounted at one end of an acoustical cavity which is subjected to a specified pressure at the open end of the cavity. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/10196805.

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Galili, Naftali, Roger P. Rohrbach, Itzhak Shmulevich, Yoram Fuchs, and Giora Zauberman. Non-Destructive Quality Sensing of High-Value Agricultural Commodities Through Response Analysis. United States Department of Agriculture, October 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/1994.7570549.bard.

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The objectives of this project were to develop nondestructive methods for detection of internal properties and firmness of fruits and vegetables. One method was based on a soft piezoelectric film transducer developed in the Technion, for analysis of fruit response to low-energy excitation. The second method was a dot-matrix piezoelectric transducer of North Carolina State University, developed for contact-pressure analysis of fruit during impact. Two research teams, one in Israel and the other in North Carolina, coordinated their research effort according to the specific objectives of the project, to develop and apply the two complementary methods for quality control of agricultural commodities. In Israel: An improved firmness testing system was developed and tested with tropical fruits. The new system included an instrumented fruit-bed of three flexible piezoelectric sensors and miniature electromagnetic hammers, which served as fruit support and low-energy excitation device, respectively. Resonant frequencies were detected for determination of firmness index. Two new acoustic parameters were developed for evaluation of fruit firmness and maturity: a dumping-ratio and a centeroid of the frequency response. Experiments were performed with avocado and mango fruits. The internal damping ratio, which may indicate fruit ripeness, increased monotonically with time, while resonant frequencies and firmness indices decreased with time. Fruit samples were tested daily by destructive penetration test. A fairy high correlation was found in tropical fruits between the penetration force and the new acoustic parameters; a lower correlation was found between this parameter and the conventional firmness index. Improved table-top firmness testing units, Firmalon, with data-logging system and on-line data analysis capacity have been built. The new device was used for the full-scale experiments in the next two years, ahead of the original program and BARD timetable. Close cooperation was initiated with local industry for development of both off-line and on-line sorting and quality control of more agricultural commodities. Firmalon units were produced and operated in major packaging houses in Israel, Belgium and Washington State, on mango and avocado, apples, pears, tomatoes, melons and some other fruits, to gain field experience with the new method. The accumulated experimental data from all these activities is still analyzed, to improve firmness sorting criteria and shelf-life predicting curves for the different fruits. The test program in commercial CA storage facilities in Washington State included seven apple varieties: Fuji, Braeburn, Gala, Granny Smith, Jonagold, Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, and D'Anjou pear variety. FI master-curves could be developed for the Braeburn, Gala, Granny Smith and Jonagold apples. These fruits showed a steady ripening process during the test period. Yet, more work should be conducted to reduce scattering of the data and to determine the confidence limits of the method. Nearly constant FI in Red Delicious and the fluctuations of FI in the Fuji apples should be re-examined. Three sets of experiment were performed with Flandria tomatoes. Despite the complex structure of the tomatoes, the acoustic method could be used for firmness evaluation and to follow the ripening evolution with time. Close agreement was achieved between the auction expert evaluation and that of the nondestructive acoustic test, where firmness index of 4.0 and more indicated grade-A tomatoes. More work is performed to refine the sorting algorithm and to develop a general ripening scale for automatic grading of tomatoes for the fresh fruit market. Galia melons were tested in Israel, in simulated export conditions. It was concluded that the Firmalon is capable of detecting the ripening of melons nondestructively, and sorted out the defective fruits from the export shipment. The cooperation with local industry resulted in development of automatic on-line prototype of the acoustic sensor, that may be incorporated with the export quality control system for melons. More interesting is the development of the remote firmness sensing method for sealed CA cool-rooms, where most of the full-year fruit yield in stored for off-season consumption. Hundreds of ripening monitor systems have been installed in major fruit storage facilities, and being evaluated now by the consumers. If successful, the new method may cause a major change in long-term fruit storage technology. More uses of the acoustic test method have been considered, for monitoring fruit maturity and harvest time, testing fruit samples or each individual fruit when entering the storage facilities, packaging house and auction, and in the supermarket. This approach may result in a full line of equipment for nondestructive quality control of fruits and vegetables, from the orchard or the greenhouse, through the entire sorting, grading and storage process, up to the consumer table. The developed technology offers a tool to determine the maturity of the fruits nondestructively by monitoring their acoustic response to mechanical impulse on the tree. A special device was built and preliminary tested in mango fruit. More development is needed to develop a portable, hand operated sensing method for this purpose. In North Carolina: Analysis method based on an Auto-Regressive (AR) model was developed for detecting the first resonance of fruit from their response to mechanical impulse. The algorithm included a routine that detects the first resonant frequency from as many sensors as possible. Experiments on Red Delicious apples were performed and their firmness was determined. The AR method allowed the detection of the first resonance. The method could be fast enough to be utilized in a real time sorting machine. Yet, further study is needed to look for improvement of the search algorithm of the methods. An impact contact-pressure measurement system and Neural Network (NN) identification method were developed to investigate the relationships between surface pressure distributions on selected fruits and their respective internal textural qualities. A piezoelectric dot-matrix pressure transducer was developed for the purpose of acquiring time-sampled pressure profiles during impact. The acquired data was transferred into a personal computer and accurate visualization of animated data were presented. Preliminary test with 10 apples has been performed. Measurement were made by the contact-pressure transducer in two different positions. Complementary measurements were made on the same apples by using the Firmalon and Magness Taylor (MT) testers. Three-layer neural network was designed. 2/3 of the contact-pressure data were used as training input data and corresponding MT data as training target data. The remaining data were used as NN checking data. Six samples randomly chosen from the ten measured samples and their corresponding Firmalon values were used as the NN training and target data, respectively. The remaining four samples' data were input to the NN. The NN results consistent with the Firmness Tester values. So, if more training data would be obtained, the output should be more accurate. In addition, the Firmness Tester values do not consistent with MT firmness tester values. The NN method developed in this study appears to be a useful tool to emulate the MT Firmness test results without destroying the apple samples. To get more accurate estimation of MT firmness a much larger training data set is required. When the larger sensitive area of the pressure sensor being developed in this project becomes available, the entire contact 'shape' will provide additional information and the neural network results would be more accurate. It has been shown that the impact information can be utilized in the determination of internal quality factors of fruit. Until now,
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Murphy, Kent A. Development and Multiplexing of Fiber-Optic Pressure Transducers. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, May 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada387570.

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G.J. Kirouac. Effect of Pressure Transmission Lines on the Frequency Response of Pressure Transducers. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/821309.

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Gustavson, Paul, Douglas Tasker, and Jerry Forbes. PVDF Pressure Transducers for Shock Wave and Explosives Research. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, February 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada277319.

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Bullock, Charles D., and Arpad A. Juhasz. BRL (Ballistic Research Laboratory) Calibration Procedures for Ballistic Pressure Transducers. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, June 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada199372.

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Bur, Anthony J., and Steven C. Roth. Preparation of thin film polyvinylidene fluoride shock wave pressure transducers. Gaithersburg, MD: National Bureau of Standards, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nbs.ir.87-3680.

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Serges, T. J. Current to Pressure Transducers for the Argon & Nitrogen Dewars. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), August 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1031176.

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Mathis, William M. The Effects of Thermal Shock on Pressure Transducers in Internal Combustion Engines. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, May 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada389240.

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