Journal articles on the topic 'Predicative rhetoric'

In this case, metaphor is regarded in a receptive aspect, as a place of author’s and reader’s dialogic encounter. It is also considered as a subject of reflection that acquires some features of literary being. The article deals with a selective nature of such a structural component of a metaphor as the predicate, as well as emphasizes semantic relativity of a metaphor. Metaphor is viewed as linguistic co-being in relation to being. The paper suggests a description of a conventional algorithm of dialogic perception of a metaphor. It also sets forward an assumption that the immanent assimilation of the text is possible provided it is assigned with the features of a self-sufficient and unconditional reality, which unites both of its basic characteristics (the content and the form) into a single form-content unity, whereas the text sources acquire additional meaning of the context, with which they are interrelated. As for professional reading of the text, the article under studies regards the two interconnected procedures: analysis and interpretation, which may be compared to a dual perception of the object of metaphoric reflection: internal (usage) and external (in a predicative edition). The essence of analysis (reproduction) lies, above all, in its empathic usage in the text, that is in questioning the structural-semantic unity of the text as a peculiar form-content reality, created by demiurgic author’s will and intention. The major point of interpretation is closely associated with reflecting metaphoric codes of the text in recipient’s individual consciousness. In particular, in the circumstances, proposed by the postmodernist image of the world, there take place structural changes in the text itself. Consequently, it leads to a growing role of play rhetoric in the text formation. The figures of this type of rhetoric aim at persuading the reader in text reality as in a mimetic simulacrum, devoid of referential connections.

This study aims to explore the rhetorical and persuasive strategies employed by a political leader to propagate his ideology using language. It intends to critically analyze the victory speech of Pakistani Premier Imran Khan (IK)—the Chairman of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI)—which he delivered at the Prime Minister House, Islamabad, after being elected as the 22nd Premier of Pakistan in 2018. The researchers attempt to unveil and analyze critically the strategies that worked behind this speech to persuade the audience. Different linguistic tools used for projecting and achieving political power have been identified and scrutinized. The qualitative analysis of the speech is based on theory of Aristotle’s Rhetoric; Ethos, Pathos, Logos and other persuasive strategies like use of personal pronoun, predication strategy, and positive self-presentation and negative others-presentation employed by IK, and further to study how language carries the power of transforming the perception and political views of people. The findings suggest that political discourse is intentionally crafted to communicate and persuade people about specific ideologies located in the discourse in an implicit way and IK uses the Aristotelian rhetorical model comprising of rhetoric, predication strategy, and self-presentation and negative Others-presentation strategy to persuade his audience to follow his hidden agendas.

The seventeenth century marks the advent of preaching, in both Italy and Europe, as a literary form. Francesco Panigarola (1548-1594) did certainly play a major role in this process thanks to his treatises on sacred oratory and years of preaching activity in several Italian and European cities - during which he developed important relationships and personally experienced some of the most significant events of the century. Panigarolaʼs Il predicatore is a seventeenth-century example of rhetoric that whilst based on classical oratory complies with the precepts of the Counter- Reformation. This treaty, published posthumously in 1609, is structured as a commentary on the pseudo-Demetriusʼs work on eloquence. Il predicatore, besides serving as an Italian/Florentine translation of and commentary on Pier Vettoriʼs De elocutione (the Latin version of Perì Ermeneias), passes on and adapts the rhetorical precepts of classical oratory to the renewed exigencies of the language and of Italian preachers.

This paper, which is based on a corpus of contemporary Australian English, investigates the structural and communicative properties of extraposed clause constructions. Such constructions will often be superficially similar to right-dislocated constructions, but are generally distinguishable from these on structural, communicative and prosodie grounds. If there are no grammatical factors impeding extraposition (such as a matrix predicate containing a subordinate clause or an identified complement), then finite and infinitival clauses may be freely extraposed. Present-participials, which are more highly nominalised, extrapose less freely. The matrix predicate, which typically expresses an 'objectified epistemic or moral judgement, exhibits a variety of structural patterns. Dominant among these is the 'Subject~Predicator~Predicative Complement' pattern, with the complement most commonly realised as an adjectival phrase. Three communicative factors which influence extraposition may be identified: 'weight*, information, and theme. The data suggest that there is strong pressure in English to avoid sentences with a clause as subject in initial position and a comparatively light matrix predicate in final position. Non-extraposed sentences with a clausal subject in fact require special rhetorical and/or cohesive motivation, their infrequent occurrence reflecting the preferred 'given - before -new' ordering found in English. Just as important as the end-positioning of material in extraposition is the initialisation of an expression of the speaker's angle, enabling it to serve as the theme.

The purpose of the article is to define and characterize the paradigm of interrogative modifications of mononuclear and two-member sentences that have the function of an expressive message, which do not imply a verbally expressed answer. The article substantiates the convenience of their definition as rhetorical statements. Members of each paradigm are analyzed from the point of view of their structure and semantic features, considering not only the standard meanings of denial, affirmation and subjective reflection, but also modal and emotional-evaluative shades. The article points out the peculiarities of their intonation which is different from the intonation of an interrogative sentence; the specifics of the structure (the presence of reinterpreted interrogative-pronominal words (pronominal components) and interrogative particles, that represent rhetorical formants); a complex of subjective-modal meanings. These properties create the expressiveness of the analyzed models. We also draw attention to their phraseological character, though the degree of their impenetrability is not as high as that of the actual phraseological units. Taking into consideration the above aspects, we analyze the paradigm of interrogative modifications of some mononuclear and two-member sentences with a supporting component что, also included in the analytical predicative combinations что толку, что пользы, что нужды, etc. We note the specifics of modal-temporal meanings of interrogative modifications in comparison with typical structural models of mononuclear and two-member sentences, as well as a tendency towards generalization of these meanings. Standard predicate-modal meanings of inexpediency and unimportance are enriched with various emotional shades of subjective modality. Among the analyzed models, the article highlights evaluative ones with a predicate что (что такое) in two-member models and with analytical predicate forms: что хорошего (плохого, удивительного, странного, etc.).

This research deals with the study of rhetorical methods/styles from the perspective of semantics and rhetoric in the speech of the honored guests of Abraham in the three positions in the holy Koran. The researcher attempted to reveal the semantic secrets and the moral tones underlying the structures of these rhetorical methods after deep analysis and exploration of the depths of the moral fields that came/were used to express them. The researcher insisted on revealing how the previous and subsequent contexts affected and were affected by those methods and their implications. By careful exploration and induction, it has been found that the speech has carefully used the predicate of the subject with all its types, questioning, metaphor, synecdoche, euphemism. The research concluded that deep connotations and precise moral tones of the structures of these methods were observed through exploring the topics that came/were used to express them in the speech of the guests to their host. The research also proved that no other structures could be used to convey the same message.

The research concluded with a set of results, including: 1- The stability of the terms perception and ratification in the sixth century AH at the hands of Al-Sakaki after separating the sciences and arts from each other, and the dominance of the dialectical tendency on (Miftah Al-Uloom), and the predominance of the rational and logical view over it. 2- Every assent is preceded by imagination. 3- (Yes) is the mother of the affirmative and affirmative letters, as it enters the predicate, the interrogative, the affirmation, and the negation, so it indicates affirmation of what preceded it, whether it was affirmation or negation in the predicate and the interrogative, but it is at the objectionable for every word in which there is no negation. As for (yes), it does not come until after negation. 4- Attestation abounds in actual sentences, and is less in nominative sentences, because negation and affirmation only address meanings and events that are the indications of actions, not to the entities that are the meanings of nouns.

The double predicate structures in English are examples of rhetorical use of language. The differentiation between the distinctive double predicate structure “verb + adjective” and the normal predicate structure “verb + adverb” and the subsequent choice in specific contexts is thus not only a matter of grammar rules on the surface, but, more substantively, a matter of conscious use of rhetorical language. The survey conducted among college English teachers in China into their differentiation between “verb + adjective” and “verb + adverb” showed that most respondents didn’t distinguish very well the differing expressive effects caused by the choice of the adjectives or the adjectives’ derivative adverbs in these two types of structures, and that the majority of the respondents had difficulty in making proper choices between them for specific contexts. Since the identification of a language structure is the prerequisite for its appropriate use, due attention in English teaching and learning should be paid to the delicate differences among similar language items and to their differing expressive effects to cultivate awareness and competence of conscious use of rhetorical language, enhancing overall language performance.

AbstractThe article consists of a brief biographical account of Immanuel Kant’s life and career, followed by a discussion of his basic philosophy, and a brief discussion of his pivotal point in the history of Rhetoric and Communicology. A major figure in the European Enlightenment period of Philosophy, hisCollected Writingswere first published in 1900 constituting 29 volumes. He wrote three major works that are foundational to the development of Western philosophy and the human sciences. Often just referred to as the “ThreeCritiques” informally, the First, the Second, and the Third. These are respectively:The Critique of Pure Reasonfocused on issues in logic, The Critique of Practical Reasonrelating ethical guidelines, andThe Critique of Judgmentexploring issues of aesthetics. He is most famous for his philosophy of transcendental idealism. This version of idealism argues that in logic statements areanalytic(subject and predicate are the same; no new information) orsynthetic(predicate differs from the subject; new information is constituted). He further argues that statements area priori(before experience) ora posteriori(a result of experience). Models of rhetoric (tropic logic), phenomenological methodology, and the contemporary Perspectives Model of interpersonal communicology are included as the Kantian legacy in the US. Notes provide a guide to edition and philological issues in the Kantian corpus, especially for the hermeneutics ofVorstellung(‘presentation’) versusDarstellung(‘representation’).

The past generation has seen a switch to restrictive policies and language in the governance of migrants living in the Netherlands. Beginning in 2010, a new government with right-wing populist backing went further, declaring the centrality of proposed characteristic historic Dutch values. In this article, we investigate a key policy document to characterize and understand this policy change. Discourse analysis as an exploration of language choices, including use of ideas from rhetoric, helps us apply and test ideas from governmentality studies of migration and from discourse studies as social theorizing. We trace the chosen problem formulation; the delineation, naming, and predication of population categories; the understanding of citizenship, community, and integration; and the overall rhetoric, including chosen metaphors and nuancing of emphases, that links the elements into a meaning-rich world picture. A “neoliberal communitarian” conception of citizenship has emerged that could unfortunately subject many immigrants to marginalization and exclusion.

This essay expands Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca’s concept of argumentation by model to bring more attention to the persuasive effects of using the self as a model. To illuminate this technique, I analyze the personal narratives of popular health coaches, who are championing a holistic health movement toward what I refer to as “do-it-yourself healthcare.” This case involves arguments regarding the efficacy of methods in evidence-based medicine and “alternative” or holistic health, as popular health coaches predicate their ability to heal themselves and others on abandoning traditional medicine. In brief, the purpose of this article is twofold: first, to characterize the rhetoric of the movement toward alternative or holistic health, and, second, to extend Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca’s concept of argumentation by model and address the implications of this expansion.

This paper is a rhetorical study of a single verse of the Qur’an. Which is the verse of debts. It is the longest verse of the Qura'n. It contains many splendid rules and great values. that this verse is one of the most Comprehensive verses of the Qur’an. It makes the life of people more organised and ensures a good destiny in the hereafter. Allah exalted has emphasised good treatment which is the main aspect of Islam and its pillar. He overstated the recommendation to maintain halal money and the methods which need to be taken to keep it safe from being destroyed. Therefore, it includes forms of assertions. The paper shows that this verse contains more than twenty rhetorical methods as follows: 1. In intents and purposes for which the predicate is delivered, one example is included. 2. In how the speaker delivers the predicate to the addressee it included six examples. 3. In construction and its divisions it has more than ten examples. 4. It includes six examples of Commemoration. 5. It Includes nine examples of deletion. 6. It Includes one example of fronting. 7. It includes one example of masquerade 8. It Includes one example of restriction. 9. It Includes few examples of changing the topic. 10. It Includes one example of replacing the implicit with the explicit. 11. It Includes five examples of brevity. 12. It Includes few examples of redundancy. 13. It Includes one example of simile. 14. It Includes two examples of allegory. 15. It Includes one example of metaphor. 16. It Includes one example of Metonymy. 17. It Includes two examples of antithesis. 18. It Includes one example of combining two things onwards in one thing. 19. It Includes one example of good conclusion. 20. It Includes one example of rhymed proses. 21. It Includes six examples of paronomasia. All these rhetorical aspects indicate the inimitability of the Quran and it is from Allah which no other speeches can be equal to it due to its altitude, perfection and beauty.

"(Pseudo)-Interrogative Sentences and Associated Phrases in Speech Captions in Private Tombs": In this paper, I discuss the (pseudo)-interrogative phrases, both those that are introduced by an interrogative word as well as those that are not. My aim is to provide a synchronic and diachronic study of such sentences and to illustrate a few of their uses in the Reden und Rufe corpus. After a short introduction (section 1), the predicate questions jn and jn-jw are considered in section 2 and adjunct questions built with the interrogative pronouns jšs.t, zy, m and the interrogative adverb ṯn(y) in section 3. Section 3 will further discuss a couple of affirmative and exclamative sentences, which have to be linked with the rhetorical question jšs.t pw A. The fourth and last section before conclusions is devoted to three cases studies relevant for this investigation, i.e. the proclitic particle js, which allows the speaker to distance himself from his words through an ironic statement (4.1), interrogative phrases without interrogative words (4.2), and the particle ḫy hitherto known from letters only (4.3). As a result 50 examples from Old Kingdom mastabas to Late Period tombs have been considered. Even if real (or ordinary) questions (OQs) arose in a few cases, there is a clear majority of rhetorical questions (RQs), which are uninformative and assertive. Both OQs and RQs can be expressed by means of the same syntactic structure, be it predicate questions, adjuncts questions, or interrogative phrases without interrogative words. Some are however preferred for RQs, and vice versa. The RQs as adjunct questions, which are predominant in this text corpus, invoke a predetermined answer from the addressee, being either jnk pw or jnk + nominalized participle. As such they reveal a first rhetorical strategy in which the answer is the counterpart of the question with exactly the same syntactic structure jšs.t pw A – jnk pw, zy pw A – jnk pw, and (j)n-m + participle – jnk + participle). The jšs.t pw A and (j)n-m + participle patterns expose a further rhetorical strategy in which the speaker and/or the addressee is/are objectified.

Abstract Employing Wodak’s discourse-historical approach, this paper examines how Ghana’s independence leader – Kwame Nkrumah – in his creation of the Unite or Perish myth constructed ‘the African people’ in a manner in sync with populist performance. It argues that Nkrumah’s discourse, in its focus on the formation of a Union Government of Africa as the only means of Africa’s peace, progress, security and survival in the post-independence era, can be characterized as a form of populist rhetoric that presupposes an antagonistic relationship between two homogeneous social groups. To this end, the paper analyzes three discursive strategies utilized by Nkrumah in promoting anti-establishment sentiments while celebrating or valorizing ‘the ordinary people’: nomination and predication of social actors and actions, the construction of a man of the people image and the exploitation of familiarity and historical memory. It concludes with a discussion on the implications of the study for political discourse analysis in terms of the interrelationship between political myth and populist performance.

The article is concerned with the problem of correlation of the homogeneity and the co-ordination in French that is essential to differentiate a simple sentence with the similar verb predicates of a complex sentence. The urgency of such problems is based on the similarity of these syntactic constructions due to the co-ordination link existing in both constructions. This fact doesn’t allow the grammarians to arrive at a common view on the nature of the two constructions. The author proves the influence of the verb predicate syntactic links with the other parts of the sentence on classifying the structure as a simple or a complex sentence. In the paper there have been studied the similar verb predicates in the extended and unextended sentences. In the extended sentences the author focuses on the form and place of a complement, on the presence or absence of the adverbial modifier. The verb predicate grammar form itself influences the differentiating the two structures. Thus, it has been concluded that the main distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the grammatical marker. There have been detected the supplementary distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the semantic aspect, the lexical meaning in particular. The treated analysis of the empiric material shows the dependence of determining the two syntactic units on the stylistic norms and the rhetorical mode. The most important finding of the research is that, contrary some scientists’ opinion, there is no reason to abandon the term of the similar verb predicates in French.

The article notes the tendency towards the preferred choice of the preposition pro (about) (instead of o) in modern Russian speech. The above said leads to a change in the compatibility of the accusative word form with the explanatory meaning, to an expansion of the range of verbs and nouns that control this form. The use of the word forms in names is updated (in different communicative spheres). Observations on the use of the so-called “The Accusative of theme” in media speech allowed us to identify different communicative intentions of the speaker, which are marked by the word form pro (about) N4: fixation of the topic, announcement, continuation and development, return to the topic, change of topic, forecast, clarification, accentuation. In addition, as part of the predicate, the word form with the preposition pro (about) is used as a means of the object of speech / thought characterization. In these syntactic conditions, a new way of defining the concept is formed: X eto pro (is about) N4, as well as a new question: What is X about? They are actively used in speech by adherents of the newest rhetorical canon – as opposed to the traditional one.

Quran in general and Surah Al Kawsar in particular is the very eloquent statements of Allah in the unambiguous and expressive Arabic language. The Islamic Scholars have served the Arabic language, Because of their love with and insist interpretation of the Qura'nic language Arabic. So Surah Al Kawsar is in the focus and epicenter of many rhetorical discourses and of these, one is "iltifat". In the words of rhetoricians the word "iltifat" means interpreting from one perspective or focus of meaning to another perspective or focus of meaning i.e. from first person to second or third person, or vice versa, similarly, from plural to singular or dual, or vice versa, and from past to future, or vice versa and from informative to predicative etc. "Iltifat" has many advantages, i.e.: 1- it brings novelty in expression. 2- it creates emphasis in rhetorical speech as it should be. 3- to communicate the purpose of speaker. 4- to intend the hyperbolic way of speech. 1- Why is Surah Al Kawsar eloquent? 2- Why were the Arab rhetoricians incomparable to Surah Al Kawsar? The researcher method in this research paper is descriptive, adaptive and informative. In this Research paper the researcher brough out sixteen kinds of “Iltifat” in Surah Al Kawsar, which proves that this is the Allah’s Kalam, not of human body.

This paper describes idioms of the northern Zhuang language. Zhuang idioms are analyzed into two major types, based on syntactic structure: trisyllabic idioms and polysyllabic idioms. Tri-syllabic idioms are short, fixed common expressions consisting of a single predicate. The polysyllabic idioms comprise tetrasyllabic idioms, pentasyllabic idioms, hexasyllabic idioms, and heptasyllabic idioms. The polysyllabic idioms display four syntactic patterns, i.e., serial pattern, causative pattern, topicalized pattern, and condensed pattern. Semantically, the meanings of Zhuang idioms are not the sum of their component part but must be metaphorically interpreted as a whole. The function of Zhuang idioms is to increase effectiveness and rhetorical force in oral and literary communication.

Attitude or speech reports in English with a non-parenthetical syntax sometimes give rise to interpretations in which the embedded clause, e.g., "John was out of town" in the report "Jill said that John was out of town", seems to convey the main point of the utterance while the attribution predicate, e.g., "Jillsaid that", merely plays an evidential or source-providing role (Urmson, 1952). Simons (2007) posits that parenthetical readings arise from the interaction between the report and the preceding discourse context, rather than from the syntax or semantics of the reports involved. However, no account of these discourse interactions has been developed in formal semantics. Research on parenthetical reports within frameworks of rhetorical structure has yielded hypotheses about the discourse interactions of parenthetical reports, but these hypotheses are not semantically sound. The goal of this paper is to unify and extend work in semantics and discourse structure to develop a formal, discourse-based account of parenthetical reports that does not suffer the pitfalls faced by current proposals in rhetorical frameworks.

Abstract In the science of rhetoric, the cases related to al-musnad ilayh and musnad, which are the basic elements of the sentence, are examined in the maʿānī section. Rhetoricists deal with a significant part of the isnād with its different rhetorical aspects, with issues such as the musnad ilayh (subject) ḥadhf-dhikr, being maʿrifa-nakira, presentation (taḳdīm)-postponement (teʾk̲h̲īr), tawābiʿ (sentence expansion) elements and separating pronouns. The same is done for musnad (predicate), which is the other pillar of the sentence. The fact that maʿrifa a musnad ilayh receives the adjective, tawkīd, badal, ʿatf al-bayān, ʿatf al-nasaq and the tawābiʿ elements called separating pronoun adds a lot of eloquence to the sentence. In a sentence, musnad ilayh taking subordinate words or separating pronouns and not taking them are not the same thing. Although the tawābiʿ elements and the separating pronoun are not words that relate to the essence of the sentence, the fact that maʿrifa musnad ilayh takes them both makes the intent clear and understandable and adds a richness of meaning to the sentence with different semantic interpretations. Abū Yaʿḳūb al-Sakkākī states that if a maʿrifa is a musnad ilayh, the sentence is affected by emphatic meanings such as declaration, praising-dispraising, specialization and tawkīd. In case of falsification, erroneous assumption is avoided or the general meaning is indicated. It is explained more with ʿatf al-bayān and detailed with ʿatf al-nasaq, changing or declaring the provision. When it takes a badal, it is intended to further clarify and reinforce. In case of taking a separating pronoun, musnad is allocated to musnad ilayh. In this study, the elements of tawābiʿ that a maʿrifa musnad ilayh and the different eloquent and semantic interpretations of the separating pronoun in the syntax are discussed in the context of al-Sakkākī’s Miftāḥ al-ʿulūm. The fact that maʿrifa musnad ilayh takes tawābiʿ elements and separating pronoun depending on the caste changes the semantic dimension of the sentence. According to al-Sakkākī, the contextual reasons for musnad ilayh’s taking the elements of tawābiʿ are also emphasized.

The present paper is the result of a scientific venture into the discursive construction of separatism in Cameroon’s English-speakingregions, which separatists refer to as Southern Cameroons or Ambazonia. My study aims specifically at identifying the linguistic and rhetorical strategies separatist leaders use in order to create a sense of unity amongst all English-speaking Cameroonians and make them join the fight for independence. To achieve this aim, I have analysed speeches authored between 2010 and 2015 by two Anglophone Cameroonian separatist leaders. The analysis of the speeches, which followed the Discourse Historical Approach (Wodak et al. 2009), reveals that Southern Cameroonian nationalists try to achieve unity by resorting to strategies such as nomination, predication, and argumentation through topoi. These strategies were realised by means of linguistic resources including lexicon, imperatives, deontic and epistemic modals.

Introduction.The article analyses the specifics of the functioning of the zeugma in artistic speech. Despite the popularity of this rhetorical figure since ancient times and its use in various spheres of communication, there is still no complete clarity about the essence of this linguistic phenomenon.Methodology and sources.The article considers various interpretations of the zeugma, determines its place in the circle of other rhetorical figures, conducts a structural analysis of zeugmatic constructions, identifies its syntactic and morphological variations, analyzes the stylistic potential. As an empirical material, lyrical and prose texts of German-language literature of the XIX–XX centuries are used, including works by H. Heine, A. Döblin, G. Trakl, G. Benn, K. Edschmid, H. Böll and other authors.Results and discussion.As a rhetorical figure, zeugma is built on the conflict of syntax and semantics, representing several syntactically homogeneous, but semantically heterogeneous elements. Zeugma, as a rule, has a nuclear word in its composition, in which, in conjunction with various actants, different meanings/shades of meanings are actualized, although “non-nuclear” zeugmas are also found. The role of the reference element is most often a verb-predicate, less often the core of the construction becomes an adjective, participle, adverb, noun. The elements of the paratactic series are usually nouns (homogeneous subjects, additions, circumstances), but the analysis also reveals cases of illogical combinations represented by other parts of speech, as well as examples with heterogeneous morphological forms within the same zeugmatic construction. The functional analysis of the zeugma demonstrates the rich stylistic potential of this rhetorical figure, which acts as a means of humor and satire in literary texts, serving to convey emotional states, semantic saturation of the utterance, and the increment of new meanings.Conclusion. Zeugma acts as a significant method of pragmatic focusing in a literary text, being especially widely represented in modernist literature, characterized by semantic multilayering and intensity of artistic expression.

The third part of the article is focused on the interpretation of a well-known poem by Zbigniew Herbert, “The Message of Mr. Cogito”. The rhetorical figure, the golden fleece of nothingness, has been interpreted in the context of Meister Eckhart’s apophatic theology, as well as the phenomenology of Bertrand Welte. Since nothingness has been described by the predicate of the golden fleece, it paradoxically comes across as something that is. The golden fleece, in turn, alludes to the ancient Greek poem by Apollonius of Rhodes, in which it became a reward for the Argonauts’ virtue of courage in their fight against evil. In the ancient myths of Hellas, the golden fleece is also a symbol of divine providence and protection. Therefore nothingness, described in the poem by the predicate of the golden fleece, does not have to mean non-existence, or mere nothing, but it can point to reality which transcends the limits of human language and as such, it can be described merely in the terms of apophatic theology. For B. Welte, on the other hand, nothingness exists in the consciousness of Dasein as the inevitability of death and its ontological status is ambiguous. This is because nothingness exists as something that is. Since Dasein intends to endow his/her being-here with meaning by following the rules of ethics, the only guarantee of their rightfulness is nothingness understood as the mystery of transcendence.

This article offers a rhetorical analysis of Deleuze's concept of the past, understood not as a modification of the present but as a pre-predicative, non-subjective articulation of time. Focusing on the discussion of the three passive syntheses of time in Chapter 2 of Difference and Repetition, it traces the continuity between past, passivity and passion across Deleuze's body of work in an effort not only to remark on the conceptual resonances between them, but, more importantly, to examine the figural and formal choices that codify those resonances, and to some extent over-determine them – in particular, Deleuze's recourse to allegory and tragic form. Though the past is constituted as a primordial component of time, it already exceeds itself in the passivity of that constitutive moment, of that originary gesture by which it is first committed to historical experience. The process is rendered in dramatic terms: Habitus and Mnemosyne (Habit and Memory; Present and Past) are first pitted against each other – respectively, as the origin of time and its ground. They are then overthrown by an unnamed third element ‘which subordinates the other two to itself’ and opens the whole to infinity. The article thematises the significance of the past within this allegorical drama, develops the character, and draws out the temporal structures encoded in Deleuze's figurations.

Abstract The article investigates how the problem of (linguistic) reference is treated in the theology of two pupils of Gilbert of Poitiers by means of suppo* terms (supponere; suppositus,-a,-um; suppositio). Supposition is for Gilbert an action performed by a speaker, not a property of terms, and he considers language as a system for communication between human beings: key notions are the ‘sense in the author’s mind’ and the ‘interpreter’s understanding’. In contrast, the two Porretans tend to objectify language as a formal system of terms. Suppositio becomes in the Summa Zwettlensis the name itself as subject term in a proposition, and is divided into many kinds; formal rules are described which govern the influence of the predicate on the subject term’s denotation. In Everard of Ypres’ Dialogus Ratii et Everardi, supponere is a function (officium) of the name, and ‘human is a species of individuals’ is, as in some logical treatises and differently from Gilbert, a case of rhetorical transfer.

In the trend of information globalization, mass media is not only an authoritative source of information but also a participant and executor of international affairs. News reporting is the most influential and authoritative form of media, shaping people’s cognition and attitudes while conveying information. Therefore, using news reports to build a national image has become an essential strategy for the government of a country. At the same time, an excellent national image is essential for improving a country’s global discourse power. Therefore, this paper uses discourse-historical analysis as a theoretical framework to analyze the China-related climate reports of mainstream media in the United States from 2015 to 2023 and explores the diachronic changes and reasons for the image of China in mainstream media reports in the United States. In this study, a combined approach of quantitative and qualitative methods is employed, with a particular emphasis on data-driven corpus research methods. The study found that mainstream US media’s climate reporting on China mainly focuses on China’s climate responsibility, renewable energy, and inter-country relations in climate governance. Through the analysis of the predication strategy, argumentation strategy, and intensification strategy, it is found that the media’s stance has gone through a period of neutrality from 2015 to 2017, increased hostile rhetoric from 2018 to 2019, and continued to worsen from 2020 to 2023. The media’s stance is mainly related to the changes in climate policies in the United States at different phases.

The paper provides a cross-cultural analysis of selected linguistic realizations of persuasion in technical manuals as typical representatives of technical discourse. It aims to identify differences and similarities between the ways persuasive power is expressed in this type of specialized discourse in English and Czech L1 texts. The data comprises manuals to various technical devices and amounts to slightly more than 200,000 words. This specialized corpus (15 manuals in English and 15 in Czech) is assumed to enable the comparison of the ways in which technical communicators express persuasion. The investigation, which is conducted from the perspectives of corpus analysis and discourse analysis, focuses on the ways in which the interactive and dynamic process of persuasion is explicitly manifested: 1. directly (i.e. using directives expressed by imperatives of full verbs, modals of obligation, necessity, prohibition, and predicative adjectives expressing the writer’s judgement of the necessity to perform an action) and 2. indirectly (i.e. using other language means than directives, such as other modals than those related to obligation, necessity or prohibition, conditional clauses, rhetorical questions). The findings are expected to be relevant and applicable in the education domain to raise technical writers’ awareness of directives as useful persuasive strategies suitable for the production of effective well-written technical manuals since their quality including the appropriate degree of persuasiveness can influence prospective consumers to make a purchase of a particular technical device.

For the first time in linguistics, the article distinguishes negative pronouns of a pronoun-noun and pronoun-adjective. Their lexical meanings, grammatical features and syntactic functions are determined. A negative pronoun is a noun that means nothing (in Russian both - ничто and ничего ), a negative Russian pronoun что meaning whatever, none. Both pronouns function as the principle sentence component, mainly in negative genitive sentences or as a predicate in a two-memberSubject-Predicate sentence. Subject of a pronoun-noun, which is expressed by the noun of any lexico-grammatical category or infinitive, with a negative pronoun-adjective, which is an infinitive. Both negative pronouns function in rhetorical questions expressing negation in the affirmative form. Subject combined with a pronoun-noun could be expressed by a noun of any lexico-grammatical category or infinitive, with a negative pronoun-adjective что , which could also be formed by an infinitive. Both negative pronouns function in rhetorical questions expressing negation in the affirmative form. The meanings of both negative pronouns are syntactically limited (by the function of the predicate or the principle component of the negative genitive sentence) and structurally determined (be found in the construction with the dative of the authorizer). The meaning of a negative pronoun-adjective is also phraseologically confined, a negative pronoun is an adjective that is always used with the Russian words like проку, толку, выгоды, пользы, прибыли, добра . Three meanings stand out for a negative pronoun ничто : 1) ontological vacuum, nonexistence, absence of an object; 2) something insignificant, insignificant, not worthy of attention; 3) denial of the significance of a person, insignificance. A negative pronoun что is a noun that means something insignificant, insignificant, not worthy of attention (or (as it were) the absence of something/someone (for the authorizer)), or absence (of benefit). A negative pronoun что is an adjective that has one of the meanings of a negative pronoun-adjective никакой meaning none of the available or possible. Despite the indeclinability, a negative pronoun что expresses the noun-meanings of the nominative and genitive cases, while being a negative pronoun-adjective to denote the genitive case, either masculine or feminine. The data collected is retrieved from the National Corps of the Russian Language (NCRL). As the main methodological technique, the substitution method was applied. The theoretical basis of the article was the work on homocomplexes, functional homonyms, poly-functional words, the differentiation of homonymy and polysemy. The theoretical significance of the study lies in the fact that the results allow us expand the linguistic understanding of the semantic and grammatical nature of the pronoun as well as the issue of pronoun syncretism in general, the differentiation of homonymy and polysemy of the classes of pronouns, as well as the varieties of genitive sentences. The data collected can be useful for lexicographic practice: compiling dictionaries of homonyms, grammatical homonyms, explanatory dictionaries, as well as to clarify the typology of one-member sentences. The relevance of the topic is determined by the necessity to establish the full list of pronouns in the Russian language, as well as the importance of studying the phenomena of functional homonymy, transition and syncretism and the importance of solving the problem of distinguishing homonymy and polysemy.

Against the background of explicit ways of expressing comparisons in their broad understanding (as constituents of the functional-semantic field of comparativeness), this article considers the indirect presence of assimilations, the "target" of which are the characters of L. Ulitskaya's novel The Kukotsky Enigma and the related signed circumstances of the time being depicted. It is shown how comparisons by similarities implicitly expressed in the novel reflect the idiostylic features of the author, inclined to the detailed and often veiled expression of the severe aversion of the supporters of the Bolshevik ideology that defends the pseudoscientific "achievements" of the times of Soviet Power. The ways of representing content-subtext information in contexts with implicitly expressed assimilations, that is: the use of alogisms, allusions, metaphor-metonymic uses, antonyms, evaluative enantiosemia, "samples" of Soviet rhetoric with the "modus of importance", verbal play on the associative-derivational basis. The description of implicit assimilations in the language of the novel by L. Ulitskaya is preceded by brief explanations of the structure of the functional-semantic field of comparativeness in the Russian language, according to V. P. Berkov [1996], and the position of metaphors (as a mediated comparison by similarity) in this field. The article presents the forms of expressions for explicit comparatives and non-labeled comparatives (instrumental and genitive assimilations, nominal comparative predicate). Non-labeled comparatives are on the boundary between traditionally understood comparison and metaphor; the differences between metaphor and these syncretic forms of comparativeness are also identified.

Statement of the problem. The paper discusses multiple deviations of science texts in the English language written by Russian novice writers from the norms and expectations of the international discourse community. The purpose of the article is to propose a concept of utilizing computer linguistics tools of automated text analysis for pedagogical purposes to identify real needs of students in science writing in English. The methodology is based on the contrastive discourse-analysis of two corpora: students’ research paper manuscripts and published research papers by international expert writers. Both corpora belong to one engineering discipline and were compiled specifically for the research purposes. The contrastive corpus analysis was conducted by means of a computer linguistics tool Gramulator. Research results. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of differential bigrams in Gramulator demonstrated that the writing by novice Russian authors significantly differs from the expert writing. The considered bigrams indicated lower lexical diversity; insufficient skills in using grammar that is absent in the Russian language; tendency to underuse predicative clauses and hedging devices; tendency to overuse words and phrases typical of Russian scientific style, as well as referencing and specifying words and phrases. Conclusions. The proposed concept is aimed to make the academic writing process more student-centered. The identification of common linguistic problems in the novice researchers’ writing may raise students’ awareness of the differences in the rhetorical choice in the two languages, improve strategic skills in making the proper choice when writing their own texts, and, thus, approach to the norms and expectations of the target discourse community.

The problem in this study it is the reason why Prophet Khidr repeated his words -You will not patient with me - to the prophet Moses, even though the prophet Moses was known as the intelligent prophet. This research uses the theory of ijaz and ithnab (brevity and redundancy) in the science of rhetoric. This theory finds abbreviated word types and extended word types. This research uses a qualitative approach that is descriptive through a literature review. Researcher found there are sixteen ijaz sentences including sentences by removing related sentences, five sentences by removing adjectives, one sentence by removing letters, one sentence by removing dispersed words, one sentence by removing the divine predicate, one sentence miracle of delivering sentences. The four ithnab sentences that the researcher found are as follows. First, the expressive sentences by mentioning special sentences after mentioning general sentences that serve to emphasize specific sentences. Secondly, the redundancy sentence is the appendix by bringing up the second sentence which is similar to the first sentence that intends to emphasize the idea of the sentence. Third, verbosity sentences that use the inclusion allowance that serve to explain the previous sentence and which are not yet clear. Fourth, verbosity and repetition sentences that work to persuade the other person to accept the advice. The reason why ‘Abd’ repeated his words to the prophet Moses was not because Moses was stupid, but because of Prophet Moses' spirit in seeking knowledge and allowing him to continue searching for guidance with the ‘Abd’.Keywords: Advice, Repetition, Spirit.

The article uses the idea of “infinite judgment” (borrowed from the field of logic) to reflect on the narrative techniques employed in Ádám Bodor later works, with a special focus on the novel The Birds of Verhovina (2011) and the collection Nowhere (Sehol, 2019). In a formal sense, the idea of infinite judgment breaks down the duality of the so-called positive and negative qualities of logical judgments (assertion and negation) by introducing a negative predicate into the structure of a positive proposition. Applying the same logic to Bodor’s prose, we can also grasp it as a poetic principle: the process of fictional world-creation does not follow the logic of either negation or affirmation and, through a subtle logical negation, opens up a series of infinite possibilities. This rhetorical strategy, in turn, becomes the appropriate vehicle for the articulation of a specific type of historical experience that we could designate as “potential history” (in opposition to the “actual” history of Eastern European dictatorships in the second half of the twentieth century). Bodor’s prose forces a confrontation with this potential history through narratives of transience and historical transformation whose ultimate horizon is human extinction.

The article is a study of infinitive interrogative sentences bearing meanings of potentiality and efficiency in Russian and the means to render those in Persian. Both for Russian and Persian, such interrogative syntactic constructions and the relevant range of meanings are typical. As is known, in Russian infinitive is a verbal form though in a sentence it can combine the noun-and-verb functions, while in Persian, infinitive functions as a noun. As a rule, so-called Russian indefinite verbal form reflects various subjective and objective modal meanings, in particular, those of potentiality and efficiency which differs in Persian rather to reflect modal meanings of desirability, possibility, necessity, the must, inevitability, doubt, motive, etc. In relevant contexts the combination of modal meanings of desirability and possibility forms the potentiality meaning which is expressed by various linguistic means to form sentences: intonation, lexical and grammatical units, semantical components; other contexts of using such linguistic means to combine modal meanings of desirability and motive reveal the meaning of efficiency. The meanings themselves are not characteristic of Persian infinitive primarily due to their grammatical properties and belong to nouns therefore in Persian the mentioned above meanings and senses could be reflected by other linguistic means as well. The task of the study is to tackle the question of what are the means and manner they might make linguistic analogy to transmit semantics of potentiality and efficiency in Persian, while they are expressed in Russian infinitive interrogative sentences and rhetorical questions.The article treats infinitive interrogative sentences and rhetorical questions with infinitive as a predicate to render the semantics of potentiality and efficiency on the drama texts by M.Yu. Lermontov and A.P. Chekhov and the epic novel by A.N. Tolstoy. In course of comparative study, the translations into Persian of those texts were involved to find out similarities and differences of linguistic means used to reflect and reveal the semantics of infinitive interrogative sentences.

This research investigates the dominant rhetorical/ discursive strategies in the British mainstream news media regarding their reports on Ukrainian refugees in the United Kingdom (UK). While news media have negatively constructed the non-European refugees, as previous studies have revealed, this research is unique because it specifically focuses on European refugees as its research sample. The ultimate objective was to demonstrate how the news media in the UK portrayed the incoming Ukrainian refugees on British soil. The data were 40 Ukrainian-refugee-related news reports published in four mainstream news media in the UK from March until July 2022. The data was then analysed by using Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA), consisting of six analytical categories: Referential, Predication, Argumentation (Topoi), Perspectivisation, Mitigation, and Intensification (Reisigl Wodak, 2008). The research found that regardless of their ideologies, all four news media consistently employed the discursive strategies of humanization and individualization and pervasively established a positive argumentative strategy on Ukrainian refugees. These dominant strategies depict a positive representation of Ukrainian refugees. Moreover, despite the overall negative picture of third-world refugees in British news media, the finding of this research is distinctive from the previous ones, showing that the British news media actively constructed the Ukrainian refugees positively and sympathetically. It is argued that the news media’s ideological stance of Eurocentrism and biased racial values played a decisive role in framing the pictures of European/Ukrainian and non-European refugees in their reports.

The article presents an interpretation of the linguistic means of expressing negative emotional states in Lyudmila Petrushevskaya’s works included in the collections Don’t Get in a Car with Two People and Wanderings About Death. The aim of this research is to identify the features of the language representation of negative emotional states in Petrushevskaya’s stories. Approximately 400 statements with the semantics of an emotional state were revealed in the collections; 90% of them describe the characters’ negative experiences. The main research methods are descriptive, linguo-stylistic text analysis, and linguistic modeling. The analysis shows that the semantic model of an emotional state is represented by a wide range of language means that express the characters’ negative emotions and experiences: fear, anger, annoyance, grief, sadness, aggression, longing, resentment, despair, etc. The linguistic model of the situation of an emotional state represented in Petrushevskaya’s stories includes three main components – the predicate of the state, the subject and the causator, and two optional components – the locative and the temporative. The peculiarity of an emotional state is that it belongs to unobservable phenomena, limited in time, possessing a static feature and lacking volitional activity of the subject (carrier) of the state. The author describes the linguistic means of representing the main components of the proposition of the state: the predicate, the subject (or carrier) of the state, and the causator; emphasizes the importance of local and temporal characteristics that actualize a particular emotional state; reveals the expressive ways of nominating emotions, which verbalize the writer’s worldview. The author also notes that intensifiers (standard and specific) and various stylistic means promote the linguistic expression of negative emotions: parcellation, rhetorical questions, addresses, lexical repetitions, etc. Based on the analysis, the author concludes that negative emotional states, among which fear prevails (127 statements), are characteristic for Petrushevskaya’s works. The representation of basic emotions (fear, anger, sadness, etc.) shows the writer’s perception of reality: the world is dangerous and cruel. The characters who find themselves in difficult and hopeless situations are on the verge of despair; therefore, in the works, both men and women suffer equally with “anguish”. The linguistic representation of negative emotions in the analyzed stories reflects the general specifics of the writer’s style of narration. Statements with the semantics of an emotional state are full of neologisms, substandard vocabulary, complex constructions, contradictions and oppositions, inappropriate detailing and abrupt transitions.

A quick look on the history of criticism and literary theory of the current period shows curious reversals and strange returns. Indeed one can see the slow and unrelenting disappearance of rhetoric, justly qualified as restricted, since it has been all too often limited to identifying and classifying of the various figures. It has been replaced by a new criticism, a fundamentally formalist one, the assumptions of which are akin to those of the “text sciences”; if the structure, the “poetical function” of the texts were underlined, it was to the detriment of their functional reference and their meaning to put it simply. There is no doubt that today this approach is running out of steam and is meeting some decline. For that reason, the history of literature is coming back in force and finds a new youth with the developments of the theories of perception. But there reappears also a new interest in a semantic approach of the texts, which is concerned with their references. This approach, which comes from logistics (G. Frege), undoubtedly opens a philosophical horizon, particularly on some kind of ontology. Thus it is not surprising to find that a great many studies question the metaphorical process again from that perspective given the paradoxical nature of its reference and thus of its ontology which could be summed up through the usual exordium of the Majorcan storytellers: “Aixo era y no era” (it was and was not). Paul Ricœur insists on the paradoxical nature of the metaphorical reference since “the metaphor is a way of working on the language which consists in giving the logical subjects predicates that are incompatible with the first ones” (From Text to Action). In his book The Living Metaphor, the French philosopher analyses the concept of the “ontological metaphor” from the idea of the “divided reference”. Ricœur moves away from a purely stylistic or linguistic approach, centred on the word (a deviant denomination) to describe the metaphorical process on the level of the phrase and of the discourse (a non-pertinent predication): “Then there is a metaphor, since we can discern <…> the resistance of words <…> their incompatibility on the level of a literal interpretation of a sentence” (From Text to Action). But that non-pertinence and the abolition of the reference in the everyday reality are not a purely gratuitous verbal game, for they liberate “another kind of reference to other dimensions of reality” (The Living Metaphor). It is that way of tension of the metaphor which we intend to present in our study for it expresses some kind of „ontological vehemence” as Ricœur puts it so well? Let us add that the metaphor seen as a new description of reality, can be conceived, so to speak, as a “model”, in the sense of a prototype which accounts of the way a literary text functions when it is a “opening on the world”, when it places itself “in the service of things that want to be expressed” and when it responds “to the need of a discourse that comes from all forms of experience” (Mimesis, Reference and new figuration in “Time and Narrative”).

The article analyzes the use of determinologisms in the comparisons composition as a feature of the writer`s creative manner based on Bohdan Lepky`s story “Motrya”. In order to find out the stylistic role and methods of achieving an artistic effect with the help of this trope, we have implemented several tasks: to carry out a continuous selection of comparisons using determinologisms from B. Lepky`s historical story “Motrya”; to analyze the selected comparisons concerning the formal way of achieving comparability and identify which of them are typical for the writer`s style; to outline the thematic categories of determinologisms used in comparisons; to find out the stylistic possibilities of comparisons with the use of determinologisms in an artistic work; to describe the characteristic features of B. Lepky`s creative style related to the use of comparisons. In our research, we have used the following methodology: the method of continuous selection was used to select quotes from the novel`s text in which the author used comparisons of different types, including determinologisms, also with the help of structural-thematic and semantic analysis, the selected comparisons were classified according to the formal ways of achieving comparability. Statistical methods made it possible to identify the quantitative parameters of the studied material. Descriptive, comparative, component, and deductive research methods were also used to realize the set goal. Based on the analysis of 167 quotes selected from the text of B. Lepky`s story “Motrya”, the author used a comparison with the involvement of determinologisms, direct comparison (comparative phrase, subordinate comparative clause), indirect comparison, and logical comparison. There is a significant quantitative advantage of direct comparisons (63 %). To create direct comparisons, the writer uses more often the conjunction “як” (70,2 %), less often “ніби” (16.7 %), and other comparative conjunctions occur sporadically. An essential feature of the writer`s creative manner is the predominance of complex abstract concepts comparisons with simple, understandable determinologisms of several thematic groups for every reader. The largest groups are zoological and technical determinologisms relating to various craft professions, military, artistic, geographical, climatic, astronomical determinologisms, and others. We observe that determinologisms are not perceived in the artistic text as something foreign. They reflect the peculiarities of the modern author`s communicative space, testify to his high intellectual level, and are directed to the same educated readers. A comparison is a vivid means of expressing the author`s attitude towards a particular person or phenomenon since there is no real connection between the compared and the comparative object, and the writer chooses the object of comparison with his creative imagination and determines the comparative feature. That all contributes to the emergence of a particular expression. In B. Lepky`s story “Motrya”, the stylistic role of comparisons manifests itself: it focuses attention on some feature of an object or phenomenon by comparing it with another object or phenomenon where this feature stands out very clearly. The analyzed material found comparisons based on attributive, adjectival, or predicative features. We have established that the comparison through the juxtaposition of language units from different thematic fields emphasizes the content and creates a unique artistic effect: significant semantic features are actualized, additional connotations are superimposed, and an original image appears, which makes a particular expressive impression on the readers. The following characteristic features of B. Lepky`s creative manner, related to the use of comparisons, which include determinism, have been identified: the dominance of the conjunction as in direct comparisons; the prevalence in comparisons of well-known zoological and technical determinologisms, which expand their semantic field and contribute to the emotionality of the expression; the highly specialized determinologisms revealed in the analyzed material are organically included in the artistic context and become an essential component of the writer`s individual authorial style; logical comparisons are usually accompanied by the author`s reasons explanation for the comparison, thus creating a kind of author`s extended allegory combined with the comparison; comparisons are often combined with other stylistic devices (rhetorical appeal, allegory, irony, metaphor, parallelism, etc.); the writer demonstrates his commitment to folk Ukrainian traditions, the use of comparisons involve folk proverbs, sayings, unfavorable comparisons, etc.

This paper endeavors to shed light on the rhetorical and persuasive techniques used by the current Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan in his victory speech. It also explores the expression of ideology by Imran Khan after his victory in the general election of 2018. The convincing strategies are explored in this article which Khan exploited in his speech to persuade the people of Pakistan. The study identified different elements of political power in the said speech. This study is qualitative and utilizes the rhetoric of Aristotle, that is, pathos, ethos, and logos. It also explored the prediction strategy, positive self-portrayal and negative depiction of other politicians as manifested by the choice of personal pronouns by Imran Khan to change the political views and perception of the masses. The study revealed the intentional crafting of victory speech using the model of Aristotelian rhetoric and the application of the strategies of positive predication and self-appraisal, as well as the negative portrayal of opponent parties to persuade the public to support Imran Khan’s political agenda. Keywords: Aristotle, ideology, negative, persuasive and rhetorical techniques, positive, rhetoric

AbstractThis article deals with the construction and performance of antisemitism in Nazi children’s books. It provides an explorative discourse analysis of Trust No Fox as reported (Bauer, Trau keinem Fuchs auf grüner Heid und keinem Jud bei seinem Eid! Ein Bilderbuch für Gross und Klein, Stürmer-Verlag, Nuremberg, 1936) and The Poisonous Mushroom as reported (Hiemer, Der Giftpilz—ein Stürmerbuch für Jung u. Alt, Stürmer-Verlag, Nuremberg, 1938) through the lens of Critical applied legal linguistics (CrALL). It seeks to elucidate how ‘Jewishness’ is constructed in the two books, with a view to enhancing our understanding of the intertextual and interdiscursive embeddedness of anti-Semitic rhetoric generally and nomination and predication strategies specifically. To this end, a specialised corpus of 10,002 tokens, 2,345 types and 43 illustrations was compiled. Subsequently XML annotation was applied with the data being parsed into headings, sentences and/or lines. It was found that the books follow a Jewish/non-Jewish dichotomy, consistently referring to breaches of custom, morality, religion and law. Both works purport to provide descriptive accounts of ‘Jews as they are,’ when, in fact, they generate the normative illusion of ‘Jews as they ought to be’ according to Nazi ideology. It is suggested to use the insights gained into the anti-Semitic rhetoric of children’s books to detect, describe and critique patterns of anti-Semitic rhetoric today.

This paper aims at investigating Brazilian Portuguese ‘lá’ (‘there’) in structures with rhetorical question, imperative, directive, emphatic assertion, and predicative. We argue that, in these constructions, ‘lá’ is merged in the specifier of FocusP and ForceP in the CP- cartography. This proposal is based both in the F-Spec Theory (CINQUE, 1999) and in the cartographic project (RIZZI, 1997; CINQUE & RIZZI, 2008). The former claims that AdvPs are merged in the specifier of functional categories. The latter identifies a domain to the left of the IP which is made up by a range of functional categories facing both discourse and syntax.

Five theses about sign systems and articulation: It is shown that although most sign systems with single articulation (mathematics, predicate logic and sheets of music) lack deictic reference, the artificial language Ro has deixis. Double articulation of natural languages gives redundancy necessary for the performance in real time of the messages. In general, meaning is to be anchored to rhetorical situation, but mathematics and logic is not anchored and the meaning is consequently always generic. Natural sign systems have four types of meaning that are metacommunication of each other: conceptual meaning, propositional meaning, informational meaning and interactional meaning.

The article discusses the linguistic means of authorization in English magazine discourse. It proposes a definition of authorization and its discursive realization with the implementation of rhetorical canons and ways of persuasion. The linguistic means of authorization is represented by constructions which due to the fusion of form and meaning or form and function reflect the authorship – individual, institutional or collective. The paper distinguishes two types of constructions: deictic indicating individual authorization and impersonal pointing to the institutional authorship. With respect to the referential meaning of its constituents, deictic constructions fall into orientational fixing the author’s place in the environment: somatic relating to the author’s body; perceptual rendering visual, auditory or tactile modalities; locational referring to the author’s whereabouts. Constructions denoting an author’s activity refer to different spheres: cognitive; communicative; professional. Constructions referring to social relations reveal the addressor’s roles in two domains: immediate surroundings, covering family, friends, household as well as the wide public life encompassing politics and economics. Constructions appealing to pathos evoke evaluation, emotions or human needs uniting the author and readers. Constructions rendering institutional authorization represent the authors’ distance from the contents by four subtypes of subjective constructions: nominal, pronominal, predicative referring to event participants as well as discursive. Moreover, the functioning of deictic and impersonal constructions as authorization devices is subordinated to disposition with differing frequency. The collective authorship, which can be bi- and multiple, results from the interaction of constructions rendering individual and institutional authorization.

For 45 years, both A. Carabelli and S. Dow have been arguing that Keynes’s non demonstrative logic in the A Treatise on Probability is a common discourse logic (rhetoric). They provide no textual evidence anywhere in Keynes’s A Treatiseon Probability to support this claim. They have never supported, through the citation of specific pages or paragraphs in Keynes’s book, their claims that Keynes’s logic is NOT a formal logic. What is in the A Treatise on Probability is a version of Boole’s relational, propositional logic that Keynes combined with a first order (predicate) logic. These are mathematical, formal, symbolic logics. They have nothing to do with common discourse logics using the English language. A simultaneous reading of chapters I and II of Keynes’s book and chapters I, XI, and XII of Boole’s The Laws of Thought lead to one, and only one, conclusion- Keynes’s logic is a formal logic derived from G. Boole. The only conclusion that follows from Keynes’s application of Boolean logics is that Carabelli and Dow have been severely confused for 45 years in what a formal logic is and what a common discourse logic is.

Abstract This investigation is a large-scale comparative corpus study of the oppositive contrast domain (also called “semantic opposition”) based on parallel texts. Oppositive contrast is established as a fuzzy region of the similarity space of contrast (‘but’), a domain also characterized by the occurrence of selectives (“topic markers”) and of initial non-predicative phrases in VSO/VOS-languages. Major findings are that many languages have special oppositive contrast markers and that there is a continuum between oppositive contrast markers and selectives, although truly intermediate markers are rare. The gradualness between oppositive and counterexpectative contrast is explained by semantic fuzziness and by emphasis, with strong emphasis being dependent on scales. Contrast is a rhetorical discourse relation and strong oppositive contrast can be used as a persuasive strategy aiming at establishing new common ground stepwise. The fuzziness of oppositive contrast has major theoretical and methodological implications. The encoding of the domain neither follows strict universals nor is it maximally diverse (diversity is strongly constrained). Due to its syntactic properties, oppositive contrast cannot be conceived of merely as a preestablished extralinguistic semantic domain. Furthermore, contrast exhibits a high degree of language-internal variability. General trends are reflected both by stable and by emergent grammar.

Introduction The current social climate of Western societies understands fatness as the self-inflicted disease ‘obesity’; a chronic illness of epidemic proportions that carries accompanying risks of additional disease and that will eventually lead to death. In recent years, the stigmatisation and general negative societal evaluation of fatness and thus fat identities has increased (Sobal). Primarily, fatness has become a sign of medical deviance in that it is perceived to be a product of unhealthy eating behaviours and physical inactivity (Rothman). As a result, to be fat has become a barrier to entry in terms of employment opportunities, and has restricted the availability of health and insurance services for many (Sobal). Recently there has been a drastic increase in the availability of radical weight-loss solutions that strictly regulate and police fat-bodied deviants, namely in the form of surgery. Bariatric surgery, or weight-loss surgery, physically enforces the achievement of ‘health’ by curing obesity by reducing the size and functionality of the stomachs of the morbidly obese. However, bariatric ‘post-ops’ (short for post-operative) often encounter harmful consequences following their surgery in the form of increased self-surveillance, regulation and control in order to maintain their health through thinness. This article seeks to examine these consequences of surgery as a way to problematise the achievement of health through thinness overall. In order to address this issue, this article first establishes a framework of obesity discourse which enables us to understand how obesity is perceived as a self-inflicted disease in need of medical intervention within modern Western societies. From this position, we can begin to understand the purpose of interventions such as bariatric surgery. While it is acknowledged that surgery provides the morbidly obese with a gateway to health through the achievement of thinness and an escape from a heavily stigmatised identity, it is argued that this is done at the expense of placing increased regulations and surveillance upon individuals. Finally, in drawing on post-op experiences collected for research examining the life impacts of bariatric surgery, this article will examine how post-ops are subjected to intense policing, monitoring and regulating from themselves and others as a result of achieving and maintaining ‘health’ through body size. Obesity Discourse: Establishing a FrameworkScholars Evans, Rich, Davies and Allwood argue that contemporary Western responses to obesity can be conceptualised as operating within an ‘obesity discourse’ which provides a framework of “thought, talk and action concerning the body in which ‘weight’ is privileged not only as a primary determinant but as a manifest index of well-being” (13). Predominantly, this framework draws upon two key assumptions; that obesity is a legitimate and measurable disease that poses significant medical risks to populations, and that both the cause of and solution to obesity are individual lifestyle choices (Rich, Monaghan and Aphramor). More specifically, the obesity discourse is the result of the combined efforts of an extensive process of medicalisation in conjunction with an increasingly neoliberal approach to healthcare. Since the 1950s, fatness has been widely regarded as the disease ‘obesity’. Sobal argues that this occurred through an extensive process of medicalisation, which can be defined as when non-medical issues and behaviour are redefined and understood as medical problems through the use of medical jargon and medical solutions (Conrad). In particular, fat was portrayed as pathological and requiring medical intervention through “frequent, powerful and persuasive claims that [medicine] should exercise social control over fatness” (Sobal 69). In particular this has been exercised through the widespread implementation of the body mass index [BMI] into healthcare settings, as it is seen as an accessible, practical and affordable measure of ‘health’ (Ministry of Health). Unlike other markers of health, body weight is highly visible, and thus using it as an overall indicator of health increases surveillance of the self and others within populations. In this way we can see how the medicalisation of fatness works to produce what Bordo refers to as:one of the most powerful normalizing mechanisms of our century, insuring the production of self-monitoring and self-disciplining ‘docile bodies’ sensitive to any departure from social norms and habituated to self-improvement and self-transformation in the service of these norms. (186)Primarily, this is created through a construction of a ‘normal’ body shape or an ‘ideal’ weight, which can be specified using the BMI, and acts as a health imperative for individuals to achieve and maintain (Rich and Evans). However, these constructions do not factor in individual variations in body composition and thus represent a medically defined ‘thin ideal’, in that they are unobtainable and unrealistic for most people (Metzl 5). Consequently, the idea of a ‘normal weight’ strengthens contemporary body ideals (Burns and Gavey).The recent move in contemporary Western societies towards a neoliberal model of healthcare has significantly impacted societal attitudes towards fatness. The neoliberal healthcare model emphasises an individual’s choice and responsibility with respect to their health, and the privatisation of healthcare systems overall (Fries). While there is a general belief that this change gives patients more autonomy and input within the medical encounter (Lupton), the move towards a ‘democratisation’ of healthcare in reality further entrenches self-surveillance behaviours within populations by asserting that the responsibility for achieving and maintaining ‘health’ lies at the feet of the individual (Fox, Ward and O’Rourke). In particular, there is an assumption that ‘health’ can be ‘unproblematically’ achieved through individual efforts to discipline and regulate body size (Crawford) and thus individuals are obliged to engage in acts of self-discipline as both a personal and public service (Throsby, War). In this way, those who are labelled as ‘obese’ are not only questioned on their ability to appropriately care for themselves, but also their ability to be a good citizen (Throsby, War). Overall, the obesity discourse has intensified the stigmatisation of the obese in that they are portrayed as morally bad and weak-willed (Sobal) and ultimately reinforced the need for external regulatory bodies such as the weight-loss industry to monitor and control the obese. The combined efforts of the medical and weight-loss industry have produced a single message which suggests that if individuals want to maintain ‘health’ and prevent disease, there must be an enduring commitment to a ‘lifestyle change’. A ‘lifestyle change’ implies that in order to achieve successful weight loss and thus ‘health’, there needs to be enduring amendments to diet and exercise that are perceived as a ‘way of life’ rather than the ‘means to an end’ message marketed by other diet regimes (Fullagar). These changes are necessitated through an assumption that excess body weight is a sign of laziness and poor personal habits (Evans and Colls). Similar to the causes of obesity, there is a definitive notion that individual choices predicate the outcomes of weight loss endeavours. Thus, weight-loss successes and failures directly reflect how well individuals adhered to their ‘lifestyle change’ rather than the reliability and validity of the weight-loss regimes themselves (Saguy and Riley).Addressing Bariatric Surgery: The Solution to Morbid ObesityOver the past decade there has been a drastic increase in the availability of radical weight-loss solutions that strictly regulate and police fat-bodied deviants, namely in the form of surgery. While there appears to be support from the medical community for the effectiveness of a ‘lifestyle change’ as the primary solution to obesity, it should be highlighted that a ‘lifestyle change’ is only seen as a realistic option for certain obesity cohorts. In particular, surgery is reserved for the very highest of obesity cohorts – the morbidly obese – and is presented as their only viable option. ‘Morbid obesity’ is defined as having a BMI of 40 or higher and is associated with the most risk of comorbid diseases such as type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease and hypertension (Foo et al.). According to the Ministry of Health, for individuals classified as morbidly obese, clinicians in New Zealand should strongly recommend bariatric surgery. Bariatric surgery describes a group of surgical procedures that physically restrict and redesign the stomachs of morbidly obese patients to achieve weight-loss as most procedures are permanent, and are associated with the greatest long-term weight loss in patients (Ministry of Health). Bariatric surgical procedures became popular due to their long-term effectiveness in weight-loss, and cost-effectiveness particularly for countries with public healthcare, through the drastic reduction in public health expenditure for co-morbid diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Sampalis et al.). These procedures are considered the only effective treatment option for morbid obesity or a ‘last resort’ (Cranwell and Seymour-Smith; Ogden, Clementi and Aylwin), and consequently the amount of surgeries performed annually within Australasia has increased at an exponential rate (Buchwald and Williams).What makes bariatric surgery so important as a weight-loss method is that it offers the ‘morbidly obese’, who are seen as persistently deviating from idealised body norms and unable or unwilling to conform to standardised forms of self-regulation, a reprieve from their stigmatising identity. Indeed, many morbidly obese individuals who are seeking weight loss state that bariatric surgery is their only ‘hope’ or choice, or the ‘right’ choice for them (Morgan; Ogden, Clementi and Aylwin). In particular, the fear of, or the onset of, illnesses associated with obesity can be a major factor in their decision to undergo surgery (Ogden, Clementi and Aylwin). In this way, motivations to have surgery are heavily reflective of obesity discourse in that the presence of body fat is a marker of ‘impending doom’ (Rich, Monaghan and Aphramor). Indeed as Wann highlights:I really do understand why someone would consider this extreme option. The stigma attached to even the slightest amount of body fat can be daunting, and the surgeon’s sales pitch can be very slick. (41)However, as Morgan argues, more must be done to critique bariatric surgery as it largely exemplifies the social forces that control and regulate modern societies. Bariatric surgery physically enforces weight-loss and adherence to acceptable eating practices, and makes dissent both punishable and difficult (203). The removal of a large portion of the stomach means that, bariatric surgery imposes “corporeal order and discipline” (Morgan 203) upon individuals. The stomach not only enforces strict self-surveillance protocols but also an unyielding control over the individual through the “forceful prohibition or ejection” (Morgan 202) of substances. Thus, if individuals fail to regulate and govern their intake, the surgical intervention does it for them. The side-effects of vomiting and dumping syndrome act as a regulation failsafe and a form of punishment – an ‘internal policeman’ (Morgan) – that rejects deviant behaviour and punishes the individual through unpleasant and often painful experience. In this way, bariatric surgery can be viewed as the ‘ultimate weapon’ in the war against obesity as it is a means through which deviant individuals and bodies can be controlled and normalised (Glenn, McGannon and Spence).Bariatric Surgery: For Better or for Worse?In order to interrogate the dominant notion perpetuated through obesity discourse that fatness is a disease and body weight more generally is a legitimate way of measuring ‘health’ overall, this article will now draw on key findings generated from recent research examining the life impacts of bariatric surgery conducted with a support group for bariatric surgery in Auckland, New Zealand. While bariatric surgery is portrayed as a gateway to health, Throsby (Re-Birthday) argues that ultimately it is constructed as a ‘tool’ for weight-loss, rather than a cure-all ‘magic pill’ (130). This means that users are required to engage in normative dieting practices in the midst of developing new techniques of discipline that are specific to the post-surgery experience. In this way bariatric surgery creates new levels of self-surveillance that are unique to post-surgery life (Throsby, Re-Birthday 120). Self-surveillance and policing are methods in which bariatric post-ops are subjected to critique, monitoring and maintenance by both themselves and others. A key aspect of this involves the moral construction of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods, which often influenced eating behaviours and narratives whereby bariatric post-ops adhere to normalised understandings of diet, nutrition and health (Simpson 84). This dichotomy of good and bad foods reflects dominant understandings of the causal relationship between food, health and body size. Researchers have noted that there is a significant change in the relationship individuals have with food following surgery, and that often this comes with a serious fear of weight regain, and thus an intense policing of food (Cranwell & Seymour-Smith; Ogden, Clementi and Aylwin). Often, further restrictions are placed on an already restricted diet in order to achieve thinness, which emphasises the importance of achieving and maintaining thinness through the micromanagement of food intake (Simpson). In part, this reflects the way that the rhetoric that equates obesity with individual responsibility can equally ascribe blame to patients for any subsequent weight gain following surgery (Throsby, Re-Birthday 130) and indeed previous research has highlighted extensive fear of weight regain, particularly when users encounter fluctuations in their weight (Cranwell and Seymour-Smith). This is arguably what makes discussions around the concept of ‘maintenance’ so important. Maintenance refers to the monitoring process post-ops enter into after losing a significant portion of their weight and reaching a ‘plateau’, or a point where they stop losing weight; in essence it involves discussions around how to maintain and manage a ‘healthy’ weight (Simpson 79). Largely this draws on the assumption that despite being treated for obesity through a surgical intervention, one can never be recovered or truly ‘cured’ of obesity and thus individuals must engage in consistent monitoring as a preventative measure through ‘maintenance’ (Throsby, Re-Birthday). Maintenance is a complex process for bariatric post-ops; it is inextricably linked to weight management and is therefore a visible and moral indicator as to how ‘well’ post-ops are doing in their weight loss endeavours (Simpson). In this way maintenance is heavily couched in obesity discourse as individuals are expected to integrate self-surveillance and regulation practices into a ‘lifestyle change’ in order to prevent future weight gain (Cranwell and Seymour-Smith). For most, maintenance is difficult, and is understood to require a consistent consciousness of food related behaviours in order to be successful. In the observed support group, participants discussed the observations that they had made about their difficulties with resisting ‘crave’ or ‘bad’ foods (primarily those associated with high calories) that they enjoy, as well as revealing the ways in which they had altered their behaviour to address maintenance concerns (Simpson 79). One participant revealed that recent weight gain was making maintenance ‘very hard’, and it was clear that they attributed this weight gain to personal failings despite admitting that there had been no change to their ‘healthy’ eating behaviour (80). In order to address this issue, the participant admitted that they had resorted to traditional dieting rhetoric and removed dairy from their diet (83). Other support group members encouraged the participant to also remove carbohydrates from their diet (83), which further reinforced the notion that weight is a product of personal choice and individual responsibility (Crawford; Donaghue and Clemitshaw). As a result of the rapid weight loss achieved through bariatric surgery, many post-ops struggle to adjust to their ‘new’ bodies. This makes maintenance increasingly difficult as many individuals continue to see themselves as ‘fat’ despite having achieved a ‘normal’ weight (Simpson). Arguably a key factor in their misinterpretation of their body size and composition is the abundance of excess skin that is left over after rapid weight-loss. Excess skin, which has to be surgically removed and cannot be lost through diet or exercise, is a sore issue for bariatric post-ops, as it is a reminder of their former ‘fat’ selves, and thus a source of continuous dissatisfaction and lowered self-esteem (Groven, Råheim and Engelsrud). This is a common problem for many bariatric post-ops, with many citing that their low-hanging stomach or ‘apron’ is a primary source of anguish. Indeed, one post-op admitted that it was “even harder now because … it doesn’t seem to be going anywhere” (Simpson 63), and another revealed that while they consciously understood that their ‘apron’ was excess skin and not fat, they still used it as a sign that they must continue to lose weight. In this way, the reduction of the ‘apron’ has become a dangerous fixation for this post-op and the way in which they measure their success (Simpson 63). Further, post-ops were monitored by family and friends, primarily through concerns over their small portion sizes, which led them to develop techniques to escape the scrutiny of others (Simpson 78). One technique that was particularly popular was the use of a smaller side plate during dinner time (Simpson 78). A smaller plate was both an easy way for post-ops to monitor and regulate their portions, and a method of avoiding criticism and monitoring from others as it effectively masked their reduced portions from the gaze of others. Indeed many post-ops lamented over the consistent external pressures from friends and family to increase their intake and discussed further masking techniques such as moving food around the plate to convince others that they were eating (Simpson 78). These behaviours are troubling as they mimic many primarily observed within the eating disorder community (Prestwood) and indeed Rich and Evans highlight that the level of stigmatisation surrounding fat and body size may push obese individuals into disordered relationships with food, exercise and the body (354). This would suggest that the discourses surrounding the bariatric and the eating disorder communities have lines of similarity in that weight and in particular, thinness is privileged as the primary method in which health and overall personal success is measured (Burns and Gavey; Rich and Evans). Concluding RemarksThe existence of behaviours such as maintenance, food policing and body fixation forces us to question the extent to which bariatric surgery is a gateway at all to ‘health’. 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