Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Postharvest'

The primary objective of this research was to identify practices by which specialty cut flower growers can extend the vase life of cut delphinium, sunflower, and dahlia. Experiments investigated the effects of nitrogen fertilization rate on delphinium 'Guardian Mix' and the effects of deficit irrigation on delphinium 'Guardian Blue.' 'Guardian Mix' plants produced marketable cut stems at nitrogen rates as low as 50 mg/L. Deficit irrigation did not change vase life, stomatal conductance, or transpiration rates of delphinium 'Guardian Blue.' Studies tested the effects of foliar calcium applications or benzyladenine application on sunflower 'Moulin Rouge' and 'Procut Lemon.' Calcium did not change the vase life, stomatal conductance, or transpiration rates of either sunflower cultivar. Benzyladenine applied as a preharvest spray or a postharvest dip did not alter vase life of sunflower 'Moulin Rouge' or 'Procut Lemon.' Transpiration rate and conductance rates of sunflowers significantly decreased in the first three days after harvest. In both sunflower experiments, vase life of 'Moulin Rouge' was shorter than vase life of 'Procut Lemon.' Benzyladenine was also applied to dahlia 'Park Princess' and 'Karma Yin Yang' cut flowers. Benzyladenine did not change dahlia vase life. Dahlia 'Park Princess,' 'Bride to Be,' 'Cherish,' and 'Lollipop' cut flowers were not sensitive to exogenous ethylene. Further experiments tested the effect of flower stage at harvest, vase water temperature, or preharvest fungicide application on dahlia 'Park Princess' and 'Karma Yin Yang' cut flowers. Vase life of 'Park Princess' flowers was extended when flowers were harvested before fully open, but 'Park Princess' flowers harvested at budbreak failed to open completely after harvest. 'Karma Yin Yang' cut flower vase life did not differ when flowers were harvested at different stages. Placing cut dahlias in hot vase water had varied effects, but did not extend vase life of either cultivar. Fungicide applications extended vase life of 'Park Princess' flowers. However, the use of fungicide is not necessary to prevent postharvest fungal infection in cut dahlias. The results of all experiments indicate that optimal handling practices vary between cut flower taxa and that factors determining cut flower vase life are complex.
Master of Science

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Apples are an important export commodity for the South African market, and postharvest losses that occur as a result of decay due to infection with pathogenic fungi such as Botrytis cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. and Neofabraea alba (E.J. Guthrie) are of major concern for all parties concerned with fruit production and distribution. Decay control of these fungi is primarily managed through the use of synthetic fungicides; however, pathogen development of resistance to these fungicides and recent worldwide concern over healthier living and a greener environment has called for the discriminate use of synthetic chemicals. This has opened up an avenue for the development of safer and more environmentally friendly alternatives to control postharvest decays. The use of plant extracts and essential oils are favoured as natural sources of antimicrobials whilst still being safe for human consumption and having no negative impact on the environment. Allium sativum (garlic) is one such plant species that is well documented for its value in improving human health and is readily available for consumption not just as a flavour component of food but also to be taken as a daily herbal diet supplement. Given the antimicrobial effectiveness of garlic against human pathogens and ailments, its value as an antifungal agent against postharvest pathogens causing grey mould, blue mould and bull’s eye rot of apples was investigated in vitro and in vivo within this study. Furthermore, an attempt was made to elucidate the chemical components of garlic extracts by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All experiments in this study were carried out with garlic extracts prepared from fresh garlic bulbs. For the in vitro experiments, two extract preparations of garlic, one containing ethanol (Extract 1) and one where ethanol had been removed by evaporation (Extract 2), was tested for antifungal action within an amended media experimental design. Both extract preparations were each subjected to two dilution series (0-80% garlic extract) with water and ethanol as diluents. Both extract preparations were successful at retarding pathogen mycelial growth and spore germination; however, concentrations of Extract 2 (ethanol evaporated) and diluted with distilled water provided markedly better inhibition of B. cinerea and P. expansum than the ethanolic dilutions of extract 2. Both extract preparations yielded similar inhibitory results when tested against N. alba. Due to the results achieved in the amended media experiments, the use of a crude garlic extract without ethanol and diluted in water was considered to be the best option for further tests throughout the remainder of the study. In vitro volatile effects of crude garlic extracts at concentrations between 0 and 40% garlic extract were subsequently tested. Garlic volatiles were effective in inhibiting pathogen mycelial growth and spore germination of all three pathogens, at lower concentrations compared to the amended media experiments. In vitro volatile exposure with garlic extracts was more effective at inhibiting N. alba than direct application of the extracts. Curative and protective application of garlic extracts and clove oil for increased fungal inhibition through synergism was tested by direct and volatile exposure to the pathogens in vivo on three economically important apple cultivars; ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden Delicious’, and ‘Pink Lady’. Direct exposure of artificially wounded and inoculated fruit to the garlic extract and clove oil revealed that garlic extracts applied curatively but not protectively effectively controlled decay caused by B. cinerea and P. expansum on all apple cultivars. Both curative and protective applications were ineffective in controlling N. alba. In vivo volatile exposure to the garlic extracts and clove oil did not inhibit decay on any of the cultivars and was not effective against any of the three pathogens investigated. A full chemical profile analysis was done by GC-MS analysis of garlic extract samples. The compounds diallyl disulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide, allyl methyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide were detected in relatively high amounts. This result suggests that the abundance of sulphur and sulphur related compounds detected may be responsible for the antifungal action noted in the experimental studies. In conclusion, garlic was shown to have antifungal activity against B. cinerea, P. expansum and N. alba. The pathogens used in this study were not compared with each other, but undoubtedly each pathogens reacts differently to exposure to the garlic extracts. It would therefore be advisable to investigate the effects of the extracts on each of the pathogens in a more in-depth study. More investigations into the application of the garlic extracts is required before it may be recommended for use; however, results for the use of garlic extracts against these postharvest pathogens and the postharvest decay they cause are promising.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Appels is ‘n belangrike uitvoerproduk vir die Suid-Afrikaanse vrugtebedryf, maar noemenswaardige na-oes verliese word weens bederf deur patogeniese swamme soos Botrytis cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. en Neofabraea alba (E.J. Guthrie) ervaar. Dit raak alle partye betrokke met die produksie en verspreiding van hierdie vrugsoort. Hierdie swamme word hoofsaaklik met behulp van kunsmatige swamdoders beheer, alhoewel weerstand-ontwikkeling en wêreldwye bewusmaking van ‘n gesonder leefstyl en omgewing die gebruik van kunsmatige middels streng aanspreek en die ontwikkeling van veiliger en meer omgewingsvriendelike alternatiewe middels verlang. Plant-ekstrakte en essensiële olies kan dien as sulke middels en is natuurlike bronne van anti-mikrobiese aktiwiteit, is veilig vir menslike verbruik en het ook geen negatiewe invloed op die omgewing nie. Allium sativum (knoffel) is so ‘n plantspesie wat as alternatiewe middel gebruik kan word. Dit is bekend vir sy waarde in die verbetering van menslike gesondheid, is maklik bekombaar en word nie net as ‘n geurmiddel vir voedsel gebruik nie, maar ook as ‘n daaglikse krui-aanvulling. Gegewe die anti-mikrobiese doeltreffendheid van knoffel teenoor menslike patogene en kwale, is die werking (in vitro en in vivo) teen na-oes patogene wat grys skimmel, blou skimmel en teikenvrot in appels veroorsaak, in hierdie studie ondersoek. Bepaling van die chemiese samestelling van die knoffel-ekstrak is ook met behulp van gaschromatografie massa spektrometrie (GK-MS) onderneem.Vars knoffelbolle is vir elke eksperiment in hierdie studie gebruik met die voorbereiding van die knoffel-ekstrak. Vir die in vitro eksperiment is twee knoffel-ekstrakte voorberei, naamlik: ‘n ekstrak wat etanol bevat (Ekstrak 1) en een waarvan die etanol verwyder is met verdamping (Ekstrak 2). Die ekstrakte is getoets vir werking teen fungi in kultuur-medium.. Albei ekstrakte is verdun tot twee konsentrasie reekse (0-80%) met water en etanol as verdunningsmiddels. Albei ekstrakte het suksesvolle werking getoon teenoor die patogene ten opsigte van vertraging van miseliumgroei en spoor-ontkieming, alhoewel konsentrasies van Ekstrak 2, verdun met gesuiwerede water, patogene B. cinerea en P. expansum beter onderdruk het as Ekstrak 2 verdunnings met etanol.. Beide ekstrakte en hul afsonderlike verdunnings met etanol en water het soortgelyke resultate gelewer met onderdrukking van N. alba. Volgens resultate wat verkry is van die kultuur-medium eksperimente, is Ekstrak 2 verdun met gesuiwerde water beskou as die geskikste vir verdere toetse in hierdie studie. Die vlugtige effek van Ekstrak 2 is in vitro getoets by konsentrasies tussen 0 tot 40%. Die vlugtige stowwe van knoffel het al drie patogene se groei en spoor-ontkieming effektief onderdrukby laer konsentrasies as wat gebruik is in die kultuur-medium eksperiment. Dus is in vitro blootstelling van N. alba aan die vlugtige stowwe meer effektief as direkte toediening van die ekstrakte. Die voorkomende en beskermende effek van die knoffel-ekstrak, asook naeltjie-olie, is in vivo ondersoek om te bepaal of die stowwe saam sterker onderdrukking van die patogene kon bewerkstellig. Direkte en vlugtige blootstelling is op drie ekonomies-belangrike appel-kultivars getoets, naamlik: ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden Delicious’ en ‘Pink Lady’. Direkte blootstelling met die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie aan gewonde en ge-inokuleerde vrugte het aangedui dat B. cinerea- en P. Expansum-bederf net beheer kon word indien knoffel voorkomend toegedien is vir al die ondersoekte appel-variëteite. Voorkomende en beskermende toediening was onsuksesvolle om N. alba te beheer. In vivo blootstelling van die drie patogene aan die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie se vlugtige stowwe kon nie enige van die patogene effektief onderdruk nie en was onsuksesvol in bederf-beheer. ‘n Volledige chemiese profiel is saamgestel deur GK-MS ontleding van die knoffelekstrakte. Hoë vlakke van verbindings dialliel disulfied, alliel-metiel-tri-sulfied, alliel-metieldisulfied en dimetiel-trisulfied is bespeur. Die aantal vrye sulfied en sulfied-verwante verbindings in die ekstrak kan moontlik ‘n verduideliking bied vir die anti-swam werking waargeneem gedurende hierdie studie. Ten slotte: knoffel toon ‘n anti-swam werking teenoor B. cinerea, P. expansum en N. alba. Die patogene in hierdie studie is nie met mekaar vergelyk nie, omdat elkeen uniek en uiteenlopend op knoffel reageer het. Alhoewel die huidige studie alreeds belowende resultate gelewer het, moet die ekstrak se effek op elke patogeen onderskeidelik nog in diepte ondersoek word, asook die wyse van die toediening in die na-oes praktyk voordat hierdie middel aanbeveel kan word vir gebruik.

Pawpaw (Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal) has significant potential as a new fruit crop. During ripening, loss of firmness is extremely rapid, and this trait may be the biggest obstacle to the development of a broader market as handling without injury is difficult. Cold storage of pawpaw seems limited to 4 weeks at 4 C. A study of several cultivars with commercial appeal showed that ripening traits such as ethylene production, respiration and loss of firmness were similar in all genotypes, and that no cultivar showed superior responses to cold storage. Cold storage for longer than 4 weeks caused the development of cold injury symptoms such as black discoloration, rapid loss of firmness, impaired respiration, tissue acidification, decrease in antioxidant content, decrease in volatile ester production and development of off-flavor volatile compounds. Overall cold storage injury symptoms observed in pawpaw may be due to oxidative damage linked to the failure of the two major antioxidant systems that could protect against such damage: phenolics and the ascorbateglutamate system. With the aim of enhancing pawpaw low temperature tolerance and prolonging cold storage length, different techniques such as hot air exposure and hot water dips of fruit prior to beginning cold storage, and intermittent warming periods during cold storage, were evaluated. Despite positive results with these techniques for other commodities, all the strategies failed to appreciably alter fruit ripening, loss of firmness or maintain fruit quality during and/or after cold storage.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: By world standards South Africa’s contribution to fresh blueberry production is very small, a mere 0.25 %. This seemingly insignificant and unimpressive statistic is, however, by no means indicative of the impending impressive potential the South African blueberry industry holds. South Africa is encountering a rapid growth phase off a very small base and the current 100-150 ton export crop is expected to increase to a range of 500 to 600 tons or more in the next five years. Consequently, export by sea must be considered as a logistic alternative. Seafreight success relies on controlled atmosphere storage which in turn relies on berries of exceptional quality. To achieve this, fundamental differences between blueberry cultivars must be examined and blueberry handling and storage regimes must be assessed and optimised. This study investigates the storage potential of certain rabbiteye blueberries relative to controlled atmospheres and short pre-cooling delays. Quality assessments were based on external colour, soluble solids, titratible acidity, firmness and decay development. Furthermore, the respiration and ethylene production rates as well as moisture loss, of various cultivars were determined to characterize fundamental differences amongst cultivars and to gain insight into their postharvest behaviour. Lastly the effect of infection on pigment levels of blueberry flesh and peel was examined for the purpose of laboratory experience. Controlled atmosphere storage had the greatest impact on berry firmness and percentage decay. No off flavours were detected during sensory analysis at the CA levels tested. CAstored berries were firmer and incidence of decay was reduced significantly. Significant decay reduction was challenged by the market tolerance of no more than 2 %. Decay suppression and storage extension was insufficient (for the set period), particularly after the shelf life period. Cultivar and seasonal differences as well as picking maturity and inoculum pressure determine blueberry CA storability. CA may be a valuable technology, however advances must first be made in ensuring optimal blueberry quality to warrant export by sea. Short pre-cooling delays (0, 2, 4, 6 h) at 20 ºC had no effect on colour (L, C, H), total soluble solids, titratable acidity and firmness of blueberry cultivars, ‘Centurion’, ‘Premier’ and ‘Tifblue’. Results for percentage decay indicate that prompt cooling becomes more critical as the duration of storage increases, particularly when market specification of no more than 2 % decay must be met. Berries subjected to longer delays appear to be more susceptible to decay. Differences exist among cultivars and knowledge gained from this research can be used to adapt handling and cooling regimes. Information generated will benefit cultivar selection for marketing (local vs. export), storage (short vs. long term) and logistics (air vs. seafreight). Rabbiteye blueberry cultivars differ considerably in terms of their respiration rate, ethylene production and moisture loss. These quality parameters were evaluated for various cultivars at 15 ºC. ‘Climax’ appears to have the highest respiration rate, ethylene production and moisture loss, whilst ‘Premier’ has the lowest respiration rate and ethylene production was too low to be detected by gas chromatography. The lowest moisture loss proportionality constant was found for ‘Tifblue’ and ‘Centurion’. A change in blueberry flesh colour from white to dark red was noted in infected berries. Artificial inoculation with Botrytis cinerea showed a similar result. The colour change was evaluated by comparing anthocyanin pigment levels (determined by spectrophotometry and HPLC) of the peel and flesh. Anthocyanin content of infected flesh doubled, whilst that of infected peel was less than 50 % of the control. Pigment leakage has been reported in blueberries. It would appear that cell disruption, induced by infection may facilitate migration of anthocyanin from the peel to the flesh. The storage potential of blueberries depends on cultivar, maturity at harvest, climatic conditions as well as the inoculum pressure. Under favourable conditions storage life of blueberries can be manipulated effectively. Further cultivar specific research that targets relevant quality issues should be investigated. Reliable techniques should be developed to quantify blueberry firmness changes. Research on inoculum levels may give insight into the reduction of decay pressure and decay suppressing alternatives such as antibacterial pads can be examined. Peel integrity relative to decay susceptibility can also be researched on a cellular level.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se bydrae tot wêreld bloubessie produksie is baie klein, ‘n skrale 0.25 %. Hierdie onindrukwekkende statistiek weerspieel egter glad nie die indrukwekkende potensiaal van die Suid-Afrikaanse bloubessie bedryf nie. Die bedryf ondervind tans ‘n dramatiese groei met ‘n klein begin vanaf die huidige 100-150 ton opbrengs tot wat volgens verwagting binne die volgende vyf jaar sal styg tot in die orde van 500-600 ton. Na aanleiding van die verwagte toename in produksie, sal seevrag verskeping oorweeg moet word as alternatief vir uitvoer eerder as lugvrag. Die sukses van seevrag lê in die gebruik van beheerde atmosfeer opberging (BA), waarvan die sukses op sy beurt bepaal word deur bessies van hoogstaande kwaliteit. Om steeds aan die verwagtings van die oorsese mark te voldoen moet grondliggende verskille tussen bloubessie kultivars ondersoek word en daaropvolgend moet hantering en opbergingstelsels aangepas en geoptimeer word. Die navorsing bestudeer die opbergingspotensiaal van verskeie rabbiteye bloubessies relatief tot beheerde atmosfere en kort vertragings in verkoeling. Kwaliteit, gebasseer op eksterne kleur, oplosbare deeltjies, titreerbare sure, fermheid en persentasie bederf, is ondersoek. Die respirasie en etileenproduksie tempos sowel as vogverlies van verskeie kultivars was verder bepaal om die fundamentele verskille tussen kultivars te bepaal, sowel as insig te verwerf in na-oes gedrag. Die effek van infeksie op pigment vlakke van bloubessie vlees en skil was ondersoek vir die doel van laboratorium ondervinding. Beheerde atmosfeer opberging het die grootste effek getoon op bessie fermheid en persentasie bederf. Na aanleiding van sensoriese toetse is daar geen wansmaake aangeteken ten op sigte van die BA vlakke wat getoets is nie. Bessies onderworpe aan beheerde atmosfeeriese toestande was fermer en bederfonderdrukking was beduidend. Die markverdraagsaamheid ten opsigte van bessiebederf, is egter 2 %. Hiervolgens was onderdrukking van verval asook opbergingsvermoë, onvoldoende (spesifiek na die rakleeftyd). Kultivar en seisoenale verskille asook plukrypheid en inokulum druk, bepaal ook die sukses van BA opberging. BA word beskou as ‘n waardevolle tegnologie vir verlenging van opberging. Dit blyk egter dat daar eers ‘n vooruitgang gemaak moet word in die versekering van optimale bessie kwaliteit voordat verskeping oorweeg kan word. Kort vertragings (0, 2, 4, 6 uur by 20 ºC) in verkoeling, het geen invloed gehad op kleur, (L, C, H), totale oplosbare vastestowwe, titreerbare suur en fermheid van bloubessie kultivars ‘Centurion’, ‘Premier’ en ‘Tifblue’ nie. Bederfresultate dui daarop dat onmiddelike verkoeling krities is, veral by verlengde opberging, om aan die 2 % bederf drempelwaarde te voldoen. Bessies onderhewig aan langer vertragings voor verkoeling, blyk meer vatbaar te wees vir bederf. Verskille bestaan tussen kultivars en kennis ingewin tydens hierdie navorsing kan toegepas word om hanteringsprosedures en verkoeling aan te pas. Ingeligte besluitneming kan dus ten opsigte van kultivarspesifieke bemarking (plaaslik en uitvoer), opberging (kort- en langtermyn) en vervoer (lug- en seevrag) gemaak word. Rabbiteye bloubessie kultivars verskil aansienlik ten opsigte van hul respirasietempo, etileenproduksie en vogverlies. Laasgenoemde kwaliteitsbepalers is by verskillende kultivars ondersoek by 15 ºC. ‘Climax’ het die hoogste respirasietempo, etileenproduksie en vogverlies getoon, terwyl ‘Premier’ die laagste respirasietempo gehad het, en die etileenproduksie te laag was om met die gaschromatograaf te bepaal. Die laagste vogverlies proporsionaliteitskonstante is waargeneem tussen ‘Tifblue’ en ‘Centurion’. ‘n Verandering is waargeneem in bloubessie vrugvleeskleur van wit tot donkerrooi by besmette bessies. ‘n Soortgelyke resultaat is verkry met kunsmatige inokulering met Botrytis cinerea. Die kleurverskil is geëvalueer deur vergelyking te tref met die antosianienpigment vlakke tussen die skil en die vlees (bepaal deur spektrofotometrie en HPLC). Antosianieninhoud van besmette vrugvlees het verdubbel, terwyl die van besmette vrugskil minder as 50 % van die kontrole groep was. Pigmentlekkasie is al vermeld by bloubessies. Dit wil voorkom of selskade veroorsaak deur infeksie beweging van antosianien vanaf die skil na die vlees kan aanhelp. Die opbergingspotensiaal van bloubessies hang af van kultivar, rypheid by oes, omgewings toestande sowel as inokulum druk. Onder gunstige toestande kan bloubessies se opbergingsvermoë effektief gemanipuleer word. Verder kultivar-spesifieke navorsing wat relevante kwaliteits kwessies aanspreek, kan gedoen word. Verder kan betroubare tegnieke in die meting van bloubessie fermheid veranderinge ondersoek word. Navorsing ten opsigte van inokulum vlakke mag insig gee in terme van bederf-druk vermindering en die gebruik van bederf-onderdrukking alternatiewe soos anti-bakteriese lappies. Skil integriteit relatief tot bederf-vatbaarheid kan ook op sellulere vlak ondersoek word.

The sensing needs for the fresh produce industry can be split into two primary stages: during maturation in the field, also referred to as Precision Farming, and during storage and transport of the produce, or Postharvest Storage. This work seeks to improve the accuracy and reliability of commercially available electrochemical and spectroscopic sensors tailored to the sensing needs of the fresh produce industry. For electrochemical sensing, this study proposes the use of an inline filter to remove polar organic compounds, which can interfere with the readings of a platinum-based electrochemical sensor. A 50% improvement in measurement accuracy was achieved when monitoring the storage headspace of a container of apples. For portable spectroscopy instruments, this study suggests improvements for the alignment of the optical bench and the spectral collect protocol. Methods to reduce the influence of environmental noise, such as variability of background light (sunlight in the field) and thermal effects on hardware performance, are presented. This study also presents the first report of the calibration transfer of spectral regressions developed with Karl Norris's Derivative Quotient Method. The motivation for this aspect of research was to develop methods to collect stable and accurate data in the field, which can be used to improve the quality of fresh produce reaching the customer and reduce premature food spoilage.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Protea cut flowers are exported worldwide but the vase life of some species and cultivars is considerably shortened by post-harvest leaf blackening. Research has established carbohydrate depletion to be positively correlated with this disorder. Consequently, a study had been made of the carbohydrate status of various species and cultivars, as well as the effect of supplemental glucose (pre and post-storage) on leaf blackening. Glucose, fructose, sucrose and starch concentrations of various Protea species and cultivars held in water were measured at harvest, and again at leaf blackening initiation. All measured carbohydrates declined significantly in 'Carnival', 'Pink Ice' and 'Sheila'. In 'Cardinal' all carbohydrate concentrations decreased significantly, except the sucrose concentration in the inflorescence. 'Susara' and 'Ivy' had very high initial carbohydrate concentrations in the leaves which decreased significantly. The very high initial carbohydrate concentrations in the inflorescence of 'Ivy' declined significantly. 'Brenda' differed from the other cultivars and species in that glucose concentrations increased over time. Carbohydrate concentrations of most of the tested proteas declined significantly from harvest to the initiation of leaf blackening. This highlighted the dependence of the leaves and inflorescence on the carbohydrate reserves, further substantiating the carbohydrate depletion theory. The inflorescences were characterized by high fructose and glucose concentrations and low sucrose concentrations when compared to the leaves. It was hypothesized that glucose pulsing and cold storage at 1°C for three weeks would significantly reduce leaf blackening. 'Brenda', 'Cardinal', 'Carnival', 'Pink Ice', 'Susara ' and 'Sylvia' had significantly less leaf blackening with glucose treatments of 4 and 10%. Leaf blackening of 'Sheila', P. cynaroides and P. grandiceps was not significantly reduced by glucose pulsing. P. magnifica showed a small, but significant, reduction in leaf blackening in response to the 3, 6 and 9% treatments after 10 days only, but despite this, leaf blackening was unacceptably high. 'Pink Ice' harvested at the soft tip stage had less leaf blackening than those harvested open or closed. Toxicity symptoms on the leaves, and in some instances flowers, were observed at higher glucose concentrations (8 and 10%) onP. grandiceps, P. cynaroides, 'Cardinal' and 'Sheila'. All glucose treatments resulted in toxicity symptoms on P. magnifica. A decrease in nonstructural carbohydrates post-harvest apparently occurs in all proteas but it appears that only members of the Ligulatae respond to glucose. Glucose pulsing followed by cold storage at 1°C for three weeks in combination with post-storage glucose vase solutions, significantly reduced leaf blackening of some Protea cultivars. Glucose (1 and 2%), with hypochlorite, significantly delayed leaf blackening in 'Cardinal' and 'Sylvia' after seven days. Leaf blackening of 'Brenda', 'Carnival', 'Pink Ice' and 'Susara' was not significantly reduced by the glucose vase solutions. Other disinfectants, in combination with the sugar treatments, need to be evaluated since the hypochlorite treatment had a dehydrating effect on all the cultivars and resulted in increased leaf blackening. Carbohydrate supplementation of protea flowers with glucose, pre and post-storage, will help meet the post-harvest carbohydrate requirements of certain Protea cultivars and species to an extent. Glucose treatments must be seen in conjunction with maintaining the cold chain and when combined with cold chain maintenance, can extend the storage and vase life.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Protea snyblomme word wêreldwyd uitgevoer alhoewel die vaasleeftyd van sommige spesies en kultivars beduidend verkort word deur na-oes loof verbruining. Navorsing het koolhidraatverbruik positief gekorreleer met hierdie probleem. Gevolglik is 'n studie gemaak van die koolhidraatstatus van verskeie spesies en kultivars asook die effek van addisionele glukose (voor en na opberging) op loofverbruining. Glukose, fruktose, sukrose en stysel konsentrasies van verskeie Protea spesies en kultivars wat in water gehou is, is bepaal met oes en weer met die eerste tekens van loofverbruining. Al die gemete koolhidraatkonsentrasies het beduidend afgeneem in 'Carnival', 'Pink Ice' en 'Sheila'. In 'Cardinal' het al die koolhidraatkonsentrasies beduidend afgeneem, behalwe vir die sukrosekonsentrasie in die blom. 'Susara' en 'Ivy' het baie hoë begin koolhidraatkonsentrasies in die blare wat beduidend afneem. Die baie hoë inisiële koolhidraatkonsentrasies in die blom van 'Ivy' neem beduidend af met tyd. 'Brenda' verskil van die ander kultivars en spesies deurdat die glukosekonsentrasies toeneem met tyd. Koolhidraatkonsentrasies van die meeste getoetste proteas neem beduidend af vanaf oes totdat die eerste tekens van loofverbruining verskyn. Dit het die afhanklikheid van die blare en blom op die koolhidraatreserwes beklemtoon en daardeur verder die koolhidraatteorie ondersteun. Die blomme is gekarakteriseer deur hoë fruktose- en glukosekonsentrasies en lae sukrosekonsentrasies wanneer dit met die blare vergelyk is.Die hipotese is gestel dat die voorsiening van glukose, vir 'n aantal ure, gekombineerd met koue opberging by 1°C vir drie weke loofverbruining beduidend sal verminder. 'Brenda', 'Cardinal', 'Carnival', 'Pink lee', 'Susara' en 'Sylvia' het beduidend minder loofverbruining met glukose behandelings tussen 4 en 10%. Loofverbruining van 'Sheila', P. cynaroides en P. grandiceps is nie beduidend verminder deur glukose behandelings nie. P. magnifica het 'n klein, maar beduidende verlaging in loofverbruining getoon met die 3, 6 en 9% behandelings na 10 dae, maar ten spyte hiervan was loofverbruining onaanvaarbaar hoog. 'Pink lee' is geoes by die sagte punt stadium en het minder loofverbruining gehad as blomme wat oop of toe geoes is. Toksisiteitsimptome op die blare, en in sommige gevalle blomme, is waargeneem met hoër glukose konsentrasies (8 en 10%) op P. grandiceps, P. cynaroides, 'Cardinal' en 'Sheila'. Alle glukosebehandelings het toksisiteitsimptome tot gevolg gehad op P. magnifica. 'n Afname in nie-strukturele koolhidrate na oes kom waarskynlik voor in alle proteas maar dit wil voorkom of slegs lede van die Ligulatae positief reageer op glukose. Glukosebehandeling gevolg deur koue opberging by 1°C vir drie weke in kombinasie met na-stoor glukose vaasoplossings het loofverbruining van sommige Protea kultivars beduidend verminder. Glukose (l en 2%), saam met hipoehloriet, het loofverbruining beduidend verminder in 'Cardinal' en 'Sylvia' na sewe dae. Loofverbruining van 'Brenda', 'Carnival', 'Pink lee' en 'Susara' is nie beduidend verminder deur die glukose vaasoplossings nie. Ander ontsmettingsmiddels in kombinasie met die suikerbehandelings moet geëvalueer word aangesien die hipoehlorietbehandeling 'n dehidrerende effek op al die kultivars gehad het en 'n toename in loofverbruining tot gevolg gehad het. Byvoeging van glukose by proteablomme, voor en na opberging, sal tot 'n mate help om in die na-oes koolhidraatbehoeftes van sekere Protea kultivars en spesies te voorsien. Glukosebehandelings moet saam met die beheer van die koueketting gesien word en wanneer gekombineerd met koueketting beheer kan dit opberg en vaasleeftyd verleng.

Quality is increasingly important for retailers, who tend to look for more definitive assessment criteria. Taste has become a major issue over past years for consumers, who are seeking higher quality produce. For banana fruit, at least one major retailer is asking TSS measurement in addition to the usual assessment based on skin colour. At the same time organic produce sales are increasingly important for ripeners and retailers to consumers. This study investigated variability in banana pulp with regard to sampling position from proximal, middle and distal portions. Also two different devices, the traditional pocket refractometer and the digital refractometer were evaluated. TSS was measured on juice obtained directly from the pulp, as practised by one supermarket representative, versus the more conventional method of homogenizing pulp samples in distilled water. Finally, a comparison of postharvest qualities of conventionally and organically grown banana fruit from nearby plantations in the Dominican Republic was made. This comparison involved several harvest times over the seasonal period from February to June 2001. Green mature Cavendish bananas var. Grand Nain were imported from the Dominican Republic by SH Pratt’s & Co. (Luton, UK). Both the conventionally and the organically grown bananas from the same area were held at about 15 degrees C during shipping and handling. The fruit were then ripened in a postharvest laboratory in the UK with a shot of 100 muL/L ethylene applied for 48 hours at 20 ±1 degree C. They were then assessed over 12 days of shelf life at this same temperature and at 60 ±10 % relative humidity. Fruit weight (g), colour (L* and H degrees), acidity (ml of 0.1 N NaOH), firmness (N) and TSS (%Brix) were assessed every second day during shelf life. In addition, starch breakdown was visualised by dipping slices of banana in iodine solution. Sensory analysis on the ripened fruit was also made with 30 panellists for four out of six of the harvest times.

The determination of storage conditions leading to optimum quality attributes and extended postharvest life of sweetcorn is essential. The increased consumption and consequently the need for greater consumer satisfaction have resulted in the introduction of supersweet sweetcorn. The present study, aimed to report on the effects of various postharvest factors on biochemical and texture-related characteristics of supersweet sweetcorn cultivars as current knowledge is still incomplete. Validation and optimisation of commonly used methods for the analysis of target compounds in sweetcorn was also an objective of the current work. The methods developed for the analysis of the target analytes (viz. ferulic acid, individual carotenoids, non-structural carbohydrates and vitamin C) were considered suitable. However, the Folin-Ciocalteu assay and the ferric ion reducing power assay, as methods for the determination of total phenolic content and total antioxidant capacity of sweetcorn, respectively, were shown as not appropriate for sweetcorn analysis. Documentation on firmness and biochemical compounds as affected by cooking and the interaction with various storage conditions is still limited. The current project was the first to extensively monitor quality changes in firmness, and other quality attributes under cooking conditions. Results revealed that increased cooking time resulted in greater ferulic acid content and a significant decline in firmness and qualityrelated target analytes such as L-ascorbic acid and carotenoids, yet no change in sugars was observed. The firmest kernels were reported to be those located in the central part of the cobs, which is also the preferred edible portion for consumers. Surprisingly, spatial sugar profiles indicated higher total sugar content in non-edible tissues (viz. core and shank), rather than kernels and the implications of this are discussed. Predictably, higher storage temperature and the longer storage period resulted in lower quality, yet genotype, controlled atmosphere and origin of the cobs were significant sources of variation for sugar content and firmness of kernels. The presence of husks (i.e. non-removal) on sweetcorn cobs promoted the retention of sugar content and colour over storage. Recommendations for improved methods for the measurement of target analytes leading to valid conclusions about optimum storage conditions are also included.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Red colour development on bi-coloured apples and pears ensures better prices for producers. The use of postharvest irradiation to improve colour has been successful on apples, and the objectives of this thesis were to optimise conditions during irradiation for apples and to evaluate the effects of irradiation on pears. 'Cripp's Pink' apples responded to postharvest irradiation with high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights by developing a red blush, whereas the response to irradiation with UV 8 plus incandescent lights was less effective. '8raeburn' apples held at -0.5°C for 4 or 8 weeks prior to irradiation showed a decrease in hue angle and an increase in anthocyanin concentration after 72 hours of irradiation with HPS lamps. In 'Forelle' pears treated in the same way, neither colour development nor anthocyanin synthesis was affected by irradiation. '8raeburn' and 'Cripp's Pink' apples picked weekly for 5 weeks until the optimum harvest date were irradiated with HPS lights. A significant increase in fruit colour was only measured in mature fruit of both cultivars. 'Cripp's Pink' apples were harvested from two production areas with different microclimates, namely, Ceres and Grabouw, and stored for 0, 2 or 5 days at -0.5 °C before irradiation for 120 hours at either 6°C or 20°C. Fruit from Ceres that were irradiated immediately after harvest developed better colour at 6 °C than at 20°C. The differences between fruit irradiated at the two temperatures were no longer significant after 5 days of cold storage prior to irradiation. Fruit from Grabouw consistently developed better colour when irradiated at 6°C than at 20°C. Colour development slightly after 5 days of cold storage prior to irradiation. In another experiment, fruit from both areas were stored at -0.5°C for 20 days before irradiation at either 6°C or 6/20°C. The fluctuating temperature regime resulted in decreases in hue angle of 70° and 65° for the fruit from Grabouw and Ceres, respectively. The decreases were smaller (±200) when fruit were irradiated at 6°C. The hue angle value of well-coloured 'Cripp's Pink' apples held at 3rC under HPS lights for 144 hours increased from 29.3° to 48.3°, and anthocyanin concentration decreased from 739.9 IJg·g·1to 283.6 IJg·g·1. Control fruit held at the same temperature in the dark did not show any change in hue angle value or anthocyanin concentration. 'Bon Rouge' and 'Red d' Anjou', two full red pear cultivars, irradiated with HPS lights for 72 hours, showed no significant changes in hue angle. 'Forelle' pears, harvested with or without attached leaves, were irradiated with HPS at two temperature regimes, 20°C and 200/6°C. The resulting decreases in hue angle were attributed to yellowing and not red colour formation. In conclusion, the response of apples to postharvest irradiation was affected by maturity and temperature, while pears failed to respond at all.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Rooikleurontwikkeling van twee-kleur appels en pere verseker beter pryse vir die produsente. Na-oesbestraling om kleur te verbeter is al suksesvol uitgevoer op appels, en die doelwit van hierdie tesis was om die kondisies vir appels gedurende bestraling te optimaliseer en om die effek van bestraling op pere te evalueer. 'Cripp's Pink' appels het reageer op na-oesbestraling met hoëdruk-natriumligte (HDN) deur 'n rooi blos te ontwikkel, terwyl die reaksie op bestraling met UV-B plus gloeilamplig minder effektief was. 'Braebum' appels opgeberg by -O.5aC vir 4 of 8 weke voor bestraling het 'n afname in die kleurskakeringswaarde getoon, asook 'n toename in antosianienkonsentrasie na 72 uur se bestraling met HDN ligte. 'Forelle' pere wat dieselfde behandeling ontvang het, het geen kleurontwikkeling en geen antosianienontwikkeling getoon na bestraling nie. 'Braebum' en 'Cripp's Pink' appels wat weekliks geoes is vir 5 weke tot die optimum oesdatum is bestraal met HDN ligte. Slegs die volwasse vrugte van beide kultivars het 'n betekenisvolle toename in kleur getoon. 'Cripp's Pink' appels is geoes in twee produksie areas met verskillende mikroklimate, naamlik Ceres en Grabouw. Vrugte is opgeberg vir 0, 2 of 5 dae by -O.5aC voor bestraling vir 120 uur by of 6aC of 20aC. Vrugte van Ceres wat onmiddellik na oes bestraal is het beter kleur ontwikkel by 6aC as by 20aC. Kleurontwikkeling by vrugte bestraal by 6 of 20aC het nie verskil wanneer vrugte vooraf opgeberg was by -~5ac vir 5 dae nie. Vrugte van Grabouw het konstant beter kleur pntwikkel wanneer bestraling by 6°C eerder as 20°C plaasgevind het. In die volgende eksperiment, was beide die vrugte van Ceres en Grabouw vir 20 dae opgeberg by -o.soC voor bestraling by 6°C of 6°/20°C. Die flukturerende temperatuur regime het afnames van 70° en 65° in kleurskakeringswaarde getoon vir die vrugte van Grabouw en Ceres, respektiewelik. Die afname was kleiner (±200)wanneer vrugte by 6°C bestraal is. 'Cripp's Pink' appels wat goed gekleur was en opgeberg is by 3rC terwyl dit blootgestel is aan HDN ligte vir 144 uur, het 'n toename van 29.30 tot 48.3° getoon vir die kleurskakeringswaarde, en antosianienkonsentrasie het afgeneem van 739 I'g.g-1 tot 283.6 I1g.g-1. Die kontrole vrugte opgeberg by dieselfde temperatuur in die donker het geen verandering in beide die kleurskakeringswaarde of die antosianienkonsentrasie getoon nie. 'Bon Rouge' en 'Red d' Anjou', twee volrooi peerkultivars, is bestraal met HDN ligte vir 72 uur en het geen betekenisvolle verandering in kleur getoon nie. 'Forelle' pere, geoes met of sonder 'n aangehegte stingelsegment, is bestraal met HDN ligte by twee verskillende temperatuur regimes, nl. 20°C of 20/6°C. Die afname in kleurskakeringswaarde is aan vergeling toegeskryf eerder as aan rooikleurontwikkeling. Ter opsomming, die reaksie van appels op na-oes bestraling is beïnvloed deur rypheid en temperatuur, terwyl pere geen reaksie getoon het nie.

Difficulties in controlling and forecasting avocado fruit ripening and the highly perishable nature of the crop once harvested, are the major causes of concern for avocado traders. In particular, the simultaneous presence of many suppliers may account for increased fruit variability during ripening. Avocado is a climacteric fruit with consistent ethylene production after harvest which is also related to high perishability. However, the mechanisms regulating ethylene biosynthesis and mesocarp softening are not completely understood. In order to study such effects, avocado fruit from different growing areas and harvested at various maturity stages, were investigated and the biochemical and physiological changes during ripening at both 18 and 23°C were studied. Mesocarp softening and fatty acid content discriminated fruit maturity and growing area, respectively, whereas C7 sugars (D-mannoheptulose and perseitol) discriminated length of fruit shelf life. For the first time, oleic acid content presents in the oil mesocarp was found to depend on fruit sources making of this a suitable indicator of avocado fruit growing area. In contrast, sugar content declined along fruit maturity and ripening. In particular the mannoheptulose presents in avocado mesocarp might be use to estimate avocado fruit shelf life. Indeed, fruit harvested late in season were found to have a lower C7 content than earlier harvest fruit and a faster softening, regardless fruit source. However, sugars content changed between growing area, thus a general C7 threshold defining fruit storability seems to be not definable. Furthermore, other possible indicators of fruit maturity and/or ripening stage have been searched in the cell wall constituents of avocado mesocarp. Thus, the structural carbohydrates profile of avocado mesocarp investigated with a new immunological method changed during ripening and harvest time (early and late season), suggesting a possible effect of cell wall composition on fruit ripening regulation. Also, the possible use of ethylene application in reducing the high heterogeneity noted on imported fruit from South Africa was also evaluated through different consignments. Results showed ethylene efficacy changed depending on harvest time and fruit dimension with less efficacy of the treatment on fruit harvested at the end of the season and characterised by smaller size.One of the most commercialized avocado cultivars, Hass, is peculiar in that its skin colour changes from green to deep purple as ripening progresses. The most common ripening indicator of avocado fruit is the mesocarp firmness and the destructive nature of this evaluation increases losses in the avocado industry. The availability of a non-destructive indicator of fruit ripening represents an important advantage for avocado consumers and importers. Thus, the possible relationship between mesocarp softening, skin colour were objectively evaluated (C*, L*, and H°), and the main pigment, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, was investigated. Cyanidin 3-Oglucoside was confirmed to be the main anthocyanin present in avocado cv. Hass peel, regardless of preharvest factors. However, differences in its content were noted between shelf life temperatures. A higher relationship between hue angle and firmness was detected in late harvest fruit, whereas no correlation was found between anthocyanin content and firmness. Avocado skin is also involved in defence mechanisms due to the presence of antifungal and phenolic compounds. These phenolic compounds represent a natural protection against pathogenic infections and seem to be down regulated during ripening. The main phenolics were identified and quantified, using a new analytical method which was validated and optimised. Epicatechin, chlorogenic acid and procyanidin B2 were found to be present in the skin tissue and quantified using this assay and found to vary during shelf life and seasons. Although phenolics were present in minor amounts, in avocado pulp they are involved in mesocarp discoloration incidence, and therefore with fruit postharvest quality. Due to a lack of information, a new straightforward method for the identification and quantification of the main phenolics present in avocado mesocarp was developed. Finally, a commercial trial was undertaken to ensure that the results obtained in the laboratory can be reproduced in the market place. In conclusion, postharvest markers can define avocado fruit maturity and growing area and give guidelines in the control of avocado shelf life. Moreover, new methods for the investigation of the phenolic profiles (peel and mesocarp) and the characterisation of cell wall structures can be further tools in the management of avocado fruit postharvest quality.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico
Avaliou-se a vida Ãtil pÃs-colheita de melÃes Cantaloupe, hÃbrido âTorreonâ, submetidos à aplicaÃÃo pÃs-colheita de 1-MCP em diferentes concentraÃÃes (0, 300 e 600 ppb) e dois perÃodos distintos de exposiÃÃo ao gÃs (6 e 12 horas), colhidos em dois diferentes estÃdios de maturaÃÃo (50 e 75% de rachadura do pedÃnculo) mantidos em armazenamento refrigerado durante 21 dias e 28 dias, visando exportaÃÃo. Os frutos foram colhidos em fazendas de MossorÃ, RN-Brasil, sendo analisados nos LaboratÃrios de Fisiologia e Tecnologia PÃs-colheita da Embrapa AgroindÃstria Tropical e de Frutos Tropicais do Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos da Universidade Federal do CearÃ, em Fortaleza- CE. Para o monitoramento da qualidade dos frutos durante a armazenagem, determinaÃÃes quanto à perda de massa acumulada e firmeza externa e interna foram efetuadas, alÃm de avaliaÃÃo visual de aceitaÃÃo segundo escala de notas; onde se atribui notas relativas à cor externa, firmeza, incidÃncia de podridÃes e aparÃncia geral. Foram realizadas as anÃlises fÃsico-quÃmicas de clorofila total, aÃÃcares solÃveis totais, aÃÃcares redutores, carotenÃides totais, coloraÃÃo da polpa, conteÃdo de sÃlidos solÃveis totais, acidez total (AT) e pH. Segundo a avaliaÃÃo visual, a aplicaÃÃo do 1-MCP retardou a perda de firmeza e de coloraÃÃo verde dos frutos, bem como a incidÃncia de podridÃes. A manutenÃÃo da firmeza foi confirmada atravÃs da analise em texturÃmetro. Frutos tratados com 1-MCP apresentaram maior firmeza do que os frutos controle e esse resultado foi mais efetivo com o aumento da dosagem.
It was evaluated useful life postharvest Cantaloupe melons, hybrid `Torreon', submitted to the application postharvest of 1-MCP at different concentrations (0, 300 and 600 ppb) and two periods of exposition to the gas (6 and 12 hours),harvested in two different stadiums of maturation (50 and 75% stalk abscission layer) kept in storage cooled during 21 days and 28 days, aiming at exportation. The fruits were harvested in farms at MossorÃ, RN-Brazil, being analyzed in the Laboratories of Physiology and Technology Postharvest of the Embrapa Tropical AgroindÃstria and of Tropical Fruits of the Department of Food Technology of the Federal University of the CearÃ, in Fortaleza-CE. For the monitoring of the quality of the fruits during storage, its physical characterization how much to the loss of accumulated mass and external and internal firmness beyond visual evaluation acceptance second scale was made notes; in this scale if external color attributes to relative notes Ã, firmness, incidence of podridÃes and general appearance. Physical chemical analysis were performed of total chlorophyll content, soluble sugars, reducing sugars, totals carotenoids, coloration of the pulp, total soluble solid content, totals acidity (AT) and pH. According to visual evaluation, the application of the 1-MCP delayed the loss of firmne ss and green coloration of the fruits, as well as the incidence of rottenness. The maintenance of the firmness was confirmed through analyzes physical in the device texturometer. Fruits dealt with 1-MCP had presented greater firmness of that the fruits have controlled and this result was more effective with the increase of the dosage.

Dissertation (PhD (Agric))--University of Stellenbosch, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Leaf blackening is a particular problem limiting vase life and marketability of Protea cut flowers. This research investigated suppression of Protea leaf blackening with a specific focus on Protea cv. Sylvia (P. eximia x P. susannae) cut flowers. Leaf blackening decreased significantly with decreasing storage temperatures m 'Sylvia' proteas and this was attributed to lower respiration rate and conservation of carbohydrate. Low storage temperatures were beneficial in short term handling procedures encountered during airfreight. However, use of low temperatures alone during the longer sea freight period was unsatisfactory in either maintaining or extending 'Sylvia' protea vase life. Cooling of 'Sylvia' proteas under vacuum significantly suppressed leaf blackening and was of greater benefit than forced air cooling. Although removal of the uppermost leaves delayed leaf blackening in short term storage no significant benefit was found for longer storage periods. Girdling directly beneath the 'Sylvia' protea flowerhead significantly reduced leaf blackening and in combination with low storage temperatures (O°C) enabled a significant extension in both storage and vase life of 'Sylvia' proteas. 'Sylvia' proteas did not exhibit a climacteric respiration peak during 96 h storage at O°C. Exposure to ethylene did not increase Protea leaf blackening or have a detrimental effect on vase life of either proteas or pincushions evaluated. No beneficial response to sucrose supplementation was found in 'Sylvia' proteas. Analysis of the sugar content of both flowerhead and leaves indicated that glucose supplementation might be of benefit and was investigated. Holding solutions of 2.5 % glucose significantly extended vase life due to a significant reduction in leaf blackening. Vase life was terminated due to flowerhead collapse instead of leaf blackening for the first time in 'Sylvia' protea cut flowers. Vase life was significantly extended by 2:3% glucose pulse solutions and leaf blackening significantly suppressed with increasing glucose pulse concentration. Solution uptake was facilitated by use of high intensity PAR lights in the early morning and was attributed to increased stomata opening and a consequent increase in both transpiration and glucose solution uptake. The faster uptake of glucose solutions in shoots harvested in the afternoon was attributed to higher shoot temperatures and consequent transpiration rate to those harvested in the morning. There was a significant reduction in uptake time with increasing pulse temperature, which enabled vacuum cooling to be performed earlier further benefiting storage and vase life extension. Enclosure of 'Sylvia' proteas in polyethylene (PE) lined cartons did suppress leaf blackening in non-pulsed shoots. However, this had no practical significance on useful vase life, which was terminated at this point due to excessive leaf blackening. Water loss appears to have a minimal influence on 'Sylvia' protea leaf blackening. Shading at four and three weeks prior to harvest coincided with a period of significant flowerhead dry mass increase. It is thought that shading at this point, concurrent with an increased carbohydrate demand by the developing flower head resulted in a temporary limitation in carbohydrate supply resulting in the appearance of preharvest leaf blackening. It would appear that proteas do not store large quantities of carbohydrate. Although accentuating winter light conditions by shading did result in a decrease in carbohydrate content the fact that carbohydrate content was already low precluded shading from having a significant impact on postharvest leaf blackening. The finding that glucose was beneficial in extension of both storage and vase life of 'Sylvia' proteas directed research into its use for other Protea and Leucospermum cut flowers. Significant differences in the response to glucose supplementation were found in both Protea and Leucospermum (pincushions). The significant difference in sensitivity to glucose concentration in 'Pink Ice' proteas (phytotoxic at 2:4%) and 'Susara' proteas (no apparent toxicity), in conjunction with a lack of response in 'Cardinal' proteas, a hybrid from the same parents as 'Sylvia' indicates the need to direct future research to individual cultivars. Glucose supplementation had no beneficial effect on vase life of 'Scarlet Ribbon' and 'Tango' pincushions, whilst significantly extending vase life of 'Cordi', 'Gold Dust', 'High Gold' and 'Succession' pincushions.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Blaarverswarting is 'n spesifieke probleem wat die vaasleeftyd en die bemarkbaarheid van Protea snyblomme beperk. In hierdie navorsing is ondersoek ingestel na die onderdrukking van Protea blaarverswarting met spesifieke fokus op die snyblomme van die kv. Sylvia (P. eximia x P. susannae). Die voorkoms van blaarverswarting by 'Sylvia' het merkbaar afgeneem tydens die verlaging van bergingstemperature. Hierdie afname is toegeskryf aan 'n laer respirasietempo en die behoud van koolhidrate. Lae bergingstemperature in die korttermyn hantering van die produk tydens lugvrag was voordelig. Die gebruik van lae temperature, slegs tydens die langer verskeepingsperiode, was egter onbevredigend vir vaasleeftyd verlenging en onderhoud van 'Sylvia' protea. Die afkoeling van 'Sylvia' proteas onder vakuum het blaarverswarting in 'n groot mate onderdruk en het beter resultate gelewer as geforseerde lugverkoeling. Alhoewel die verwydering van die heel boonste blare blaarverswarting by korttermynopberging vertraag het, het dit geen merkbare voordele vir langer bergingsperiodes ingehou nie. Ringelering direk onder die blomkop van die 'Sylvia' protea het blaarverswarting aansienlik verminder, en saam met lae bergingstemperature (O°C) het dit 'n merkbare verlenging in beide die bergingstyd en die vaasleeftyd van 'Sylvia' proteas teweeggebring. 'Sylvia' proteas het geen klimakteriese respirasiekruin tydens 'n bergingsperiode van 96 uur teen O°C getoon nie. Blootstelling aan etileen het nie die Protea blaarverswarting laat toeneem of 'n nadelige effek op die vaasleeftyd van die proteas of speldekussings wat geevalueer is, gehad nie. Geen voordelige reaksie op sukrose-byvoeging is in 'Sylvia' proteas gevind nie. 'n Analise van die suikerinhoud van beide die blomkoppe en die blare het aangetoon dat 'n glukose-byvoeging moontlik voordelig kon wees, en hierdie aspek is ondersoek. Met stooroplossings van 2,5 % glukose is die vaasleeftyd aansienlik verleng omdat daar 'n merkbare afname in blaarverswarting was. Vir die eerste keer in die geval van die 'Sylvia' protea, het die vaasleeftyd van die snyblomrne tot 'n einde gekom omdat die blornkoppe uitmekaar gebreek het en nie omdat blaarverswarting ingetree het nie. Die vaasleeftyd is aansienlik verleng met ~ 3% glukose-pulsoplossings, en blaarverswarting is merkbaar onderdruk met die verhoging van hierdie oplossings se glukosekonsentrasie. Die opname van die oplossings is gefasiliteer deur hoe intensiteit PAR (fotosinteties-aktiewe radiasie) ligte vroeg in die oggend, en is toegeskryf daaraan dat meer huidmondjies oopgegaan het. Dit het gelei tot 'n toename in transpirasie en 'n toename in die opname van die glukose-oplossing. Die feit dat glukose-oplossings vinniger opgeneem is deur lote wat in die middag geoes is, is toegeskryf daaraan dat loottemperature dan hoer is as soggens en gevolglik lei tot 'n vinniger transpirasietempo. Daar was 'n merkbare afname in die opnametyd wanneer die temperatuur van die pulsoplossings verhoog is. Vakuumafkoeling kon dus vroeer toegepas word, wat 'n verlenging in bergingstyd en vaasleeftyd tot gevolg gehad het. Verpakking van 'Sylvia' proteas in kartonne wat met poli-etileen uitgevoer is, het blaarverswarting van lote wat nie aan pulsering onderwerp is nie, onderdruk. Hierdie maatreel het egter geen praktiese waarde met betrekking tot vaasleeftyd nie; die vaasleeftyd het tot 'n einde gekom as gevolg van omvangryke blaarverswarting. Dit lyk asof waterverlies weinig invloed het op die blaarverswarting van' Sylvia' proteas. Die vermoede bestaan dat lae koolhidraatvlakke proteas ontvanklik maak vir blaarverswarting. Alhoewel die beklemtoning van winterligtoestande deur beskaduwing gelei het tot 'n afname in koolhidraatinhoud, was hierdie inhoud reeds laag en blaarverswarting na die oes is nie beinvloed nie. Beskaduwing tydens die vier en drie weke voor oestyd het saamgeval met 'n tydperk van aansienlike toename in die droe massa van die blomkop. Die vermoede bestaan dat beskaduwing tydens hierdie fase, saam met die toename in die ontwikkelende blomkop se behoefte aan koolhidrate, aanleiding gegee het tot 'n tydelike beperking in koolhidraatvoorraad wat die voorkoms van blaarverswarting voor die oes tot gevolg gehad het. Die bevinding dat glukose voordelig is vir die verlenging van beide die bergingstyd en die vaasleeftyd van 'Sylvia' proteas het die navorsing gerig om ook ondersoek in te stel na die gebruik daarvan vir ander Protea en Leucospermum snyblomme. Merkbare veranderinge is gevind in die reaksie op glukosebyvoegings in beide Protea en Leucospermum (speldekussings). Die opmerklike verskil in sensitiwiteit vir glukosekonsentrasie in 'Pink Ice' proteas (fitotoksies by ~ 4%) en 'Susara' proteas (geen klaarblyklike toksisiteit), saam met 'n gebrek aan reaksie by 'Cardinal' proteas, 'n hibried van dieselfde ouers as 'Sylvia', dui aan dat verdere navorsing op individuele kultivars toegespits sal rnoet word. Glukosebyvoegings het geen voordelige uitwerking op die vaasleeftyd van 'Scarlet Ribbon' en 'Tango' speldekussings gehad nie, terwyl dit die vaasleeftyd van 'Cordi', 'Gold Dust', 'High Gold' en 'Succession' speldekussingkultivars merkbaar verIeng het.

The purpose of this study was to determine the quality and microbial load of blueberries at different maturity stages, to develop the effective microbial recovery method and to compare sanitation postharvest treatments on microbial counts of blueberries. The soluble solids and the sugar to acid ratio increased, while pH and TA decreased with maturity. Ripe berries had lower yeast and mold counts (YMC) at other maturity stages, but there were no differences on aerobic plate counts (APC). The medium pH was lower for stomaching and blending than hand massaged samples. This leads to higher recovery of microorganisms by massaging. Sodium hypochlorite at 400 ppm was effective in reducing APC but not YMC. Acidified sodium chloride was very effective, lowering APC and YMC below detectable level. All sanitation treatment did not influence sensory attributes of blueberries.

The market life of many fruits and vegetables can be extended through storage at low temperatures. Chilling injury (CI) is a major postharvest storage problem for tropical commodities. Storing these products at temperatures below their critical temperature may result in severe physiological disorders known as CI symptoms. Mangoes (Mangifera indica. L) are susceptible to CI when stored below 12 °C. Visual CI symptoms include uneven ripening, surface pitting, discoloration, shriveling and scalding. Research has been conducted to overcome these serious problems using various postharvest treatments such as hot water, methyl jasmonate (MJ) or diphenylamine (DPA) with some reduction of the incidence of CI symptoms in fruits and vegetables.
Experiments were performed to assess and compare the potential of the above-mentioned postharvest treatments to reduce the CI symptoms on mango cv. Kent. The obtained results indicated that MJ- and DPA-treatments gave significantly greater percentage of marketable fruits.
Experiments were also conducted with mangoes cv. Tommy Atkins treated with MJ and DPA before storing at low temperatures (1, 4, 7 and 10°C). The chemical treatments were successful at reducing CI symptoms of mangoes. Fruit decay was reduced during subsequent ripening. MJ-treated fruits had lower mass loss and higher total soluble solids (TSS) than the control treatment. The overall quality of MJ- and DPA-treated fruits was good with lower surface pitting and scalding compared with the control treatment. The best results were obtained at storage temperatures of 7 and 10°C. Both MJ and DPA postharvest treatments can reduce CI symptoms in mangoes cvs. Kent and Tommy Atkins when the mangoes are stored at below critical temperature.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Rind colour is one of the most important external quality characteristics of citrus fruit and plays an important role in purchasing decisions by consumers. Consumers perceive brightlycoloured fruit to be sweet and mature, whereas citrus with a green rind is perceived to be sour and immature. However, there is a poor correlation between rind colour and internal quality, contradicting what is generally assumed by the fruit-buying public. In general, a bright orange rind colour improves consumer acceptance. Thus, it is important to ensure that the rind of citrus fruit is well-coloured on arrival at the market. Various pre-harvest cultural practices and postharvest techniques can be applied to improve rind colour. Degreening with ethylene gas is the most commonly used postharvest technology to improve rind colour, but has various negative side-effects. Degreened fruit are more prone to decay, have rinds which appear dull and flaccid, have been reported to develop off-flavours and have a shorter shelf-life period. Therefore, it is necessary to find alternatives to ethylene degreening and to extend shelf-life of citrus fruit. Under normal orchard conditions, rind colour development is associated with low night temperatures, usually experienced during autumn or following the passing of a cold front. To simulate cold front conditions, a hydrocooler and cold room were used to rapidly drop fruit temperature to 4 ºC for 6 hours, and then fruit were incubated at 20 to 22 ºC for 72 hours. This “cold shock” treatment of ‘Nules Clementine’ mandarin improved rind colour to a level similar to that of degreened fruit in the 2002 season due to a decrease in chlorophyll content and increase in carotenoid content. However, this result could not be repeated. Storage temperature is one of the most important postharvest factors affecting rind colour. Citrus fruit shipped to export markets requiring low temperatures (-0.6 ºC) for pest disinfestations purposes have been reported to arrive with poor rind colour. Shipping under low temperatures results in poor rind colour of fruit on arrival in the market. To comply with the USA’s phytosanitary requirement for imported citrus, fruit is held at -0.6 ºC for a minimum of 22 days. The effect of shipping at various temperatures (-0.6 ºC or 4.5 ºC), durations and the influence of initial rind colour, “orange” or “yellow”, on fruit colour upon arrival in the market was evaluated. Fruit shipped at a higher temperature (4.5 ºC) had a marginally better rind colour than fruit shipped at -0.6 ºC. The perceived loss of rind colour following shipping at sub-zero temperatures is probably due to carotenoid degradation. Therefore, initial rind colour plays a critical role in final product quality. Depending on market destination and shipping temperature, pale-coloured fruit should not be packed for markets sensitive to rind colour. Holding temperature after shipping can be effectively used to improve the rind colour of fruit arriving in the market with undesirable rind colour. An intermediate holding temperature of between 11 and 15 ºC resulted in the greatest improvement in rind colour after 2 weeks. A high holding temperature (20 ºC) caused colour degradation, whereas a low holding temperature (4.5 ºC) resulted in the maintenance of rind colour. By selecting the correct holding temperature, even after shipping at sub-zero temperatures, final colour can be improved.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Tyd-temperatuur interaksie op na-oes skilkleur ontwikkeling by sitrus Skilkleur is een van die belangrikste eksterne kwaliteitseienskappe van die sitrusvrug en spëel ʼn belangrikke rol in wat verbruikers koop. Verbruikers verwag dat heldergekleurde vrugte soet en ryp sal wees, terwyl sitrus met ʼn groen skil geassosieer word met onrypheid en ʼn suur smaak. In teenstelling hiermee is daar egter ʼn swak korrelasie tussen skilkleur en interne kwaliteit. Aangesien ʼn heldergekleurde oranje skil verbruikersaanvaarding verbeter, is dit dus belangrik om te verseker dat die sitrusvrug ʼn goeie skilkleur het teen die tyd wat dit die mark bereik. Verskeie voor-oes bestuurspraktyke en na-oes tegnieke kan toegepas word om die skilkleur te verbeter. Ontgroening met etileen gas is die tegnologie wat mees algemeen gebruik word om skilkleur na oes te verbeter, maar dit het egter verskeie newe effekte tot gevolg. Ontgroende vrugte is meer vatbaar vir bederf en verwelkde skille met ʼn dowwe voorkoms. Afsmaake kan voorkom en ʼn verkorte rakleeftyd is al gerapporteer. Dit is dus noodsaaklik om ʼn alternatief vir etileen ontgroening te ontwikkel en die rakleeftyd van sitrusvrugte te verleng. Onder normale boordomstandighede word skilkleur ontwikkeling geassosieer met lae nag temperature wat gewoonlik in die herfs of na ʼn kouefront ondervind word. Om soortgelyke omstandighede na te boots, was ʼn “hydrocooler” en koelkamers gebruik om die temperatuur vinnig te laat daal tot by 4 °C en dit vir 6 uur daar te hou. Die vrugte was dan by 20 tot 22 °C geinkubeer vir 72 uur. Hierdie “koueskok” behandeling van ‘Nules Clementine’ mandaryn het skilkleur verbeter tot ʼn vlak vergelykbaar met ontgroende vrugte in die 2002 seisoen wat ontstaan het weens ʼn verlaging in chlorofil en ʼn toename in die karotinoïed inhoud van die skil. Opbergingstemperatuur is een van die belangrikste na-oes faktore wat skilkleur beinvloed. Sitrusvrugte wat verskeep word na uitvoermarkte wat lae temperature (-0.6 °C) vir disinfestasie vereis arriveer soms by die mark met ʼn swak skilkleur. Om die fitosanitêre vereistes vir die invoer van sitrus deur die VSA na tekom, was vrugte vir ʼn minimum van 22 dae by -0.6 °C gehou. Die effek van verskeping by verskeie temperature (-0.6 °C of 4.5 °C), tydperke en die invloed van aanvanklike skilkleur, “oranje” of “geel” was geevalueer by aankoms in die mark. Vrugte wat by hoër temperature (4.5 °C) verskeep was het ʼn effens beter skilkleur as vrugte by -0.6 °C getoon. Die verlies in skilkleur wat waargeneem word na verskeping onder vriespunt kan moontlik toegeskryf word aan karotenoiëd afbraak. Daarom speel aanvanklike skilkleur ʼn kritieke rol in finale produk kwaliteit. Die finale mark bestemming en verskepingstemperatuur sal bepaal of swakgekleurde vrugte verpak kan word. Opbergingstemperatuur na verskeping kan effektief gebruik word om die skilkleur van vrugte wat swak gekleur was met aankoms by die mark te verbeter. Matige temperature tussen 11 en 15 °C het na 2 weke die beste verbetering in skilkleur gelewer. Hoër temperature (20 °C) het skilkleur nadelig beinvloed, terwyl lae temperature skilkleur behou het. Deur die korrekte temperatuur te kies, selfs na verskeping by temperature onder vriespunt, kan uiteindelike skilkleur steeds verbeter word.

[EN] In recent years, persimmon crop has become very relevant in Mediterranean Spain, where the production of this fruit centres on only one variety, persimmon cv. Rojo Brillante, majorly located in the Valencian Community. The main postharvest disorders manifested by 'Rojo Brillante' persimmons are flesh browning, which is associated with mechanical damage and chilling injury displayed after low-temperature storage. Previous research has determined the postharvest conditions that lead fruit to develop such alterations. However, the biochemical process behind flesh browning and chilling injury disorders is still unknown. Currently, there is special interest in introducing cultivars from other countries to broaden the varietal range. Besides, prolonging the fruit storage period to supply the markets according to the demand is one of the main challenges. In this context, the present Thesis approached three main objectives: 1) Studying the biochemical process implied in the main physiological postharvest disorders manifested in persimmon fruits by focusing on changes in the fruit redox state; 2) Evaluating postharvest treatments to preserve fruit quality during cold storage; 3) Assessing the physico-chemical and nutritional quality of persimmon cultivars introduced from other countries to increase the varietal range. Biochemical, chromatographic and microstructural studies have revealed that flesh browning manifested by fruits submitted to mechanical damage after removing astringency is associated with a tannins oxidation process caused by a stress oxidative situation. A new flesh disorder, "pinkish bruising", has been described on fruits submitted to mechanical impacts while showing high astringency levels. Sensitiveness to the flesh browning disorder has also been evaluated on different cultivars introduced from other countries. The implication of the redox system in the chilling injury manifestation on 'Rojo Brillante' persimmon has been determined. Moreover, we described the changes in this system associated with chilling injury alleviation by 1-MCP treatment. The effect of a controlled atmosphere based on 4-5% O2 + N2 to prolong the storage of cultivars 'Rojo Brillante' and 'Triumph' has been seen to strongly depend on variety. The results were highly positive on cultivar 'Triumph', in which the evaluated atmosphere extended the storage period up to 3 months. The use of short-term high CO2 treatments was another technology assayed to alleviate chilling injury in non-astringent cultivar 'Fuyu'. This treatment significantly reduced the main chilling injury symptom manifested by this cultivar, which is flesh gelling. This effect was related to cell structure preservation. Recent studies have shown that ethyl formate treatment is highly effective for pest control of persimmon 'Fuyu'. However, this treatment induces fruit softening, which causes quality loss. This Thesis revealed that ethyl formate treatment induces the activity of ethylene synthesis-related genes and that flesh softening is mediated by this hormone. It also demonstrated that by applying 1-MPC pretreatment, fruit softening associated with ethyl formate can be controlled. Therefore, the combined used of both treatments is seen as a potential treatment to disinfect persimmon fruits while preserving quality. Finally, the study of ten cultivars introduced from other countries helped select the most interesting cultivars to broaden the varietal range according to their maturation date and their response to deastringency treatment. The main nutritional compounds of persimmon and how they are affected by CO2 deastringency treatment are described.
[ES] El caqui es un cultivo de gran relevancia en el área mediterránea de España, estando la producción centrada en una única variedad, el cv. Rojo Brillante, y localizada principalmente en la Comunidad Valenciana. Las principales alteraciones presentadas por el caqui 'Rojo Brillante' durante el periodo postcosecha son el pardeamiento de la pulpa asociado a los daños mecánicos y los daños por frío manifestados tras la conservación a bajas temperaturas. Las investigaciones previas han determinado las condiciones de manejo bajo las cuales se desarrollan dichas alteraciones, sin embargo los procesos bioquímicos involucrados en la manifestación de estos desórdenes no se conocen en profundidad. Actualmente uno de los principales retos es la introducción de nuevas variedades que permitan ampliar la gama varietal, así como prolongar los periodos de conservación del caqui con el fin de poder escalonar la puesta en el mercado en función de la demanda. En la presente Tesis se han abordado tres objetivos principales: 1) Estudiar los procesos bioquímicos implicados en los principales desórdenes postcosecha del caqui, prestando especial atención a los cambios en el sistema redox del fruto; 2) Evaluar diferentes tratamientos postcosecha para preservar la calidad del fruto durante la conservación frigorífica; 3) Evaluar la calidad físico-química y nutricional de diferentes variedades de caqui introducidas desde otros países para ampliar la gama varietal. Estudios bioquímicos, cromatográficos y microestructurales, han revelado que el pardeamiento de la pulpa o "browning", manifestado por la fruta que ha sufrido daños mecánicos tras la eliminación de la astringencia está asociado a un proceso de oxidación de taninos motivado por una situación de estrés oxidativo. Además se ha descrito una nueva alteración de la pulpa, "pinkish bruising", manifestada por los frutos sometidos a daño mecánico con alto nivel de astringencia. También se ha evaluado la sensibilidad al pardeamiento de diferentes variedades introducidas desde otros países. Con el objetivo de prolongar la conservación del fruto se ha ensayado el uso de la atmósfera controlada basada en 4-5% O2 + N2 sobre las variedades 'Rojo Brillante' y 'Triumph', observándose que la respuesta a esta tecnología depende de manera muy importante de la variedad. Los resultados fueron especialmente positivos en el caso del cultivar 'Triumph', en el que la atmósfera ensayada permitió prolongar la conservación frigorífica hasta tres meses. Otra tecnología ensayada para el control de los daños por frío fue la aplicación de choques con altas concentraciones de CO2 en el cultivar no astringente 'Fuyu'. Este tratamiento alivió el principal síntoma de daño por frío manifestado por esta variedad, la gelificación de la pulpa. Este efecto se ha relacionado con la preservación de la estructura celular de la pulpa del fruto. Estudios recientes han mostrado que el tratamiento con etil formato es altamente efectivo en el control de insectos durante la conservación y comercialización del caqui 'Fuyu', sin embargo este tratamiento provoca un ablandamiento del fruto mermando su calidad. En esta Tesis se ha demostrado que las aplicaciones de etil formato activan los genes de síntesis de etileno, siendo está hormona mediadora del ablandamiento. Los estudios también revelaron que la aplicación de un tratamiento previo con 1-MCP reduce el ablandamiento del fruto asociado al etil formato, por lo que el uso combinado de ambos tratamientos puede ser considerado una alternativa para la desinfección de los frutos sin detrimento de su calidad. Por último, el estudio de diez variedades introducidas desde otros países permitió seleccionar en base a su momento de maduración y respuesta al tratamiento de desastringencia aquellas variedades de mayor interés para ampliar la gama varietal. Además, se identificaron los principales compuestos nutricionales del caqui y
[CAT] El caqui s'ha convertit en els últims anys en un cultiu de gran rellevància en l'àrea mediterrània d'Espanya, estant la producció centrada en una única varietat, el cv. Rojo Brillante, i localitzada principalment a la Comunitat Valenciana. Les principals alteracions presentades pel caqui 'Rojo Brillante' durant el període postcollita són l'enfosquiment de la polpa associat als danys mecànics i els danys per fred manifestats després de la conservació a baixes temperatures. Les investigacions prèvies han determinat les condicions de maneig sota les quals es desenvolupen estes alteracions, però els processos bioquímics involucrats en la manifestació d'estos desordres no es coneixen en profunditat. D'altra banda, actualment un dels principals reptes és la introducció de noves varietats que permetin ampliar la gamma varietal, així com prolongar els períodes de conservació del caqui per tal de poder escalonar la posada en el mercat en funció de la demanda. En este context, en la present Tesi s'han abordat tres objectius principals: 1) Estudiar els processos bioquímics implicats en els principals desordres postcollita del caqui, posant especial atenció als canvis en el sistema redox del fruit; 2) Avaluar diferents tractaments postcollita per preservar la qualitat del fruit durant la conservació frigorífica; 3) Avaluar la qualitat fisicoquímica i nutricional de diferents varietats de caqui introduïdes des d'altres països per ampliar la gamma varietal. Estudis bioquímics, cromatogràfics i microestructurals, han revelat que l'enfosquiment de la polpa o "Browning", manifestat per fruita que ha patit danys mecànics després de l'eliminació de l'astringència està associat a un procés d'oxidació de tanins motivat per una situació d'estrès oxidatiu. A més s'ha descrit una nova alteració de la polpa, "pinkish bruising", manifestada pels fruits sotmesos a dany mecànic amb alt nivell d'astringència. També s'ha avaluat la sensibilitat a l'enfosquiment de diferents varietats introduïdes des d'altres països. Amb l'objectiu de perllongar la conservació del fruit s'ha assajat l'ús de l'atmosfera controlada basada en 4-5% O2 + N2 sobre les varietats 'Rojo Brillante' i 'Triumph', observant-se que la resposta a esta tecnologia depèn de manera molt important de la varietat. Els resultats van ser especialment positius en el cas del cultivar 'Triumph', en què l'atmosfera assajada va permetre prolongar la conservació frigorífica fins a tres mesos. Una altra tecnologia assajada per al control dels danys per fred va ser l'aplicació de xocs amb altes concentracions de CO2 en el cultivar no astringent 'Fuyu'. Este tractament va alleujar el principal símptoma de dany per fred manifestat per esta varietat, la gelificació de la polpa. Este efecte s'ha relacionat amb la preservació de l'estructura cel¿lular de la polpa del fruit. Estudis recents han mostrat que el tractament amb etil format és altament efectiu en el control d'insectes durant la conservació i comercialització del caqui 'Fuyu', però este tractament provoca un estovament del fruit minvant la seua qualitat. En esta Tesi s'ha demostrat que les aplicacions d'etil format activen els gens de síntesi d'etilè, sent esta hormona mediadora de l'estovament. Els estudis també van revelar que l'aplicació d'un tractament previ amb 1-MCP redueix l'estovament del fruit associat a l'etil format, per la qual cosa l'ús combinat de tots dos tractaments pot ser considerat una alternativa per a la desinfecció dels fruits sense detriment de la seua qualitat. Finalment, l'estudi de deu varietats introduïdes des d'altres països va permetre seleccionar en base al seu moment de maduració i resposta al tractament de desastringència aquelles varietats de més interès per ampliar la gamma varietal. A més, es van identificar els principals compostos nutricionals del caqui i es va avaluar l'efecte del tractament de desastringència amb CO2 sobre els mat
Novillo Borrás, P. (2015). HARVEST AND POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF PERSIMMON FRUIT:PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/58270
TESIS

Cold plasma (CP) is composed of highly reactive species including gas molecules, charged particles in the form of positive ions, negative ions, free radicals and electrons at near-room temperature. CP has been demonstrated to successfully decontaminate food materials from food-borne pathogens at atmospheric pressure and offers new chemical-free sterilisation opportunities for the food sector. The efficacy of CP to control postharvest fungal pathogens is poorly studied. This study investigated the effects of CP generated in both open and sealed conditions, on the growth of Colletotrichum alienum and C. fioriniae, two important postharvest fungal pathogens of avocado (Persea americana cv. ‗Hass‘). In addition, plasma activated water (PAW) was tested on C. alienum. In vitro, mycelial growth and conidia germination decreased as the duration of CP treatment increased, with no mycelial growth or germination of conidia occurring after 6 min of treatment. PAW also decreased conidial germination, even when the PAW had been stored for 15 days prior to use. Optical emission spectroscopy identified production of active oxygen and nitrogen species during CP treatment. These were assumed to be responsible for the observed reduction in conidial germination. Transmission electron microscopy showed the majority of conidia treated with CP and PAW were deformed, with changes to the cell wall, and disorganised vacuoles and cytoplasm. In addition, some conidia also had disrupted nuclei and mitochondria after both treatments. In planta, CP treatment for up to 5 min was not phytotoxic to avocado fruit, and fruit were firmer compared to untreated and fungicide treated controls. However, significant variability was observed in individual fruit response to CP. CP treatment appeared to reduce postharvest body rot and stem end rot symptoms but this was not significantly different to the untreated control. It was assumed that CP either slowed the growth of the pathogens in the treated fruit or delayed the ripening of the fruit. These data suggest that cold plasma has the potential to be applied as a postharvest treatment for C. alienum and C. fioriniae on avocado fruit, and may contribute to reducing food wastage caused by these pathogens.

Though usually a nuisance in swimming pools and ponds, algae has the potential to be a valuable commodity for use as food and fuel. But before algae butter and biofuel become commonplace, issues with harvesting and storing this new crop need to be overcome. Though there has been ample research into how to grow and use algae, scientists have spent little time figuring out what to do after you pull it out of the water and before you eat it (or turn it into biodiesel). Algae, like all food products, starts to spoil as soon as it is harvested. This study looked at three methods of preserving algae, freezing, drying, and pasteurization. Freezing is a good method for preserving fats and proteins, but it is expensive to freeze tons of algae. Freezing and thawing destroyed the algal cells, producing a soupy mixture that may cause complications for processing into foods or fuels. Drying was able to preserve the fats in algae, but only if it was dried just the right amount, about as dry as cheese or ham. Pasteurization was able to prevent the oils in the algae from going rancid by inactivating a protein in the algae that causes the oil to spoil rapidly. Overall, this research is an initial step in finding a process to produce a shelf stable algal commodity, opening the door to new and valuable products for human use.

Le perdite post-raccolta di frutta e verdura ammontavano fino alla metà della produzione attraverso la catena dal campo alla tavola del cliente. Pertanto, le indagini su approcci sostenibili per ridurre al minimo il decadimento post-raccolta e le perdite alimentari sarebbero l'obiettivo della ricerca nei prossimi anni. Al fine di ridurre la presenza di agenti patogeni, è stata utilizzata l'applicazione di fungicidi chimici, tuttavia, a causa di potenziali problemi ambientali e sanitari, questa pratica deve essere valutata attentamente
Postharvest losses of fruit and vegetables amounted up to half of the production through the chain from the field to the customer table. Therefore, the investigations on sustainable approaches to minimize postharvest decay and food losses would be the goal of research in the next years. In order to reduce the presence of pathogens, the application of chemical fungicides was used, however, due to potential environmental and health issues, this practice need to be evaluated carefully. Alternative approaches such as the use of edible coatings, essential oils (EOs), salts, and natural compounds (plant extracts) were emerging technologies to manage postharvest decay of fresh fruit. The aim of this work was to investigate the effectiveness of natural compounds known as plant defense inducers on postharvest decay. In the first work, we used the meta-analyses approach to investigate the potential effect of 1% chitosan on postharvest fungal pathogens, summarizing 13 years of data related to disease incidence, mycelium growth of Botrytis cinerea, Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium spp., Colletotrichum spp., Alternaria spp. and the activity of enzymes linked to host defense mechanisms. This meta-analysis confirmed chitosan antimicrobial and eliciting activity. The other works were focused on testing, the effectiveness of the control of postharvest decay of strawberry following the application of commercial compounds, mainly chitosan-based coating and plants essential oils. The preharvest application of (‘Chito Plant powder’,’KiForce’ ‘Prev-Am Plus’ compounds) and postharvest application of (‘Chito Plant powder’, ‘Chito Plant solution’, ‘Kaitosol’, ‘OII-YS’, ‘MeJA’, ‘3 Logy’, ‘DF-100 Forte’, ‘Prev-Am Plus’, ‘Humic acid’ compounds and bergamot, rosemary, mentha EOs, combine under hypobaric environment at 50 kPa, were tested. Gray mold, caused by B. cinerea, and Rhizopus rot, caused by R. stolonifer, were monitored after incubating fruits at 20±1 °C or 7 day storage at 4±1 °C following two days shelf life at 20±1 °C. Besides, the changes of qualitative parameters in preharvest application was analyzed. Our results showed the effectiveness of the different compounds on strawberry decay, however, among the chitosan-based coating ‘Chito Plant powder’ was the most effective compound at both pre and postharvest application at cold storage condition and in maintaining fruit quality. Rosemary and mentha EOs, combine under hypobaric environment, and sweet orange EOs with commercial formulation Prev-Am Plus following grapefruit seed extract EOs with commercial formulation DF-100Forte were the most effective compounds against gray mold infection at room temperature. Our results showed that the application of these innovative compounds was a suitable approach for strawberry postharvest decay management.

The goal of this research was to test commercially viable alternative methods to fungicides for controlling storage diseases of melons that are safe for human health and the environment. Initially, experiments were conducted on melons to develop a protocol for optimum conditions of disease development during storage for different pathogens and for different stages of fruit maturity. For all pathogens tested, the study found that humidity greater than 90% and temperatures above 20° C support infection and rapid growth of disease. Differences in the rate of infection and extent of disease development after the inoculation of different storage pathogens was observed between rockmelon and honeydew melons, indicating differences in host pathogen interactions. Among the tested pathogens, Alternaria spp. was the least aggressive in infection and disease severity, growing considerably slower than Fusarium acuminatum which was moderately aggressive and Rhizopus spp. which was very aggressive, in comparison. Green half-slip melons showed greater resistance to pathogen attack than green full-slip fruit, while yellow full-slip melons were highly susceptible to pathogen attack. Therefore, the laboratory experiments for postharvest treatments of rockmelons were performed using green full-slip fruit challenged with F. acuminatum. Evaluation of physical and safe chemical methods of postharvest treatment to control postharvest diseases of melons showed that none of the treatments alone was as effective as the commercially available fungicide. Hot water solutions of safe compounds considerably increase their efficacy against postharvest rots, however, symptoms of phytotoxicity on the rind after dipping made their use unacceptable. Iodine was the only safe chemical tested which did not cause any phytotoxicity on melons. When combined with hot water, iodine showed the best control of storage rots and was as good as the fungicides carbendazim or guazatine. Hot water iodine dipping of fruit also delayed ripening and fruit were firmer during storage for a longer period of time. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) was evaluated as a method of controlling powdery mildew in glasshouse grown rockmelon seedlings by treating with the activators 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid (INA) or benzothiadiazole (BTH) or water. Increased resistance due to application of INA or BTH, was observed by the reduction of powdery mildew on pre-inoculated detached leaves and also on intact leaves from natural infections. Heightened resistance due to spraying with elicitors of SAR, was further evident by the increased activities of the pathogenesis related proteins (PR proteins), peroxidase and accumulation of phenolics or antifungal compounds during and after challenge inoculation. Field grown rockmelons were treated with INA or BTH or BABA (β-aminobutyric acid) or water at various stages of plant growth and evaluated for increased resistance against pre and postharvest diseases. Both powdery mildew and downy mildew were significantly less on the SAR elicitor treated plants. Preharvest treatment with SAR elicitors also reduced storage diseases of the harvested rockmelon fruit. The reduction in postharvest disease was similar whether plants were treated once, three weeks before harvest, or given four sprays during the growing season beginning at anthesis. A further postharvest dip with 500 ppm of guazatine gave substantial reduction of storage rots of melons. Enhanced activities of chitinase and peroxidase, two major PR-proteins, compared to the control, indicated induction of defence had occurred in the foliage and fruit as a result of SAR. Over the course of four field and one glasshouse experiments slight phytotoxicity was observed in plants frequently sprayed with INA or BTH, but no phytotoxicity was seen after a single spray during the late stages of fruit development. The combination of SAR elicitor treatment and use of a safe postharvest dip provided substantial control of storage rots of rockmelons. The best treatment for control of storage rots involved application of BTH (50 ppm) two weeks before harvest, combined with a hot iodine dip (55° C) of fruit, achieving equivalent or better disease control than use of guazatine fungicide dip.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
The goal of this research was to test commercially viable alternative methods to fungicides for controlling storage diseases of melons that are safe for human health and the environment. Initially, experiments were conducted on melons to develop a protocol for optimum conditions of disease development during storage for different pathogens and for different stages of fruit maturity. For all pathogens tested, the study found that humidity greater than 90% and temperatures above 20° C support infection and rapid growth of disease. Differences in the rate of infection and extent of disease development after the inoculation of different storage pathogens was observed between rockmelon and honeydew melons, indicating differences in host pathogen interactions. Among the tested pathogens, Alternaria spp. was the least aggressive in infection and disease severity, growing considerably slower than Fusarium acuminatum which was moderately aggressive and Rhizopus spp. which was very aggressive, in comparison. Green half-slip melons showed greater resistance to pathogen attack than green full-slip fruit, while yellow full-slip melons were highly susceptible to pathogen attack. Therefore, the laboratory experiments for postharvest treatments of rockmelons were performed using green full-slip fruit challenged with F. acuminatum. Evaluation of physical and safe chemical methods of postharvest treatment to control postharvest diseases of melons showed that none of the treatments alone was as effective as the commercially available fungicide. Hot water solutions of safe compounds considerably increase their efficacy against postharvest rots, however, symptoms of phytotoxicity on the rind after dipping made their use unacceptable. Iodine was the only safe chemical tested which did not cause any phytotoxicity on melons. When combined with hot water, iodine showed the best control of storage rots and was as good as the fungicides carbendazim or guazatine. Hot water iodine dipping of fruit also delayed ripening and fruit were firmer during storage for a longer period of time. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) was evaluated as a method of controlling powdery mildew in glasshouse grown rockmelon seedlings by treating with the activators 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid (INA) or benzothiadiazole (BTH) or water. Increased resistance due to application of INA or BTH, was observed by the reduction of powdery mildew on pre-inoculated detached leaves and also on intact leaves from natural infections. Heightened resistance due to spraying with elicitors of SAR, was further evident by the increased activities of the pathogenesis related proteins (PR proteins), peroxidase and accumulation of phenolics or antifungal compounds during and after challenge inoculation. Field grown rockmelons were treated with INA or BTH or BABA (β-aminobutyric acid) or water at various stages of plant growth and evaluated for increased resistance against pre and postharvest diseases. Both powdery mildew and downy mildew were significantly less on the SAR elicitor treated plants. Preharvest treatment with SAR elicitors also reduced storage diseases of the harvested rockmelon fruit. The reduction in postharvest disease was similar whether plants were treated once, three weeks before harvest, or given four sprays during the growing season beginning at anthesis. A further postharvest dip with 500 ppm of guazatine gave substantial reduction of storage rots of melons. Enhanced activities of chitinase and peroxidase, two major PR-proteins, compared to the control, indicated induction of defence had occurred in the foliage and fruit as a result of SAR. Over the course of four field and one glasshouse experiments slight phytotoxicity was observed in plants frequently sprayed with INA or BTH, but no phytotoxicity was seen after a single spray during the late stages of fruit development. The combination of SAR elicitor treatment and use of a safe postharvest dip provided substantial control of storage rots of rockmelons. The best treatment for control of storage rots involved application of BTH (50 ppm) two weeks before harvest, combined with a hot iodine dip (55° C) of fruit, achieving equivalent or better disease control than use of guazatine fungicide dip.

Large woody debris (LWD) is an important component of forest ecosystems and provides structural complexity to small streams. Riparian buffers are intended to provide long term supplies of LWD, but post harvest windthrow often occurs. To document the impacts of windthrow in riparian buffers and identify the components needed for small stream LWD recruitment modeling, I sampled 39 small streams at the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest (MKRF) and on Vancouver Island. I took two basic approaches. In the small stream experiment at MKRF a series of small clearcuts were harvested in 1998 in a 70 year old second growth stand. I measured LWD in 10m and 30m buffer treatments, and in the unharvested control. I added samples in mature and old-growth stands for comparison. In the second approach, I retrospectively sampled buffers that were exposed by harvesting from 0-20yrs ago on southwestern and northeastern Vancouver Island. In both studies, all logs greater than 7.5 cm diameter at mid-creek, in decay class 1 to 4 that spanned at least part of stream channel width were measured. There was no significant difference in the number of spanning and in-creek logs in 10m and 30m buffer given the short term monitoring of woody debris in the buffers. The majority of windthrown trees were still suspended above the stream channel years after a windthrow event. The height above stream was negatively correlated with log decay class and the buffer age class. The number of logs was higher in immature stands than mature stands. As the stems per hectare in riparian stands increases, so does the frequency of spanning LWD. The frequency of logs in decay classes 3 and 4 was higher in older buffers, and deciduous LWD decayed more quickly than conifers. Interestingly, the log length was found to be shorter in advance stage of decay. Key elements in a conceptual model of LWD recruitment via windthrow are the geometry of initial log position, log size, species and decay rate.

This is the first study to be carried out which describes changes in biochemical profile of both pre- and post-climacteric Sri Lankan mango fruits. Chemometric analysis revealed that spatial distribution of biochemical compounds between peel and pulp was the major discriminatory factor during maturation; whereas fully mature mango fruit contained the highest concentration of starch and lowest concentration of acids. Since these combined variables also responsible for the final quality of ripe fruit, they could be used as important parameters of horticultural maturity to inform growers to harvest Sri Lankan mango fruit at the optimum stage. Cont/d.

Thesis (PhD(Agric))--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to develop non-destructive methods to predict external and internal quality of citrus fruit. A critical review of the literature identified presymptomatic biochemical markers associated with non-chilling rind physiological disorders. The prospects for the use of visible to near infrared spectroscopy (Vis/NIRS) as non-destructive technology to sort affected fruit were also reviewed. Initial studies were conducted to determine the optimum condition for NIRS measurements and to evaluate the accuracy of this technique and associated chemometric analysis. It was found that the emission head spectroscopy in diffuse reflectance mode could predict fruit mass, colour index, total soluble solids, and vitamin C with high accuracy. Vis/NIRS was used to predict postharvest rind physico-chemical properties related to rind quality and susceptibility of ‘Nules Clementine’ to RBD. Partial least squares (PLS) statistics demonstrated that rind colour index, dry matter (DM) content, total carbohydrates, and water loss were predicted accurately. Chemometric analysis showed that optimal PLS model performances for DM, sucrose, glucose, and fructose were obtained using models based on multiple scatter correction (MSC) spectral pre-processing. The critical step in evaluating the feasibility of Vis/NIRS was to test the robustness of the calibration models across orchards from four growing regions in South Africa over two seasons. Studies on the effects of microclimatic conditions predisposing fruit to RBD showed that fruit inside the canopy, especially artificially bagged fruit, had lower DM, higher mass loss, and were more susceptible to RBD. The study suggested that variations in microclimatic conditions between seasons, as well as within the tree canopy, affect the biochemical profile of the rind, which in turn influences fruit response to postharvest stresses associated with senescence and susceptibility to RBD. Principal component analysis (PCA) and PLS discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models were applied to distinguish between fruit from respectively, inside and outside tree canopy, using Vis/NIRS signal, suggesting the possibility of using this technology to discriminate between fruit based on their susceptibility to RBD. Results from the application of optical coherence tomography (OCT), a novel non-destructive technology for imaging histological changes in biological tissues, showed promise as a potential technique for immediate, real-time acquisition of images of rind anatomical features of citrus fruit. The study also demonstrated the potential of Vis/NIRS as a non-destructive tool for sorting citrus fruit based on external and internal quality.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie het ten doel gestaan om nie-destruktiewe meeting metodes te toets en ontwikkel wat die interne en eksterne-kwaliteit van sitrusvrugte kan voorspel. In ʼn litratuuroorsig is biochemies verandering in die skil en wat geassosieer word met die ontwikkeling van fisiologies skildefekte geïdentifiseer, asook is die moontlikheid ondersoek om Naby Infrarooi spektroskopie (NIRS) as ‘n nie-destruktiewe tegnologie te gebruik om vrugte te sorteer. Eerstens was die optimale toestande waarby NIRS meetings van sitrusvrugte geneem moet word asook die akkuraatheid van die toerusting en chemometrika data-ontleding beproef. Daar is gevind dat die uitstralings-kop spektrofotometer in diffusie-weerkaatsings modus vrugmassa, skilkleur, totale opgeloste stowwe asook vitamien C akkuraat kan voorspel. Daarna van NIRS gebruik om na-oes fisies-chemiese eienskappe wat verband hou met skilkwaliteit en vatbaarheid vir skilafbraak van ‘Nules Clementine’ mandaryn. Deur gebruik te maak van “Partial least squares” (PLS) statistieke was gedemonstreer dat die skilkleur, droë massa (DM), totale koolhidrate en waterverlies akkuraat voorspel kon word. Chemometriese analises het ook getoon dat optimale PLS modelle vir DM, sukrose, glukose en fruktose verkry kan word deur modelle te skep wat gebaseer is op “Multiple scatter correction” (MSC) spektrale voor-verwerking. ʼn Belangrike stap in die ontwikkeling van NIRS gebaseerde indeling is om die robuustheid van die kalibrasiemodelle te toets en was gedoen deur vrugte te meet en sorteer van vier boorde en oor twee seisoene. ʼn Verder eksperiment om die impak van mikroklimaat op die skil se vatbaarheid vir fisiologiese defekte te ontwikkel het getoon dat vrugte wat binne in die blaardak ontwikkel (lae vlakke van sonlig) ʼn laer DM, hoër gewigsverlies het en was ook meer vatbaar vir skilafbraak. Die resultate dui daarop dat verskille in mikroklimaat oor die seisoen asook in die blaardak die skil se biochemiese profiel beïnvloed, wat lei tot ʼn negatiewe reaksie op na-oes stres en verhoogde voorkoms van fisiologiese skilafbraak. Die ontwikkelde “Principal component analysis” (PCA) en PLS-diskriminant analise modelle was daarna suksesvol toegepas om vrugte te skei na NIRS meetings, op die basis van vrugpossies in die blaardak. Nuwe, nie-destruktiewe tegniek, nl. “Optical coherence tomography” (OCT) was suksesvol getoets as manier om ʼn fotografiese beeld te skep van histologiese veranderinge in die skil. Die resultate dui op die potensiaal van die onontginde tegnologie om intak biologiese-materiaal te analiseer. Hierdie studie het getoon dat daar wesenlike potensiaal is om NIRS verder te ontwikkel tot ʼn tegnologie wat gebruik kan word om vrugte te sorteer gebaseer op eksterne (skil) asook interne (pulp) eienskappe

Hà uma grande concentraÃÃo de plantas com potencial medicinal na Caatinga que sÃo amplamente incorporadas na medicina popular pela comunidade local. Essa regiÃo à detentora de vasta farmacopeia natural baseada no conhecimento empÃrico. Para os pequenos agricultores dessa regiÃo a produÃÃo comercial de plantas medicinais surge como uma alternativa econÃmica interessante, cuja produÃÃo pode basear-se no sistema agroecolÃgico de produÃÃo alicerÃado na sustentabilidade, visando reduzir o risco da extinÃÃo de espÃcies farmacolÃgicas importantes que o sistema de produÃÃo extrativista impÃe. Dessa forma, o objetivo da realizaÃÃo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influencia do tempo de armazenamento e de diferentes embalagens sobre a conservaÃÃo pÃs-colheita de alecrim pimenta e colÃnia visando o conhecimento de metodologias acessÃveis à agricultura familiar. Os experimentos foram conduzidos na Fazenda Experimental Vale do Curu (FEVC) em Pentecoste-Ce, utilizando-se as espÃcies vegetais alecrim pimenta e colÃnia. Inicialmente, foram feitas mudas, a partir de matrizes de origem genÃtica comprovada, pertencentes ao Horto de Plantas medicinais da Fazenda Experimental Vale do Curu. ApÃs seis meses do transplantio das mudas o material vegetal foi colhido manualmente com o auxilio de tesoura de poda Ãs oito horas da manhÃ, em seguida, foi pesado e lavado em soluÃÃo composta de hipoclorito de sÃdio e Ãgua na proporÃÃo 200ppm, e posto para secar a sombra, sobre bandejas com fundo de tela para aumentar a circulaÃÃo de ar, possibilitando uma secagem uniforme. As bandejas foram acondicionadas em secador natural, por permaneceram por trÃs dias. O material vegetal do alecrim pimenta colhido era composto de ramos com folhas e apÃs a secagem foram separadas dos ramos. Jà o material vegetal da colÃnia era composto apenas de folhas que apÃs a secagem foram trituradas para facilitar o procedimento de embalagem. ApÃs a secagem o material foi embalado e armazenado em sala apropriada, acomodados em prateleiras e submetidos à temperatura e umidade ambiente. A cada trÃs meses foram realizadas extraÃÃes de Ãleo essencial, bem como a quantificaÃÃo do teor de umidade. O experimento foi instalado em delineamento inteiramente casualizado seguindo um esquema fatorial 3x4 constituÃdo por trÃs tipos de embalagens (papel, plÃstico e plÃstico+papel) e quatro perÃodos de armazenamento (0, 3, 6 e 9 meses). As variÃveis estudadas foram rendimento do Ãleo essencial e teor de umidade. Foi verificado que para o alecrim pimenta a embalagem plÃstica proporcionou uma melhor preservaÃÃo do conteÃdo de Ãleo essencial do material vegetal, cerca de 2 mL a mais que as outras duas embalagens testadas, podendo ser armazenado por um perÃodo de atà trÃs meses. Para a colÃnia, a embalagem plÃstica foi determinante para a conservaÃÃo do Ãleo essencial do material, podendo o material vegetal ser armazenado por atà nove meses sem perdas excessivas no rendimento do Ãleo. O comportamento da variÃvel teor de umidade foi semelhante para ambos os materiais utilizados, sendo verificada uma reduÃÃo no teor de umidade ao longo do perÃodo de armazenamento.
There is a large concentration of plants with medicinal potential in the Caatinga are widely incorporated in folk medicine for the local community. This region holds vast natural pharmacopoeia based on empirical knowledge. For small farmers in this region the commercial production of medicinal plants is an alternative economic interest, whose production can be based on agroecological production system grounded in sustainability, to reduce the risk of species extinction pharmacological important that the system of extractive production imposes. Thus, the aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of storage time and different packaging on postharvest pepper and rosemary colony seeking knowledge of methodologies accessible to family farming. The experiments were conducted at the Experimental Farm Curu Valley (FEVC) at Pentecost - Ce, using plant species colony pepper and rosemary. Initially, seedlings were made from arrays of proven genetic origin, belonging to the Garden of Medicinal Plants of the Experimental Farm Curu Valley. After six months of seedling transplanting the plant materia l was collected manually with the help of pruning shears at eight o'clock in the morning, then was weighed and washed in a solution consisting of sodium hypochlorite and water in proportion to 200 ppm, and put to dry the shadow on the screen bottom trays to increase air circulation, allowing a uniform drying. The trays were placed in natural hair, remained for three days. The plant material was harvested rosemary pepper consists of branches with leaves and after drying were separated from the branches. But the plant material consisted only of the colony of sheets after drying were ground to facilitate the packaging procedure. After drying the material was packaged and stored in an appropriate room, accommodated on shelves and subjected to temperature and hum idity. Every three months were performed extractions of essential oil as well as the quantification of the moisture content. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized following a 3x4 factorial design consisting of three types of packaging (paper, plastic and plastic + paper) and storage period (0, 3, 6 and 9 months). The variables studied were yield of essential oil and moisture content. It was found that for pepper rosemary plastic casing provided better preservation of essential oil content of the plant material, about 2 mL more than the other two packages tested, and can be stored for a period of three months. To the colony, the plastic was crucial to the conservation of the essential oil of the material, the plant material can be stored for up to nine months without excessive losses in oil revenue. The behavior of the variable moisture content was similar for both materials, being observed a reduction in moisture content throughout the storage period.

Integrated Postharvest Management of Anthracnose in Dragon Fruits Using Plant Extracts The study was conducted to develop an environmentally, biodegradable, non-toxic and sustainable bio-fungicide using the formulation where each plant crude extract (ginger, turmeric and “dukung anak”) at different concentrations were incorporated separately with 10% gum Arabic (GA). The formulation was assessed against a wide range of parameters such as disease incidence (DI) and severity (DS) as well as postharvest quality (physicochemical and nutritional) on dragon fruits during storage at 11±20C, 80% RH for up to 28 days. Additionally, the study also investigated a diagnostic tool, thus Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), for early detection of anthracnose in dragon fruits caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz during postharvest storage. Prior to the formulation, the antifungal effect of each plant extract alone was evaluated in vitro (against C. gloeosporioides ) at concentrations (2.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml, 7.5 mg/ml and 10 mg/ml) and in vivo (on the fruits to control anthracnose) at concentration (5 mg/ml, 10 mg/ml and 15 mg/ml). In vitro antifungal activity of plants extracts alone showed that all plant extracts showed significant antifungal activity against C. gloeosporioides that causes anthracnose in dragon fruit. This was evident in inhibition of mycelial growth and conidial germination, which translated to morphological damage such as distortion and shrivelling in the fungal hyphae during scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies result. Ginger crude extracts at 10 mg/ml showed a promising result in terms of suppressing mycelial growth (88.48%) and conidial germination (87.5%) which was comparable to commercial fungicide (Mancozeb) at 2 mg/ml (80.45%). In the in vivo study, where dragon fruits were coated (treated) with only plant extracts by dipping, fruits treated at 15 mg/ml irrespective of the crude extracts experienced severe disease incidence due to phytotoxicity. However, DI and DS was significantly low in dukung anak-treated fruits irrespective of the concentration used. Postharvest anthracnose caused by C. gloeosporioides and its severity was signficantly low in dukung anak-treated fruits at 10 mg/ml which was not different in fruits treated with 10 mg/ml of turmeric crude extracts after 28 days of cold storage. The antifungal activity was due to the presence of bioactive compounds gingerol, curcumin and some alkaloids in ginger, turmeric and dukung anak which resulted in electrolye leakage from fungal cell wall contributing to direct control of anthracnose. Whiles dukung anak extract controlled anthracnose and its severity at 10 mg/ml, DI was more pronounced in ginger-treated fruits even at 5 mg/ml due to phytotoxicity. Overall, disease incidence was highest especially at 15 mg/ml irrespective of plant extract used. Additionally, the external appearance of treated fruits at 10 mg/ml and 15 mg/ml of extracts alone (irrespective of the type of plant used) negatively affected customers appeal and preference due to compromised original smell and colour of the fruit. To overcome this problem, a formulation compromised of each plant crude extracts especially at higher concentrations (10 mg/ml and 15 mg/ml) and at a lower concentration (5 mg/ml) were incorporated with 10%GA to develop a alternative non-chemical approach that can enhance the efficacy of each plant extract against anthracnose whilst improving other postharvest quality of fruits. Fruits treated with a composite coating of 10%GA+10 mg/ml turmeric crude extracts significantly reduced anthracnose and its severity by about 94% compared to controls. This was not different in fruits treated with 10%GA+15 mg/ml ginger extract after 28 days of storage. For a rapid detection of postharvest anthracnose caused by C. gloeosporioides, LAMP, a diagnostic tool showed that composite coating of 10%GA+5 mg/ml of turmeric markedly reduced the amount of fungal DNA isolated from infested fruits compared to controls. A clear indication that Lamp can be used for detection of anthracnose during postharvest storage. Generally, respiration rate and ethylene production were significantly lower in fruits coated with 10%GA plus either 10mg/ml or 5 mg/ml of ginger crude extracts even though it was markedly low in fruits coated with 10%GA+10 mg/ml of the either turmeric or dukung anak crude extracts. In this study, fruit treated coated with 10%GA+10 mg/ml of any crude extracts especially turmeric crude extract showed the greatest firmness, reduced water loss, delayed colour development, lowered the levels of TSS and maintained a high TA after 21 to 28 days of storage. Furthermore, an composite coating of 10%GA+10 mg/ml of turmeric crude extract helped to maintain higher total antioxidant and nutritional activity in dragon fruits due to the presence of high ascorbic acid content and total phenolic compounds. Similarly, sensory evaluation results proved the effectiveness of 10%GA+10 mg/ml of turmeric crude extract composite coating by maintaining the overall quality of dragon fruits. These findings suggest that 10%GA+10 mg/ml of turmeric crude extracts can be used for extending the storage life of dragon fruits for up to 28 days. Additionally, this study proposes LAMP as a promising diagnostic tool for early detection of postharvest anthracnose in dragon fruits and other tropical fruits during regular checks in transits (sea transports) or at packing houses. By doing so, the onset of postharvest anthracnose could be detected and immediate steps taken to control the disease.

[EN] Citrus spp. (Rutaceae) are the most widely produced fruits and they are grown in over a hundred countries. During postharvest, major losses are caused by fungal diseases, that for decades have been controlled by treatments with synthetic fungicides. However, their use is continuously more restricted by distributors and supermarket chains, which lower the Maximum Residue Level (MRL) to one third of the authorized or even ban the use of certain fungicides. This has loss of efficacy of treatments and development of resistant strains of pathogens. Alternatives are necessary to substitute or combine the use of synthetic fungicides. The objective of the present work was to evaluate alternative treatments against green and blue molds, caused by Penicillium digitatum (Pers.: Fr.) Sacc. and Penicillium italicum Wehmer, respectively. Food additives and GRAS substances were tested in in vivo preliminary tests against green and blue molds. Potassium sorbate (PS) (Chapter 2) and sodium benzoate (SB) (Chapter 1) were the most effective. 60-s dips in 3% (w/v) SB above 50°C reduced by 90% green and blue mold incidence on 'Valencia' oranges after 7 days at 20°C. This treatment was also effective on 'Lanelate' oranges, 'Fino' lemons and 'Ortanique' mandarins, but not on 'Clemenules' mandarins. Heated solutions combining SB with low doses of imazalil (IMZ) were synergistic. In semi-commercial trials with 'Marisol' Clementine mandarins, the combination PS+IMZ at 20°C allowed a significant reduction of the IMZ doses still controlling green mold. A new colorimetric method that employed extraction of PS from macerated fruit, followed by reaction with 2-thiobarbituric acid (Chapter 3) showed that in oranges treated with PS and stored at 15°C, residues declined initially rapidly and later more slowly, until residues stopped declining after 6 d. A brief double-dip rinse in tap water, immediately after immersion of lemons in a 2% (w/v) PS, removed more than 90% of PS residue. Exposure at 33ºC with 15 kPa CO2 for 24 h or 30 kPa O2 for 48 h effectively controlled both green and blue molds after 7 days of incubation at 20ºC, but control of both diseases lowered after 15 days (Chapter 4). Combining PS dip treatments with gas exposure showed a synergistic effect, that maintained the efficacy of combined treatments during 15 days. In cold storage, after 14, 28, and 42 days, green mold incidence on 'Clemenules' and 'Ortanique' mandarins treated with PS dips and 30kPa O2 for 48h was reduced by 100, 96 and 68%, and 100, 97 and 79%, respectively. Again, a synergistic effect between treatments was observed (Chapter 5). Postharvest green mold and blue molds were effectively controlled by fumigation of lemons and oranges for 6 h at 22ºC with two applied dosages of 3000 ¿L L-1 of ammonia that was injected initially and again 2 h later (Chapter 6). Ammonia fumigation controlled an IMZ-resistant isolate of P. digitatum. When fruit were first immersed in 10 or 30 mg L-1 IMZ (about 10% of typical commercial rates) before ammonia fumigation, a single fumigation with 1500 ¿L L-1 of ammonia was adequate to control both diseases and the increase in effectiveness was additive or synergistic. All these treatments, at different degrees, could replace synthetic fungicides or augment IMZ performance in citrus postharvest decay management. The development of green and blue molds on the most commercially important citrus species and cultivars was assessed for four consecutive harvest seasons and associated with fruit quality parameters (Chapter 7). Fruit susceptibility of the cultivars to green mold in increasing order was Nova, Sanguinelli, Ortanique, Lanelate, Navelate, Fortune, Clemenules, Valencia, W. Navel, Oronules, Clemenpons, Marisol, Salustiana, Hernandina, and Nadorcott. Peel characteristics were the most influencing quality parameters on the susceptibility of citrus fruit to green and blue molds.
[ES] Los cítricos (Citrus spp. fam. Rutaceae) son la fruta más consumida a nivel mundial y se cultivan en más de un centenar de países. Durante el manejo en poscosecha, la mayor parte de las pérdidas se deben a enfermedades fúngicas, que durante décadas se han controlado mediante tratamientos con fungicidas de síntesis. Sin embargo, su uso está continuamente más restringido por parte de los distribuidores y cadenas de supermercados, que reducen el Límite Máximo de Residuos (LMR) a un tercio del establecido o incluso prohíben el uso de ciertos fungicidas. Esto ha provocado la pérdida de eficacia de los tratamientos y el desarrollo de cepas de patógenos resistentes a los fungicidas. Se necesitan pues alternativas para sustituir o combinar con el uso de fungicidas de síntesis. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar tratamientos alternativos contra las podredumbres verde y azul, causadas por Penicillium digitatum (Pers.: Fr.) Sacc. y Penicillium italicum Wehmer, respectivamente. Aditivos alimentarios y sustancias GRAS se probaron en test in vivo preliminaries contra los mohos verde y azul. El benzoato sódico (BS; Capítulo 1) y el sorbato potásico (SP; Capítulo 2) fueron los más eficaces. Baños de 60 s en 3% (p/v) BS sobre 50°C redujeron en un 90% la incidencia de las podredumbres verde y azul en naranjas 'Valencia Late' tras 7 días a 20°C. Estos tratamientos fueron también efectivos en naranjas 'Lanelate', limones 'Fino' y mandarinas híbridas 'Ortanique', pero no en mandarinas 'Clemenules'. La combinación de baños calientes de BS con dosis bajas de imazalil (IMZ) fueron sinérgicas. Un nuevo método colorimétrico que empleó la extracción del SP de la fruta macerada, seguido de una reacción con ácido 2-tiobabitúrico (Capítulo 3) mostró que en naranjas tratadas con SP almacenadas a 15°C, los residuos descendieron rápidamente al inicio y lentamente más tarde, hasta que dejaron de descender tras 6 días. Un doble aclarado rápido con agua corriente inmediatamente después de la inmersión de limones en SP al 2% (p/v), eliminó más del 90% del residuo de SP. Los choques gaseosos a 33ºC y 15kPa CO2 durante 24 h o 30 kPa O2 durante 48 h controlaron de manera eficaz las podredumbres verde y azul tras 7 días de incubación a 20ºC, pero el control de las dos podredumbres descendió tras 15 días (Capítulo 4). En almacenamiento en frío, tras 14, 28 y 42 días, la incidencia de moho verde en mandarinas 'Clemenules' y 'Ortanique' tratadas con baños con SP y 30kPa O2 durante 48h se redujo en un 100, 96 y 68%, y 100, 97 y 79%, respectivamente. De nuevo, una fuerte sinergia se observó entre los tratamientos (Capítulo 5). Las podredumbres verde y azul se controlaron eficazmente mediante la fumigación de limones y naranjas durante 6 h a 22ºC con dos dosis de 3000 ¿L L-1 amoniaco, inyectadas al inicio del tratamiento y 2 h después (Capítulo 6). El tratamiento con amoniaco controló una cepa de P. digitatum resistente a IMZ. Cuando la fruta se bañó en 10 o 30 mg L-1 IMZ (un 10% de la dosis comercial) antes de la fumigación con amoniaco, una sola aplicación con 1500 ¿L L-1 amoniaco fue suficiente para controlar las dos podredumbres, y el incremento en la eficacia fue aditivo o sinérgico. Todos estos tratamientos, a diferentes niveles, podrían sustituir a los fungicidas de síntesis o aumentar la eficacia de los tratamientos con IMZ en el manejo poscosecha de los cítricos. El desarrollo de las podredumbres verde y azul en las especies y variedades de cítricos más importantes comercialmente se evaluó durante cuatro campañas consecutivas y se relacionó con los parámetros de calidad de la fruta (Capítulo 7). La susceptibilidad de los cultivares en orden creciente fue Nova, Sanguinelli, Ortanique, Lanelate, Navelate, Fortune, Clemenules, Valencia, W. Navel, Oronules, Clemenpons, Marisol, Salustiana, Hernandina, y Nadorcott. Las características de la corteza fueron los parámetros de calidad
[CAT] Els cítrics (Citrus spp. fam. Rutaceae) son la fruita més consumida a nivell mundial i es cultiven en un centenar de països. Durant la poscollita, la major part de les pèrdues es deuen a malalties fúngiques, que durant dècades s'han controlat mitjançant tractaments amb fungicides de síntesi. No obstant, l'ús d'aquestes pràctiques està contínuament més restringit per part dels distribuïdors y cadenes de supermercats, que redueixen el Límit Màxim de Residus (LMR) a un terç del permès per la legislació o inclús prohibeixen l'ús d'alguns fungicides. Açò ha provocat la minora de l'eficàcia dels tractaments poscollita i el desenvolupament de soques dels patògens resistents als fungicides. Es necessari per lo tant trobar i implementar alternatives per a substituir o combinar l'ús de fungicides de síntesi. L'objectiu d'aquest treball ha sigut avaluar tractaments alternatius contra les podridures verda i blava, causades per Penicillium digitatum (Pers.: Fr.) Sacc. i Penicillium italicum Wehmer, respectivament. Additius alimentaris i substàncies GRAS es provaren en test in vivo preliminars contra les podridures verda i blava. El benzoat sòdic (BS; Capítol 1) i el sorbat potàsic (SP; Capítol 2) foren els més eficaços. Solucions calentes de BS combinades amb baixes dosis d'imazalil (IMZ) foren sinèrgiques. Esta combinació va reduir l'incidència de les podridures verda i blava en quasi el 100% en taronges 'Valencia Late' després de 8 setmanes a 5°C i 7 dies a 20°C. En assajos semicomercials mandarines 'Marisol', la combinació SP+IMZ a 20°C va permetre una baixada significativa de la dosis de IMZ sense perdre eficàcia contra la podridura verda. Un nou mètode colorimètric que inclou l'extracció del SP de la fruita macerada, seguit d'una reacció amb àcid 2-tiobabitúric (Capítol 3) mostrà que en taronges tractades amb SP conservades a 15°C, els residus descendiren ràpidament al inici i lentament mes tard, fins que deixaren de descendir després de 6 dies. Un doble rentat ràpid amb aigua corrent immediatament després de d'immersió de llimones en SP al 2% (p/v), eliminà més del 90% del residu de SP. Els xocs gasosos a 33ºC i 15kPa CO2 durant 24 h o 30 kPa O2 durant 48 h controlaren de manera eficaç les podridures verda i blava després de 7 dies d'incubació a 20ºC, però el control de les dos podridures descendí després de 15 dies (Capítol 4). La combinació de banys amb SP i xocs gasosos mostrà un efecte sinèrgic, que mantingué l'eficàcia dels tractaments combinats durant 15 dies. En conservacions en fred, després de 14, 28 i 42 dies, d'incidència de podridura verda en mandarines 'Clemenules' i 'Ortanique' tractades en banys amb SP i 30kPa O2 durant 48h es reduí en un 100, 96 i 68%, i 100, 97 i 79%, respectivament. De nou, una forta sinergia s'observà entre els tractaments (Capítol 5). Les podridures verda i blava es controlaren eficaçment mitjançant la fumigació de llimones i taronges durant 6 h a 22ºC amb dos dosis de 3000 ¿L L-1 amoníac, injectades al inici del tractament i 2 h després (Capítol 6). El tractament amb amoníac controlà una soca de P. digitatum amb un alt nivell de resistència a IMZ. Tots estos tractaments, a diferents nivells, podrien substituir als fungicides de síntesis o augmentar l'eficàcia dels tractaments amb IMZ en el maneig poscollita dels cítrics. El desenvolupament de les podridures verda i blava en les especies y varietats de cítrics més importants comercialment s'avaluà durant quatre campanyes consecutives i es relacionà amb els paràmetres de qualitat de la fruita (Capítol 7). La susceptibilitat dels distints cultivars en ordre creixent fon Nova, Sanguinelli, Ortanique, Lanelate, Navelate, Fortune, Clemenules, Valencia, W. Navel, Oronules, Clemenpons, Marisol, Salustiana, Hernandina, i Nadorcott. Les característiques de la pell foren els paràmetres de qualitat més influents en la susceptibilitat dels cítrics a les pod
Montesinos Herrero, CI. (2016). Evaluation of alternatives to synthetic fungicides to control citrus postharvest diseases [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/63662
TESIS

Injuries sustained by citrus fruit during harvest and postharvest handling and storage allow the entry of wound pathogens, including Penicillium digitatum Sacc (green mold) and P. italicum Wehmer (blue mold), the two major pathogens of citrus fruit being the causal agents of green and blue mold diseases, respectively. Control of these pathogens has classically been conducted with chemical fungicides, but a growing international concern over the often indiscriminate use of synthetic fungicides, the presence of residues in the food and in the environment, as well as the development of fungal resistance and the possible harmful effects on human health, make it necessary to undertake new approaches for disease control that minimize health and environmental risks. In this work we evaluated the effectiveness of inducers of disease resistance for postharvest control of green mold of citrus. The chemical inducers exerted direct antimicrobial activity against of P. digitatum, P. italicum and Geotrichum candidum when tested in vitro on PDA and on orange peel extract agar media, with differences related to their concentrations and challenged pathogens. The antimicrobial efficacy of BABA and chitosan was also confirmed by their ability to inhibit in vitro P. digitatum conidial germination. Moreover, BABA and chitosan significantly reduced disease incidence and severity when applied on citrus fruit. On the opposite, none of ASM concentrations conferred protection against P. digitatum. The induction of resistance of BABA compound was detected on lemon and grapefruit when P. digitatum was inoculated into wounds made at 1 cm from the original BABA-treated sites. Curative and preventive treatments with Pseudomonas syringae, Trichoderma atroviride and Wickerhamomyces anomalus biocontrol strains were evaluated alone and in different combined mixtures with hot water, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, ASM and chitosan. Combined applications of sodium bicarbonate, hot water and biocontrol agents efficiently controlled green mold when treatments were applied 24 and 48 hours before the pathogen inoculation. When sodium carbonate, hot water and biocontrol agents were co-inoculated with P. digitatum green mold was significantly controlled as well even if less effectively, whereas fruit inoculated 24h before treatments developed green mold, and no treatment managed to control significantly P. digitatum. We have analysed gene expression levels of chitinase, b-1,3-glucanase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, gluthatione peroxidase in responses to curative and preventive biocontrol treatments. On the whole, CHI1, PAL and GPX1 over-expressions were observed within 2h after treatments, but only CHI1 over-expresion was observed for each treatment (curative and protectives). Quantitative RT-PCR technique showed that treatment with sodium bicarbonate, hot water and Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae 48SR2 induced the highest increases in the levels of chitinase gene transcripts 48h after treatments and 2h after pathogen inoculation. P. syringae pv. syringae strains are able produce cyclic lipodepsipeptides correlated with the ability to control postharvest fungal pathogens. In this work treatment with sodium bicarbonate, hot water and Pss 48SR2 generated weak over-expression of syrB1 gene and high over-expression of sypA in citrus peel tissue 48h after teatment and in absence of P. digitatum. However, P. digitatum inoculation strongly induced syrB1 gene expression and, on the opposite, weakly induced sypA genes expression. Pathogen inoculation resulted to be strongly stimulatory only to syrB1 expression, suggesting that at least syrB1 gene is involved in biocontrol activity. These data indicate type of treatments that could be successfully used to control post-harvest fruit diseases and suggest that a signal produced by the pathogen is essential for triggering enhanced transcription levels of both defence-related and lipodepsipeptides synthetase genes.

The mechanisms of action of antagonistic food-isolated yeasts, Wickerhamomyces anomalus, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Aureobasidium pullulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, were evaluated. For each yeast species, different mechanisms involved in biocontrol activity against pathogenic molds, such as iron competition, production of cell wall-degrading enzymes, production of VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds), and biofilm formation were clarified. The second objective was to determine the efficacy of yeast strains in controlling gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea on table grapes and strawberries, and green and blue mold decays caused by Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum, respectively, on mandarin fruits. Therefore, subsequent studies investigated the potential use of locust bean gum (LBG) edible coating enriched with antagonistic yeast cells and of a commercial carrier (polyacrylammide hydrogel spheres) emitting antifungal VOCs produced by yeasts. Among tested yeast strains, W. anomalus BS91 showed great antagonistic activity both by direct application of yeast cells and by application of VOCs. This strain is known to produce killer toxins that have been demonstrated to be exoglucanases, coded by the genes WaEXG1 and WaEXG2. To better understand the involvement of these genes in the antagonist activity of W. anomalus, characterization of the gene expression level of EXG1 and EXG2 in different yeast-host-pathogen interactions was carried out. The present study demonstrated the efficacy of the selected yeasts as postharvest antifungal agents both by direct application and incorporation in an edible coating (LBG). Moreover, it has been demonstrated as production of VOCs can play an essential role in the antagonistic activity of BCAs, suggesting a future use of polyacrylammide hydrogel beads as VOCs emitters during the shelf-life.

The influence of uniformity of heat transfer with respect to the effect of heat treatment was investigated by correlating engineering parameters with the quantified heat treatment effects. Differences in treatment effect in terms of quality, anti-pathogen and chilling injury (CI) control properties among commodities was studied by exposing them to different target temperatures. Similar effects were also evaluated and quantified within an individual commodity by a custom-designed device. This device, whose design parameters were based on a heat transfer simulation, insured that one hemisphere of a tomato was exposed to air at 39°C and 0.24 m s-1; while the other hemisphere was exposed to air at a lower temperature with a velocity of0.24 m s-1 or 0.12 m s-1.
Single-temperature heat treatment was most effective in limiting pathogen development and varied according to the parameter measured: 38°C for hypersensitive response (HR), 36°C for tissue breakdown, 36°C, 38°C or 39°C for mycelium abundance, and 38°C or 39°C for lesion size. Bilateral differences in temperature across the fruit significantly affected disease control: decreasing temperature differences significantly improved the uniformity of disease control.
Some of the effects of heat treatment on tomato quality, such as color development and resistance to CI, appear to be localized. A significant difference in redness was identified between heated parts and unheated parts of tomato fruits immediately after treatment; and the differences persisted during storage. Differences in lightness and chroma were noted on day 4. Delay in ripening caused by heat treatment was confirmed through the higher TA and TSS values of heated tomatoes or heated portion of partially heated tomatoes.
The heated parts of tomatoes showed a stronger resistance to chilling injury. The effective temperature control range for CI was wide, but temperatures higher than 39.5°C for 23 h hot air treatment could lead to adverse effects.
Differences in physiological effects between hemispheres in two chambers was reduced by directly decreasing the temperature difference between upper and lower chambers or relatively increasing the heating air flow rate, highlighting the importance of improving the uniformity of air flow around each individual treated fruit.

Use of Titanium Oxide (TiO2) to Decompose Ethylene during Storage of Horticultural Crops Abstract (English) Ethylene (C2H4) is a naturally occurring substance that acts as plant hormone on many horticultural and ornamental crops. It accelerates senescence, stimulates chlorophyll loss, enhances excessive softening, promotes discoloration and browning. These effects could be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the degree of quality changes on fruits and vegetables tissues. Among the techniques used to remove or inhibit ethylene action during postharvest handling of fresh products (potassium-based system, high temperature catalytic oxidation, inhibition of ethylene receptor), the use of titanium oxide (TiO2)-based materials with photocatalytic activity under UV light is one of the most promising. Use of TiO2 may represent an innovation in the postharvest field, due to its high oxidizing capacity, low cost and non-toxicity. In this study several materials were synthesized and tested for photocatalytic activity, and mesoporous mixed SiO2/TiO2 nanocomposite (80% of TiO2 and 20% of SiO2) showed the best light-dependent oxidant activity resulting in its complete elimination from the atmosphere in a closed system. Ethylene reduction rate increased when the contact time between C2H4 and the photocatalyst was prolonged. Mature green tomatoes were exposed to ethylene-enriched atmosphere mixture treated or not with SiO2/TiO2 and UV light. Photocatalytical destruction of ethylene by titanium oxide resulted in a slower ripening trend of the tomato berries as showed by pericarp reduced color evolution. The developed material would be suitable for postharvest handling of whole or fresh-cut fruits and vegetables in order to prolong their shelf-life. To decompose ethylene in storage room atmosphere, a fluidized bed photoreactor was designed and the relative prototype was manufactured. Its functionality was tested with different support material and actual photocatalytic activity was tested using SiO2/TiO2-coated alumina microspheres. A reduction of about 70% of ethylene concentration in the tested gas mixture was observed. However, the fluidization regime caused strong collisions between the coated microparticles causing a tendency of the coated powdered photocatalytic material to separate from its support that causing a progressive partial blocking of the reactor filters which resulted in a reduced flow rate and lower bed height. Hence a need to better refine photoreactor efficieny, in order to make it suitable for use in presence of possibly high quantity of powder separating from its support due to unavoidable collisions during the fluidization state. Abstract (Italian) L’etilene è una sostanza che agisce come ormone su una moltitudine di colture orticole ed ornamentali. Agisce sui tessuti vegetali accelerandone l’invecchiamento, stimolando la perdita di clorofilla ed il rammollimento, e favorendo l’imbrunimento. Queste modifiche possono risultare dannose, in relazione al tipo di prodotto ed all’entità dell’effetto sul tessuto vegetale. Tra le tecniche utilizzate per rimuovere l’etilene dalle celle di stoccaggio di prodotti vegetali freschi o per inibire la sua azione (permanganato di potassio, ossidazione catalitica ad alta temperatura, inibizione dei recettori), l’utilizzo di materiali a base di biossido di titanio (TiO2) ad attività fotocatalitica risulta essere una delle metodologie più promettenti. Lo sviluppo di tali materiali potrebbe rappresentare un’innovazione nel campo delle tecnologie postraccolta, data la sua alta capacità ossidante nei confronti dell’etilene, il basso costo e la non tossicità. Nel corso di questo studio, sono stati sintetizzati diversi materiali ed è stata testata la loro attività fotocatalitica. I materiali nanocompositi a base di SiO2 (20%) e TiO2 (80%) hanno mostrato la più alta attività catalitica nei confronti dell’etilene sotto l’effetto di luce ultravioletta. Tale attività aumenta all’aumentare del tempo di contatto tra il materiale e la miscela arricchita in etilene, fino alla sua completa eliminazione. Pomodori verdi sono stati trattati con etilene sottoposto o meno al trattamento con la polvere fotocatalitica e i raggi UV. La riduzione fotocatalitica dell’etilene è risultata nel rallentamento della maturazione delle bacche e minor cambiamento di colore dell’epicarpo. Il materiale sviluppato risulta dunque essere utilizzabile per l’applicazione postraccolta su vegetali interi o fresh-cut con lo scopo di prolungarne la vita commerciale. Per degradare l’etilene all’interno delle celle di stoccaggio, è stato sviluppato e realizzato un prototipo di fotoreattore a letto fluido. Il suo funzionamento è stato valutato testando diversi materiali di supporto per le polveri fotocatalitiche, mentre l’attività fotocatalitica è stata monitorata utilizzando microsfere di allumina ricoperte di polvere a base di SiO2 e TiO2. è stata osservata una riduzione della concentrazione di etilene del 70% circa, ma il regime di fluidizzazione ha comportato forti collisioni tra le particelle costituenti il letto fluido, provocando il distacco della polvere che le ricopriva. Tale polvere ha quindi causato il progressivo intasamento dei filtri e la successiva riduzione del grado di fluidizzazione e dell’altezza del letto fluido stesso. Ulteriori miglioramenti dell’efficienza del prototipo sono dunque necessari al fine di renderlo utilizzabile in azienda.

Vegetative annuals are currently popular in the ornamental horticulture industry. Many crops are newly domesticated species and little is known about how they perform during shipping or in the retail environment. Nine species and 21 cultivars were grown and underwent simulated shipping after harvest or nitrogen toning two weeks before harvest. Shipping was not found to affect the number of flowers on all but two cultivars post ship. Nitrogen toning affected vegetative growth of most Bracteantha bracteata (bracteantha) cultivars at harvest. All species had an effect due to toning postharvest. Bractenatha and Diascia ×hybrida (diascia) were chosen for further study due to their performance during these experiments. The effect of thidiazuron (TDZ) as a foliar spray and nitrogen toning on leaf yellowing and plant growth of bracteantha were evaluated. The two treatments were then combined to see how the two treatments worked together. It was found TDZ decreased leaf yellowing but its effects can be negated if the plants were not toned. Nitrogen toning reduced vegetative growth of the bracteantha without affecting the number of flowers on the plants. Diascia was found to have flower abscission in response to shipping. Further trials were conducted using 1- methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) an ethylene inhibitor. The effects of shipping duration and temperature were investigated. 1-MCP was found to hold flowers on treated plants longer postharvest than those not treated. Plants shipped for one day had no differences from the control but shipping for two days had a negative effect on plant quality. Postharvest shelf life was decreased when diascia was shipped at 24 °C when compared to cooler shipping temperatures. These results indicate shipping for no longer than one day and at less than 24 °C is recommended for diascia.

Thesis (MScFoodSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of storage temperature and duration on the proximate composition, physico-chemical properties and selected bioactive components (vitamin C, anthocyanins and β-carotene) of arils from three pomegranate cultivars (‘Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ and ‘Ruby’). Pomegranates were hand-peeled and stored at three different temperatures (1°, 4° and 8°C) at 95% relative humidity (RH) for 14 days, with an additional day at ambient conditions (~21°C). Physico-chemical attributes, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid and proximate composition was measured on day 0, 7, 14 and 15. O2 consumption and CO2 production increased at elevated temperatures. No visual mould growth was detected in ‘Arakta’ and ‘Bahgwa’ arils after 14 days at 1°C 95% RH and after 7 days at 4°C 95% RH. Higher storage temperature negatively affected the proximate composition, physico-chemical attributes and bioactive components. The physico-chemical properties and selected bioactive components (anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, β-carotene) of pomegranate arils (‘Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ and ‘Ruby’) packed in three punnets made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET1 - clampshell; PET2 - tub and lid) or polypropylene (PP - tub and lid) material were studied for a period of 14 days at 5°C 95% RH. Packaging did not have a major effect on the physico-chemical and bioactive components of pomegranate arils, although PET2 had relatively stable headspace gas composition within the punnets. Storage duration caused a rise in pH and a decline in titratable acidity irrespective of packaging type. No visual mould growth was detected in ‘Arakta’ arils after 7 days irrespective of the type of packaging, while mould growth was detected in all ‘Ruby’ in all types of packaging. The earlier onset of visual microbial growth lead to a baseline microbiological study evaluating the effect of pre-storage water dipping of whole fruit on the microbiological quality of pomegranate arils stored for 8 days at 5°C 95% RH. Freshly harvested pomegranate fruit (‘Bahgwa’) were dipped in distilled water and air-dried (dipped fruit) or stored without postharvest dipping (dry fruit) at 7°C 95% RH for 15 weeks. Arils were extracted, packaged and stored at 5°C 95±8.34% RH for 8 days. Total viable aerobic mesophillic bacteria, yeasts and moulds, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were enumerated. After 8 days at 5°C 95% RH no microbial growth was detected on arils from ‘dry fruit’, while ‘dipped fruit’ showed increased yeast and mould counts (4.74 log cfu.g-1) and total viable aerobic mesophillic bacteria count (3.73 log cfu.g-1). In conclusion storage temperature affects the nutritional quality of pomegranate arils and is best maintained at 1°C for 14 days or 4°C for 7 days at 95% RH. Current South African packaging used to market pomegranate arils don’t have a major effect on the nutritional quality of pomegranate arils, although the headspace gas composition was most stable in PET2 packaging. Pre-storage water dipping of whole pomegranates should be avoided as this could reduce the shelf life of extracted pomegranate arils.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die gevolge van bergingstemperatuur en -tydperk op die proksimale samestelling, fisies-chemiese eienskappe en geselekteerde bio-aktiewe komponente (vitamien C, antosianiene en β-karoteen) van granaatpitte van drie kultivars ('Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ en ‘Ruby’) te ondersoek. Granaatpitte is geberg by drie temperature (1°, 4° en 8°C) 95% RH vir 14 dae plus ‘n addisionele dag by kamertemperatuur (~21°C). Fisies-chemiese eienskappe, antosianiene, askorbiensuur en proksimale samestelling is gemeet op dag 0, 7, 14 en 15. Die granaatpitte se O2-verbruik en CO2-produksie het toegeneem by hoër bergingstemperature. Geen swamgroei was sigbaar na 7 dae by 1°C 95% RH sowel as 14 dae 4°C 95% RH. Hoër bergingstemperatuur het die proksimale samestelling, fisies-chemiese eienskappe en bio-aktiewe komponente negatief beïnvloed. Die fisies-chemiese eienskappe en geselekteerde bio-aktiewe komponente (antosianiene, askorbiensuur, β-karoteen) van granaatpitte ('Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ en ‘Ruby’) is verpak in drie bakkies vervaardig van polyethyleentereftalaat (PET1 – klamp-bakkie, PET2 – bakkie en deksel) of polipropileen (PP – bakkie en deksel) en bestudeer vir 14 dae by 5°C 95% RH. Heel granate was onderworpe aan 10-14 weke bergingstydperk by 7°C 95% RH voor die granate geskil en verpak is. Die bakkie tipe het nie 'n duidelike uitwerking op die fisies-chemiese en bio-aktiewe komponente van die granaatpitte gehad nie, alhoewel die gas samestelling in die kopspasie van PET2 bakkies relatief onveranderd gebly het. Gedurende die bergingstydperk het die pH gestyg en die titreerbare suur gedaal ongeag die bakkie tipe. Geen visuele swamgroei was sigbaar in ‘Arakta’ granaatpitte na 7 dae by 5°C 95% RH terwyl ‘Ruby’ granaatpitte wel swamgroei getoon het ongeag die bakkie tipe. Die vroeë aanvang van sigbare swamgroei het tot ‘n verdere mikrobiologiese basislynstudie gelei. Die uitwerking van voorbergingswaterdompeling van heel granate is geëvalueer op die mikrobiologiese gehalte van die granaatpitte wat gestoor was vir 8 dae by 5°C 95% RH. Vars ge-oesde ‘Bahgwa' granate is in water gedompel en gelugdroog (gedompelde granate) of glad nie in water gedompel nie (droë granate) en geberg by 7°C 95% RH vir 15 weke. Granate is ontpit, verpak en geberg by 5°C 95±8.34% RH vir 8 dae. Totale lewensvatbare aërobiese mesofilliese bakterieë, giste en swamme, Escherichia coli en Staphylococcus aureus telling is vervat. Granaatpitte van ‘droë granate’ was vry van enige mikrobiese groei na 8 dae. Die ‘gedompelde granate’ het ‘n toename in giste en swamme (4,74 log cfu.g-1) en totale lewensvatbare aërobiese mesofilliese bakterieë (3,73 log cfu.g-1) getoon. Hierdie studie maan dus teen waterdompeling van heel granate voor ‘n bergingsperiode van 10-15 weke. Ten slotte word die voedingswaarde van granaatpitte wel beïnvloed deur ‘n hoër bergingstemperatuur en sal die granaatpitte se gehalte behou word by 1°C vir 14 dae of 4°C vir 7 dae by 95% RH. Die voedingswaarde van granaatpitte word nie beïnvloed deur kommersiële verpakking wat tans in Suid-Afrika gebruik word om granaatpitte te adverteer nie, alhoewel PET2 bakkies se gas samestelling in die kopspasie onveranderd gebly het. Waterdompeling van heel granate voor ‘n verlengde bergingstydperk moet eerder vermy word aangesien dit die raklewe van granaatpitte verminder.

Avocados are an important horticultural crop in South Africa, especially in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. The distance to traditional export markets, phytosanitary restrictions to lucrative markets such as China, the USA and Japan and increased competition in the European market have challenged the South African avocado industry. The industry has responded with improved logistics and shipping, a co-ordinated market access program and a global system to co-ordinate exports of avocados to the European market. To remain competitive on the global market, further improvements and innovations are required to improve the efficiency of postharvest operations. These improvements and innovations should be guided by a greater understanding of postharvest physiology. Avocados are a relatively new export crop, so there is still much to be learnt about avocado postharvest physiology and the optimisation of postharvest management. In this regard, reduced temperature storage (1°C) and modified humidity packaging (MHP) were investigated for their effect on fruit physiology and quality, the effect of a water- and ABA-infusion on ripening was examined and the effect of a cold chain break on fruit physiology and quality determined; near-infrared spectroscopy was also examined for its potential for its use in the avocado industry. As an initial study, the relationships between individual sugars, protein and oil were studied to understand the changes in avocado fruit during ripening. It was found that mannoheptulose and perseitol were the predominant sugars at harvest, but declined to very low levels during the first 10 days postharvest. The concentrations of glucose and fructose increased, while sucrose declined slightly during ripening. The concentration of protein increased sigmoidally during ripening, reflecting the increase in the ripening enzymes, particularly cellulase and polygalacturonase. The oil content fluctuated slightly during ripening. It is suggested that mannoheptulose and perseitol are important carbon and energy sources during ripening. Glucose concentration was also found to increase earlier in fast ripening fruit compared to slow ripening fruit, which is related to increased cellulase activity and may be related to the ABA functioning. Thereafter, storage and ripening trials in two consecutive seasons showed that 1°C storage and the use of MHP for 28 days reduced mass loss, water loss, ethylene production, respiration, softening and heptose consumption, without appreciably affecting fungal rots, physiological disorders or external chilling injury, compared to fruit stored at 5.5°C and regular atmosphere respectively. Also, the storage of fruit in MHP delayed the rise in the activity of cellulase during ripening, compared to fruit not stored in MHP, but there was no significant difference in the peak activity of cellulase, polygalacturonase or pectin methylesterase. In a separate experiment, fruit ripening was significantly affected by the infusion of ABA in an aqueous solution. Water slightly reduced the variation in ripening while ABA reduced the time to ripening and the variation; it is suggested that water stress and ABA are intrinsically involved in the ripening processes and may act as a ripening trigger. The water concentration in fruit was measured non-destructively using reflectance NIR; this model was used to determine the maturity of fruit and the loss of water during cold storage. In the cold chain break experiment, it was found that although fruit recovered after a cold chain break, in terms of ethylene production and respiration, there was a loss in quality because of severe shrivelling as a result of increased water loss. Fruit that were stored at 1°C were generally of a better quality at ripeness, if the cold chain was broken, compared to fruit stored at 5.5°C. In a follow-up experiment, it was found that significant changes occurred in avocado physiology over a 6h period. The respiration rate of fruit significantly increased after 4h at room temperature and mannoheptulose declined by 32% in control fruit and by 16% in ethephon-treated fruit after 6h. This demonstrates the potential for quality loss in a short amount of time. Furthermore, a model of avocado ripening is proposed, outlining the role of water, ABA, ethylene, respiration, ripening enzymes and individual sugars. This study has contributed to the understanding of avocado postharvest physiology and should aid in better management of avocados for improved fruit quality and consumer satisfaction.
Thesis (Ph.D.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.