Academic literature on the topic 'Portuguese language, dictionaries, german'

Perhaps intentionality is the most problematic category in the definition of suicide, however there still seems to be no literature review of relevant theoretical arguments and main dictionaries of different languages. Given this situation, the general objective of this study was to understand how to treat the category of intentionality in the definition of suicide. A qualitative, quantitative, exploratory and bibliographic methodology was used. A narrative review based on 27 authors from different areas included 19 theoretical arguments, organized on a matrix. 7 arguments are applicable in defense of the thesis that suicide is intentional, another 7 to defend the opposite thesis that this phenomenon is not intentional and the remaining 5 apparently in favor of either of the two. Moving forward to an integrative review guided by 8 criteria, 58 definitions of noun and/or verb were extracted from 36 monolingual, digital dictionaries of Portuguese, Spanish, English, French, Italian, German and Russian. 72.22% of the selected dictionaries refer to suicide as intentional, and 27.78%, including all Portuguese ones, do not characterize it as such. In the first group, intentionality was referred mostly by lexical items equivalent to “intentional”, “voluntary” and “deliberate”, as well as adverbs based on them. The conclusion is that it is not feasible to include intentionality in the definition of suicide, because academic and lexicographic sources lack consensus. It is recommended to overcome the qualitative and quantitative limitations of this study, as well as to consult more than one definition of suicide and in different languages.

The years from 1830 to 1848 constitute a turning point in the history of political asylum in France. During this period, for the first time ever, the political authorities were obliged to reflect on asylum and to establish a large-scale policy in order to cope with the arrival of almost 20,000 Polish, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German refugees. The impossibility of defining this section of the population in conformity with juridical criteria or with well established frontiers is clearly reflected in the dictionaries of the French language, in the debates in the parliamentary assemblies as well as in the legislation adopted and its inapplicability. In view of the absence of a definition of a refugee, could the asylum policy under the July Monarchy be perceived as if it were based on law ? Wouldn't it be more accurate to argue that what prevailed should rather be defined as charitable measures ? This article aims at answering these questions and thereby understanding the nature of the principles that governed the treatment of refugees in France in this period.

As a result of the wealth of artistic expression that Italy has produced over the centuries, the Italian cultural heritage lexicon has become a crucial object of interest for scholars of varied disciplines. However, while monolingual art dictionaries are currently available, there are no multilingual tools that offer the same level of quality and comprehensiveness. The present work moves in that direction. In particular, the aim of this paper is to describe the work done to date in designing and implementing the LBC database, a resource for constructing a multilingual art dictionary in nine languages (Chinese, French, English, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish and Turkish). This database, made up of nine corresponding corpora, will contain texts whose subject is cultural heritage, ranging from technical texts on art history to books on art appreciation, such as tour guides, and, lastly, travel books highlighting Italian art and culture. Below is a summary of the decisions taken during the work process and the challenges that lie ahead for its future development.

There are studies that have analysed Portuguese language dictionaries and that have highlighted the importance of the presence of examples in dictionaries (Santiago, 2012; Lu, 2018). Owing to this importance, it was decided to compare the frequencies of examples of two sets of words, namely, contrastive words and verbs that may convey recommendation or advice. These frequencies were obtained from a sample of the main body of Portuguese language dictionaries that are available online and from a sample of the main body of online English language dictionaries that have an orientation towards learning English as a foreign language. This comparison was carried out by using a search bar and a software application created by the author. From the analyses of the data which had been collected, it was argued that, in some cases, learners of Portuguese as a foreign language would have to make use of other sources of examples to learn to use the target words. On the other hand, in similar cases, the need to use sources of examples apart from those presented in the main body of the target English language dictionaries, while learning the English language, could be reduced. The pedagogical implications of this argument for learning and teaching Portuguese as a foreign language were presented. The limitations of the present study and future research possibilities were also discussed.

The functioning of language is associated with the disappearance of certain words, with the emergence of new ones, with the change in the meaning or stylistic status of words. Each of the ways of developing the vocabulary of the German language has its own characteristics. The paper draws attention to these features. The paper describes verbal neoplasms not registered in dictionaries until the middle of the 20th century, selected from the texts of the German newspapers “Süddeutsche Zeitung”, “Frankfurter Allgemeine”, “Der Spiegel”, “Joe”, “Alles für die Frau”, “GEO” and others. The study considers the linguistic material of some dictionaries published in the second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, including dictionaries of colloquial youth vocabulary. So, the main idea of this article is to highlight the peculiarities of word formation in German linguistics through the history.

The paper defines the ways and peculiarities of word formation in modern German language. The paper deals with one of theways of enriching the verb vocabulary in the modern German language, in particular wordbuilding. In the result of the analysis of the language material, the most productive models and means of the word-building of the verbs are emphasized including word-building models borrowed from other languages. The vocabulary of the language, being a system, is in constant motion. The functioning of language is associated with the disappearance of certain words, with the emergence of new ones, with the change in the meaning or stylistic status of words. Each of the ways of developing the vocabulary of the German language has its own characteristics. The paper draws attention to these features. The paper describes verbal neoplasms not registered in dictionaries until the middle of the 20th century, selected from the texts of the German newspapers “Süddeutsche Zeitung”, “Frankfurter Allgemeine”, “Der Spiegel”, “Joe”, “Alles für die Frau”, “GEO” and others. The study considers the linguistic material of some dictionaries published in the second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, including dictionaries of colloquial youth vocabulary. So, the main idea of this article is to highlight the peculiarities of word formation in German linguistics through the history.

Abstract This article aims at describing how Brazilian Portuguese dictionaries register lexical innovations by making a comparison between two Portuguese language general-purpose dictionaries which offer recent online versions: Houaiss and Aulete. In order to carry out this comparison, some morphological elements (morphemes and bound bases) and lexical units were chosen. Such elements have recently undergone changes in meaning and usage which may be noticed from the systematic observation of neologisms in Brazilian Portuguese. Our study has revealed that both dictionaries introduce new words and new grammatical usages; they differ in the manner they present the grammatical structures corresponding to these new words.

The article presents the results of the study of phonetic information provided in Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries which were compiled in Germany in the 19th century. The relevance of this research is determined by the lack of metalexicographic works on a detailed analysis of this issue. According to their title pages and prefaces, most of the Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries were addressed equally to Germanspeaking and Russian-speaking users. The comparative study applied in this research shows how German lexicographers meet the need of both target groups for pronunciation information. In the course of the research, we studied the bilingual Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries in relation to the formats of presenting phonetic information, the sound composition of Russian and German words, and of recording their prosodic characteristics (stress). The research reveals that German lexicographers of the 19th century paid considerable attention to the elaboration of phonetic information which was presented in the analyzed dictionaries in two formats. Information on pronunciation was either shown in dictionary entries or given separately outside the lemma list in the surrounding text (in phonetic appendices and tables). The most commonly used format is the presentation of the pronunciation directly in dictionary entries. By the end of the century, phonetic information was additionally introduced in the macrostructure of the dictionaries in the form of phonetic appendices/notes or alphabet tables with pronunciation rules. The problem of the accurate representation of the sound composition of words was not acutely posed in the dictionaries. Apparently, the reason is that pronunciation in Russian and German was quite in line with spelling so that why this type of information could be basically left out. Nevertheless, in some dictionaries, this phonetic parameter found some elaboration. In most cases, the sound composition was represented only for Russian words. All Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries indicated word stress. But in most dictionaries, stress is placed only on Russian words. Only in three dictionaries, lexicographers indicated the position of stress on words of both languages. The analysis shows that information on pronunciation recorded for Russian words was slightly more elaborated than for German ones. It means that the main target group of these dictionaries were still German-speaking users. Based on the results of the research, a conclusion is made that German lexicographers tried in their own way to meet the requirements of the users and to make their dictionaries as user-friendly as possible. This experience is very valuable and of undoubted interest for contemporary lexicography. Therefore, there is a need in further special investigations dealing with these dictionaries. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

In this paper we present the state of development of DIGRAMA, a system of electronic dictionaries and grammars of Portuguese. We describe briefly the general characteristics of the system, concentrating then on the analysis of two dictionary modules: DIGRAS and DIGRAF. The former is a dictionary of simple words, the latter is a dictionary of inflected forms. To each lexical entry of DIGRAS has been associated a code corresponding to the formal description of the morphological properties of the entries. This information constitutes the basis for a program of automatic generation of inflected forms. DIGRAF is made up of all the inflected forms from the words of DIGRAS.

Large-coverage dictionaries and grammars have been built for Portuguese using ladl methods and formats. They are now used by intex in general text processing operations. We present the main features of such linguistic data, and we refer to their maintenance and extension. The presentation is illustrated by various examples of automatic text parsing based on those dictionaries and grammars.

A presente pesquisa pertence à área de conhecimento chamada Lexicografia e trata da inserção de colocações verbais em dicionários bilíngües e bilemáticos de alemão-português. Tendo em vista que a maioria dos livros didáticos de alemão como língua estrangeira não dá um tratamento adequado a elas, é necessário que o aprendiz procure-as nos dicionários, tanto no momento da decodificação, quanto no da codificação de textos. Essa pesquisa levantou certo número de colocações verbais consideradas fundamentais na formação de um vocabulário-base em situações rotineiras de comunicação, verificando em três dicionários se elas ocorrem e como ocorrem, na tentativa de estabelecer até que ponto tais dicionários se constituem numa ajuda efetiva não só na compreensão, como (principalmente) na produção de textos.
This research belongs to the area of knowledge called Lexicography and treats of the insertions of verbal collocations in bilingual and bilemmatical German- Portuguese dictionaries. Considering that the majority of the didactic books of German as foreign language does not treat them properly, it is necessary that the learner looks them up in dictionaries at the moment of the decoding as well as when coding texts. For this research we selected a certain number of verbal collocations considered fundamental to the formation of a basic vocabulary for routine communication situations, checking in three dictionaries if they occur and how they occur, in an attempt to establish how these dictionaries represent an effective help not only for comprehension but also for text production.

Este trabalho pretende contribuir para o estudo da Lexicografia no Brasil e abordar um assunto pouco estudado na literatura metalexicográfica: a informação fônica nos dicionários. Ainda que a principal função dos dicionários seja a de inventariar as palavras de um idioma e oferecer seu significado, é sabido que os consulentes esperam muito mais dessas obras. Além do significado, os usuários desejam encontrar nos dicionários a maior quantidade possível de esclarecimentos gramaticais. Dado que a pronúncia está entre as informações que constam nos dicionários, este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar essas indicações em dicionários monolíngues das línguas italiana e portuguesa e em dicionários bilíngues italiano/português. A pesquisa visa responder, com a metodologia empregada, as seguintes indagações: 1) qual sistema de notação é utilizado para anotar a pronúncia das entradas? 2) como a informação fônica é descrita no guia de pronúncia dos dicionários? 3) os dicionários descrevem as variações de pronúncia existentes nas línguas em estudo? Instruções de como pronunciar as palavras propiciam autonomia para que os aprendizes possam produzir oralmente as palavras. Com as análises, foi possível verificar se os dicionários em estudo conseguem fornecer ao consulente, de forma clara e satisfatória, as informações que ele busca quanto à pronúncia. Por fim, a proposta de melhorias nos sistemas adotados pelos dicionários no que tange a pronúncia tem o intuito de tornar o dicionário uma ferramenta mais útil no ensino/aprendizagem da produção oral das línguas italiana e portuguesa.
This work is intended to collaborate with the study of lexicography in Brazil as well as to address the subject yet little studied in literature metalexicography: phonic information in dictionaries. Although the main function of dictionaries is to relate a series of words from one language and also to offer its meaning it is known that the querents expect a lot more of this kind of publication. Besides the meaning, users wish to find in dictionaries as much grammatical clarification as possible. Since the pronunciation is among the information contained in the dictionaries, this work aims to analyze these indications in monolingual dictionaries of the Italian and Portuguese languages and in bilingual Italian / Portuguese dictionaries. The research primarily aims to answer, with the methodology applied, the following questions: 1) Which notation system is used to annotate the pronunciation of the entries? 2) How is phonic information described in the dictionary pronunciation guide? 3) Do the dictionaries describe the variations of pronunciation in the languages studied? The instructions on how to pronounce the words provide autonomy so the learners can produce words orally. By the conduced analysis it was possible to verify if the studied dictionaries can provide the querent with the information for pronunciation searched in a clear and satisfactory way. Finally, the proposed improvements in the systems adopted by the dictionaries in terms of pronunciation aims to make the dictionary a more useful tool in teaching-learning oral production of the Italian and Portuguese languages.

This thesis deals with idioms taken from contemporary newspapers. The purpose is to find out which idioms are known and used by native speakers of different ages and also to what extent the entries in the dictionaries offer accurate descriptions to the meaning of these idioms. We already know that idioms which have been modified, as often is the case in newspapers, are often more difficult to understand than others.

The study has been conducted by means of questionnaires answered by native speakers in Germany. In order to assess the ability that German native speakers have to understand and use these idioms, I have chosen informants from three age groups; the first two groups of informants are grammar school students at a German Gymnasium, in the 7 and the 10 form respectively and the last group consists of adult speakers in Germany with university education. This last group conforms to the final phase of language acquisition.

The results clearly show that younger generations - and to a certain extent older students and indeed educated adults - are less likely to understand idioms which have complex explanations in the dictionaries and/or whose meanings have been modified. Similarly, all age groups are more likely to understand idioms with simple explanations, those which appear frequently on the Internet and those whose meanings have not been modified, though there is a higher degree of “tolerance” when it comes to complex idioms among the adults.

It is also clear that the meaning of an idiom cannot always be fully explained out of context. In most cases dictionaries offer an explanation that functions in most contexts, yet it is not uncommon for the meaning of an idiom to be complex and to vary more or less depending on the context. As a way to find out how frequent the idioms are, I have compared their frequency in www.Google.de and found that there is a clear correlation between high frequency in Google and the knowledge displayed by the informants.

A presente dissertação tem por proposta investigar a construção da identidade infantil a partir do discurso de adultos e crianças que se apresenta na mídia impressa em revistas voltadas para o público infantil, publicadas na década de 1930, no Brasil e na Alemanha. Busca-se observar como se caracteriza esse discurso e quais argumentos foram imprescindíveis para a construção de tal identidade em dois regimes nacionalistas concomitantes - o início da Era Vargas, no Brasil, e do Nazismo, na Alemanha. Os corpora constituem-se da revista \"O Tico-Tico\", publicada no Rio de Janeiro; e dos textos do jornal Hilf mit!\" Illustrierte deutsche Schülerzeitung\", publicado em Berlim. Esses periódicos eram distribuídos nas maiores metrópoles de seus respectivos países e, por isso, se apresentam como bastante significativos quanto à representação da imagem da criança nessas grandes cidades e em culturas distintas. Visando observar tal questão, selecionamos como embasamento teórico os estudos de Wolf (1999) e Lopes (2005) no que se refere às pesquisas em Comunicação; os preceitos de Perelman e Olbrechts-Tyteca (1996 [1958]) e Klein (1980) a respeito de valores argumentativos e validades coletivas; a definição de Ideologia proposta por van Dijk (2000); os conceitos de Discurso Autoritário e Discurso Interiormente Persuasivo, proposto por Bakhtin (2015 [1930]); bem como pesquisas da área de Identidade no Discurso, como de Jungwirth (2007), Moita Lopes (2002) e seus seguidores. Após traçarmos o contexto histórico, político e comunicacional que circundam os periódicos, os textos foram analisados, com luz às teorias da Argumentação, buscando-se observar as estratégias discursivas e, sobretudo, os valores argumentativos e as validades coletivas difundidos nos discursos a partir da seleção lexical; os resultados obtidos na pesquisa nos permitiram observar questões voltadas às ideologias e às identidades construídas nesses textos. As análises apontaram para uma maior autonomia discursiva, ideológica e identitária nos textos de autoria atribuída às crianças na revista brasileira em relação à revista alemã, apesar de tal autonomia não se apresentar como algo absoluto em relação a alguns valores sociais.
This masters dissertation aims to investigate the construction of the juvenile identity through the discourse of adults and children presented in printed media, specifically in magazines whose target audience is children. The magazines analyzed were published in the 1930s in Brazil and Germany. The intention is to observe how the aforementioned discourse is characterized and which arguments are essential for the construction of such an identity during two distinct political periods, Vargas Brazil and Nazi Germany. The corpora consist of the magazine \"O Tico-Tico\", published in Rio de Janeiro; and of texts from the newspaper \"Hilf mit! Illustrierte deutsche Schülerzeitung\", published in Berlin. Those magazines were distributed in the main metropolises of their countries of origin and therefore may be significant in the representation of the image of children in those large cities and distinct cultures. Therefore, the chosen theoretical foundation includes: the communication studies of Wolf (1999) and Lopes (2005); the precepts of Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca (1996 [1958]) and Kleins (1980) argumentative values and collective validity; Van Dijk\'s (2000) definition of ideology; the concept of authoritarian speech by Bakhtin (2015 [1930]); as well as works by specialists in identity in discourse such as Jungwirth (2007), Moita Lopes (2002) and others that study their works. After investigating the historical, political and communicational context that surrounds those magazines, the texts were analyzed using the theory of argumentation, to observe the discourse strategies and especially the argumentative values diffused in the discourses through the lexical selection. The results obtained in this research allow us to observe issues related to the ideologies and identities that were constructed in those texts. The analyses point to greater autonomy in terms of discourse, ideology and identity in Brazilian texts, whose authorship was attributed to children, in comparison with the German texts, although such autonomy is not absolute regarding some social values.

The present Dissertation aims at identifying and describing the historical conditions which enabled the origin and development of the teaching/learning of Portuguese as a foreign language. To do so, we analyzed two works of Antonio Vieyra Transtagano (1712-1797): A New Grammar of the Portuguese Language in four Parts (1768) and A Dictionary of the Portuguese and English Languages in two Parts (1773), by looking into their repercussions in the teaching/learning of Portuguese as a foreign language. Though there had been two previous similar publications by different authors, A Compleat Account (1701) and Grammatica Lusitano-Anglica ou Portugueza, e Inglesa (1731), by the time Transtagano‟s works were published, neither had the longevity and served as reference for the writing of Portuguese grammars and dictionaries as those of Transtagano‟s. The period between the 17th and the 18th centuries marked the commercial expansion by means of mercantilism, which stimulated the competition among European nations for a greater number of profitable markets. That was also the time when the national languages achieved their consolidation, making for the transformation of ideology inside the manuals of language teaching as the objectives and demands of society changed. Thus, the Portuguese language, besides being seen as a tool for proselytizing purposes, it acquired a mediating statute in the trading intercourse. Based on this context, we tried to look into the above mentioned grammar and dictionary the linguistic elements which could meet the needs of that moment as regards the teaching/learning of foreign languages.
Este trabalho pretende identificar e descrever as condições históricas que permitiram a origem e o desenvolvimento do ensino/aprendizagem do português como língua estrangeira. Para tanto, analisa duas das de Antonio Vieyra Transtagano (1712-1797): a New Grammar of the Portuguese Language in four Parts (1768) e seu A Dictionary of the Portuguese and English Languages in two Parts (1773), observando suas repercussões no ensino/aprendizagem do português como língua estrangeira. Embora já se tivesse notícia de obras produzidas, como o A Compleat Account (1701) e a Grammatica Lusitano-Anglica ou Portugueza, e Inglesa (1731), com o mesmo intuito quando os trabalhos de Transtagano foram publicados, as deste autor tanto foram longevas quanto serviram de referência para a confecção de gramáticas do português como língua estrangeira por autores não portugueses. O período entre os séculos XVII e XVIII marcou a expansão comercial através do mercantilismo, estimulando a competição entre os países pelo maior número de mercados. Foi também o momento em que os vernáculos atingiram sua consolidação, repercutindo na transformação da ideologia dentro dos manuais de ensino de língua à medida que os objetivos e exigências da sociedade se modificaram. Dessa forma, a língua portuguesa, além de ser vista como um instrumento para os fins catequéticos, adquiriu o estatuto de mediador nos intercâmbios comerciais. Com base nesse contexto, buscamos investigar na gramática e no dicionário supramencionados os elementos linguísticos que pudessem atender às necessidades daquele momento em relação ao ensino/aprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras.

Esta tese de doutorado demonstra a importância e atualidade do livro Sobre a concepção das afasias um estudo crítico, escrito por Sigmund Freud no ano de 1891. A tese mostra que o livro é uma obra fundadora da psicanálise, que fomentou debates realizados em âmbito acadêmico no Brasil, na interface tradução e psicanálise. Para fazê-lo, foram eleitos cinco conceitos-chave da psicanálise que tiveram seus usos inaugurados no livro e, a partir deles, foi ilustrada sua influência em cinco teses de doutorado defendidas no Brasil sobre esse tema. Assim sendo, a tese visa a restituir a esta obra freudiana, ainda pouco conhecida, seu lugar de direito no universo da psicanálise e nos Estudo da Tradução e, por isso, apresenta uma proposta de tradução feita diretamente do alemão para o português.
This PhD thesis shows the contemporary importance of the Freudian book On Aphasia a critical study, written by Sigmund Freud in 1891. It reveals that this book represents a fundamental psychoanalytical work that has instigate several debates within the Brazilian academic field in the interface between translation and psychoanalysis. Therefore five psychoanalytical concepts that have been first presented on it were chosen to argue their influence upon five Brazilian PhD theses dealing with the same issue. This work aimed to restitute to the Freudian book its deserved place in both the psychoanalytical realm and the Translation Studies. On that ground, it proposed a translation composed straight from the German language into Portuguese.

O presente estudo analisa o contato linguístico alemão-português em três comunidades menonitas no sul do Brasil, bem como também o contato linguístico alemão-português-inglês em uma comunidade menonita localizada no estado de Goiás. Todos esses grupos são de origem anabatista (1525). Caracterizam-se, por isso, como étnico-religiosos. Mesmo com o passar dos vários séculos, eles mantêm ainda fortes laços de língua, igreja, família e herança sociocultural, formando assim colônias do tipo “ilhas linguísticas”, resultantes de um processo migratório transnacional. Em 1930, chega, ao sul do Brasil, o primeiro grupo de menonitas que, após um difícil período de colonização em Santa Catarina, migra para o Paraná e Rio Grande do Sul, onde funda as três comunidades selecionadas para este estudo: a comunidade menonita de Curitiba (PR), a Colônia Nova (RS) e a Colônia Witmarsum (PR). Nesses núcleos, instaurou-se - de modo geral - um trilinguismo, do qual fazem parte: o Hochdeutsch (alemão standard), usado para situações formais como a igreja e a escola; o Plautdietsch, uma variante do baixo-alemão empregada para situações informais do dia-a-dia; e o português, principalmente para o contato interétnico. O uso do Hochdeutsch na igreja foi, por décadas, praticamente exclusivo, ou seja, a religião constituiu um fator determinante tanto para a coesão da comunidade menonita, como também para a manutenção do Hochdeutsch. O outro grupo de menonitas, proveniente dos Estados Unidos e Canadá, mais conhecido como os Holdeman Menonitas, chegou a Rio Verde (Goiás) em 1968. Este grupo, por ser mais conservador, segue normas antigas, entre as quais: a ênfase particular no não-conformismo com o mundo, com vestimenta e com a forma de viver. As marcas mais evidentes deste comportamento são o uso de barba por todos os homens e o uso do véu, bem como de vestidos, por todas as mulheres membros da igreja. Esta comunidade, além do português, faz uso principalmente do inglês como língua de imigração. O Plautdietsch, portanto, é atualmente falado somente por algumas pessoas da geração mais idosa. Mesmo vivendo em comunidades mais isoladas, marcadas pela sua fé e religião e usufruindo de uma relativa autonomia, observam-se, em nossos dados, traços de influência característicos do novo meio. Com o contato crescente do alemão com o português, o uso do Plautdietsch e do Hochdeutsch deixou de ser exclusivo, tornando-se o uso do português uma constante em diversos contextos da comunidade, conforme mostra o estudo de Dück (2005). A complexidade da situação linguística observada nas comunidades em estudo levanta uma série de perguntas, sobretudo o papel que o Plautdietsch desempenha nas diferentes comunidades, a sua vitalidade face ao prestígio das línguas-teto (Dachsprachen) português e Hochdeutsch (ou inglês), bem como os fatores que poderiam levar a uma substituição de uma variedade pela outra. São objetivos deste estudo: a) identificar o papel do Plautdietsch em relação ao contexto, considerando as variáveis sociais presentes em cada comunidade e, as funções de vernáculo e de delimitador da identidade étnica dos menonitas, comumente atribuídas à variedade substandard; b) descrever o grau de manutenção e a vitalidade linguística do Plautdietsch em contato com as variedades standard do português, inglês e Hochdeutsch nas comunidades menonitas em estudo; c) comparar as atitudes dos falantes com seus usos linguísticos, identificando processos convergentes e divergentes subjacentes ao estágio atual de vitalidade ou perda da variedade substandard do Plautdietsch; d) descrever o grau de substituição das línguas-teto Hochdeutsch e inglês pelo português (Dachpsrachenwechsel); e) analisar o que a escolha da(s) variedade(s) revela sobre a organização e a coesão étnico-religiosa da comunidade. Para responder a essas questões, este estudo orienta-se pelo modelo da dialetologia pluridimensional e relacional/contatual como ciência ampla da variação, que combina a dialetologia areal com a sociolinguística. Por meio desse modelo, busca-se verificar em que pontos e em que dimensões e parâmetros ocorre determinada variante ou comportamento. A presente pesquisa distingue-se de estudos sociolinguísticos monopontuais, centrados em uma comunidade bilíngue, por comparar contextos diferentes e fatores condicionadores diversos em uma rede de quatro pontos, localizados em três diferentes estados do Brasil. A coleta de dados nessas localidades incluiu a análise de aspectos históricos e demográficos, assim como também entrevistas semidirigidas com pluralidade simultânea de informantes. A partir da análise qualitativa dos dados das entrevistas semidirigidas, as quais têm como base um questionário, os resultados identificaram diferentes fatores que contribuíram para a manutenção/perda da variedade substandard Plautdietsch, bem como fatores que influenciaram no comportamento linguístico, o qual proporcionou uma substituição da língua-teto. Com base nos dados obtidos, constata-se a perda do Plautdietsch, vinculada a fatores como: a falta de prestígio, reforçada pelos próprios líderes e professores da comunidade; ao desprezo ou ausência do suporte institucional; ao grau de urbanização aliado à falta de uma conscientização sobre a importância da língua como marca de identidade de um grupo étnico (Identitätsmerkmal) e o uso e manutenção dessa língua de imigração. Além disso, houve, nas comunidades menonitas da região sul do Brasil, a substituição da língua-teto Hochdeutsch para o português e, na comunidade rural de Rio Verde (GO), a substituição da língua-teto inglês para o português. Entretanto, verificam-se atitudes positivas em relação ao uso e manutenção do Hochdeutsch/ inglês no âmbito familiar das diferentes comunidades.
The present study analyses the German-Portuguese linguistic encounter in three Mennonite communities in southern Brazil, as well as the German-Portuguese-English linguistic encounter in a Mennonite community in the southern State of Goiás (Brazil). These communities are of Anabaptist origin (1525) and thus are characterized as ethnic-religious groups. Although several centuries have passed since their origin, they still maintain strong ties of language, church, family and socio-cultural heritage forming colonies that function as “linguistic islands”, the result of a transnational migratory process. In 1930 the first group of Mennonites comes to Brazil. After a difficult time of colonization in the State of Santa Catarina they migrated to the States of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul where the three colonies selected for this study were established: The Mennonite Community in Curitiba (State of Paraná), Colônia Nova (New Colony in the State of Rio Grande do Sul), and Colônia Witmarsum (Witmarsum Colony in the State of Paraná). In these places, generally speaking, trilingualism was established: Hochdeutsch (standard German), used in formal settings as church and school; Plautdietsch, a low-German variant used for informal settings of daily life; and Portuguese, especially for the inter-ethnic contacts. For decades in the church settings the use of the Hochdeutsch was almost exclusive. Religion constituted a determinant factor for the cohesion of the Mennonite Community, as well as for the maintenance of the Hochdeutsch. Another group of Mennonites, better known as the Holdeman Mennonites, came to Rio Verde (State of Goiás) in 1968 from the United States and Canada. This group is more conservative and thus maintains some former values, such as the nonconformity with the world in terms of clothing and lifestyle. The most evident traits of this behavior are the use of the veil and dresses for all women who are church members and beards for men. This group, besides the Portuguese language, speaks especially the English as their immigration language. The Plautdietsch in this community is only spoken by some of the older generation. Although living in kind of isolated communities, characterized by their faith and religion, and having their autonomy, influences of the new context are visible. With the growing contact of the German with the Portuguese language, the use of the Plautdietsch and the Hochdeutsch lost their exclusivity. The use of the Portuguese language became always more the norm in the community settings, as shown in the study of Dück (2005). The complexity of the observed linguistic situation in the communities researched raises several questions, especially related to the role of the Plautdietsch in these communities and their vitality compared to the prestige of the Dachsprachen Portuguese and the Hochdeutsch (or English), as well as the factors that could foster the exchange of one variety for another. After exposing the research problem and questions, the focus of this research is to: a) Identify the role of the Plautdietsch in the Mennonite communities, focusing on its vernacular role and delimitating the ethnic Mennonite identity; b) Describe the level of maintenance and linguistic vitality of the Plautdietsch in contact with the standard languages: Portuguese, English and Hochdeutsch in the Mennonite communities researched; c) Compare the attitudes of those who speak the language with their linguistic uses, identifying convergent and divergent processes underlying the actual stage of vitality/loss of the substandard variety of Plautdietsch; d) Describe the level of exchange of the Hochdeutsch and English Dachsprachen for the Portuguese; e) Analyze what the language(s) choice indicates concerning the social processes of the communities chosen for the present research. To answer these questions, the present research is guided by the pluridimensional and relational/contact dialectological model, as a broad science of variation that combines the areal dialectology with sociolinguistics. By means of this model we attempt to verify in which points, dimensions, and parameters, a particular variation or behavior occurs. The present research is distinguished from monopontual linguistics, centered in a bilingual community, by comparing different contexts and conditioning factors in a network of four different issues in three Brazilian States. The research data in these communities included the analysis of demographic and historical aspects, as well as semistructured interviews with a simultaneous plurality of informants. Based on the qualitative analysis of the semistructured interviews, with an underlying protocol, the results identified different factors that contributed for the maintenance/loss of the substandard Plautdietsch language variety, as well as factors that influenced the linguistic behavior, which fostered the exchange of the Dachsprache. There is a loss of the Plautdietsch because it is considered a language of less prestige, leading the leaders and teachers of their own community to deemphasize this language; the despicableness or lack of institutional support; the level of urbanization tied to the lack of consciousness of the importance of the language as an identity factor of an ethnic group (Identitätsmerkmal), and the use and maintenance of this immigration language. In addition, in the southern States of Brazil the Dachsprache Hochdeutsch was exchanged for the Portuguese, and in the Rio Verde Community, the Dachsprache English was exchanged for the Portuguese. On the other hand, positive attitudes are seen relating to the use and maintenance of the Hochdeutsch/English in the family spheres of the communities.

After evaluating available Chinese-as-a-foreign-language (CFL) dictionaries on the market, this chapter identifies CFL learners' difficulties with learning Chinese and their needs for CFL dictionaries through an exploratory mixed-methods study involving interviews with 30 German CFL learners and a survey with 379 participants. This chapter also proposes a dictionary app for learning Chinese for German CFL learners with a focus on microstructural classes, access and network structures, and additional supporting functions.

Abstract This chapter examines the construction of linguistic authority and adherence to language ideologies in three related eighteenth-century bilingual dictionaries which deal with English, French, and German: the bidirectional French–English dictionaries of Abel Boyer (1699, 1700), and two dictionaries closely based on Boyer’s works; Christian Ludwig’s English-to-German dictionary (1706), including its third edition, revised by J. B. Rogler (1763); and Lewis Chambaud’s French-to-English dictionary (1761). The chapter presents evidence that early modern bilingual dictionary compilers may claim authority over language, and that their works may also serve as vehicles of standard language ideology, no less than monolingual codifications, for example through their metalinguistic labelling. While Ludwig makes relatively little comment on language and makes less use of metalinguistic labelling than Boyer, Chambaud has firm views on what constitutes good French and accordingly uses a wide range of metalinguistic labels marking style, register, and social status.

Abstract German is spoken as a first language by approximately 100 million people in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and elsewhere, and as a second language by many others in Central and Eastern Europe. It is also learnt as a foreign language by people all over the world. There are many books which purport to describe the language, ranging from compendious grammars intended for native speakers to elementary textbooks for foreign learners, and from dictionaries of current usage to philological studies of earlier stages of the language.

Abstract The German language is currently changing rapidly, perhaps more rapidly than at any other time in its history. Innumerable radio programmes and almost twenty television channels are available in almost every household and extensive use is made of them. Most people own several radios and at least one television set. The sales figures show that the publishing houses are in a state of crisis, while the figures for newspaper sales are also sinking. Listening comes before reading, and speech affects linguistic usage infinitely more than written texts. For centuries, however, standard norms were derived from the written language. Until recently, dictionaries basked in reflected glory by taking their corpus predominantly from literary texts, and illustrating it with passages by distinguished authors of the last two hundred years. There were admittedly a few selected quotations from some of the higher-quality newspapers, but this was merely paying lip service to modern developments, and colloquial language was taboo, even in its spoken form.

In the learning process, concept explanation plays a crucial role, especially for languages with limited vocabulary like sign languages such as the Portuguese Sign Language (LGP). Due to the small lexicon of LGP, when compared to Portuguese, deaf users face difficulties when encountering words like "Nanotechnology" that have no corresponding sign in their mother language. Available tools, like online dictionaries in Portuguese, are not ideal because they explain the concepts in Portuguese, a distinct language from LGP. The work described in this paper solves this issue using machine learning, summarization, and automatic translation techniques to generate explanations of words or expressions that do not exist in the lexicon of LGP. The solution relies on web scrapping and summarization to gather explanations for a given concept in Portuguese, that are then translated to LGP and produced by a 3D avatar. This approach aims to overcome the limitations of reduced vocabulary, mainly in technical study fields.

The paper ascertains the current meaning, describes the contextual usage and identifies possible Czech equivalent(s) of the German proverb “Ein Küsschen in Ehren kann niemand verwehren.” The study analyses monolingual and bilingual, phraseological and general language dictionaries as well as texts on the internet and in large language corpora of German (DeReKo) and Czech (ČNK) to show that the proverb has undergone a formal, semantic and pragmatic change. New editions of existing dictionaries will have to take this fact into account.

Two late-sixteenth century Iberian medical writers, Nicolás de Monardes and García d’Orta, used the Renaissance genre of the dialogue to convey divergent scientific opinions about plants, metals, stones, and medical simples. When their works were translated by other European writers, Monardes’s dialogue remained a dialogue but d’Orta’s text was translated into a prose natural history. This chapter concludes the section on iron with a comparison of how linguistic, cultural, and generic translation influenced the transmission and reception of scientific knowledge across translations from Spanish and Portuguese into Latin, Spanish, English, and German.

Abstract German is spoken as a first language by approximately 100 million people in the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Austria, Switzerland, and elsewhere, and as a second language by many others in Central and Eastern Europe. It is also learnt as a foreign language by people all over the world. There are many books which purport to describe the language, ranging from compendious grammars intended for native speakers to elementary textbooks for foreign learners, and from dictionaries of current usage to philological studies of earlier stages of the language. The present book is none of these, however. Though written primarily for foreign learners of German, it is not a language textbook, and makes no attempt to improve the reader’s practical mastery of the language in any direct way. And, though it presents a description of German, it is not a grammar of the language in the usual sense, and does not contain comprehensive lists of forms. Nor does it have anything to say about the historical development of German.

Focusing on the use mobile devices to promote language learning, this chapter documents the use of the student response system Socrative in two German courses taking place at two different Portuguese higher education institutions. It is divided into three different sections. After establishing the project's theoretical framework, the authors analyse its implementation and present findings, based on users' perceptions and test results. Aiming at understanding the role mobile devices can play in promoting students' long-term content retention, this research achieved promising results, not only by confirming students' expectations towards mlearning, but also by suggesting that mobile initiatives can have a positive effect in motivating students and promoting engagement, change and innovation. Overall, students achieved positive results, with data providing educators with indicators and insights on learner's learning strategies and progress.

Intensive development of new media poses new challenges in learning and teaching foreign languages. A number of tools and online materials that support the development of language skills are available for university teachers and students. The emergence of online dictionaries significantly changed the translation process, which is for today's students faster, easier, and daily available on mobile devices such as phones, laptops, tablets. The main objective of this paper is to explore students' opinions about the use of online dictionaries for learning the German language. The research sample consists of students from the Faculty of Philosophy in Nis who study German as a second foreign language. A structured interview was used as an instrument for data collection; processing and data analysis was done by descriptive statistics. The results obtained confirm the initial hypothesis that the students use online dictionaries in learning the German language. The largest number of students used online dictionaries for translation of texts necessary for the preparation of examinations or tests, while a much smaller number of respondents use online dictionaries for the purpose of translating technical texts or materials that are not related to study purposes. The survey data show that students are informed about the benefits of using online dictionaries, such as speed, availability, better understanding, remembering new words for longer periods, as well as about the limitations relating to the lack of reliability, accuracy and precision. Conclusion is that online dictionaries are integral and indispensable part of learning foreign languages and that their use in the future most certainly will be on the rise. In this context, as the recommendation, the greater use of online vocabularies in foreign language teaching at universities is stated, which is in line with the requirements for the modernization of higher education.

The article examines the differences and similarities of gestures in Russian and German cultures. Based on the analysis of dictionaries, reference books, and practical experience, the author provides the most vivid and interesting examples of body language. The author draws attention to the fact that the interpretation of sign language is a success in understanding people of different cultures.

The principles of compiling dialect dictionaries of the German language are discussed. Based on the analysis of the dictionary entries of existing dictionaries, an assessment is made of the reflection of grammatical, phonetic, lexical, cultural information about the lemma in dialect dictionaries.

The article discusses the development of the lexicographic codification of pronunciation norms of German. It gives an overview of the orthoepic norm, its varieties and inherent features, relations between the norm and standard of pronunciation. Pronouncing dictionaries since the end of the 19th century have been studied as primary sources, some phonetic phenomena are also illustrated with the explanatory dictionaries of earlier periods. The lexicographic codification of the pronunciation norms in historical retrospect is briefly analyzed: from exaggerated articulation of actors in Germany to actual sound phenomena using in the pronunciation of professional radio and television announcers, which includes the pronouncing features of authentic oral media communication. Special attention is paid to the problem of codification of the orthoepic standard in different types of dictionaries in light of the pluricentricity of German, due to lack of empirical analyses. The article also represents the current orthoepic dictionaries, which include information about the sounds of three standards of German in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Study of their structure and content features made it possible to identify some advantages and disadvantages. As a result of the study, the author concludes with changing approaches to the codification of pronunciation norms, such as transformation of the metalanguage, expansion of the empirical base, use of contemporary sociophonetic methods in its analysis, some structural and content changes in the dictionaries. These modifications are shown to be connected with the change of the lexicographic paradigm and the turn from monocentricity to pluricentricity due to sociocultural and sociolinguistic factors. Refs 24.

The quota system in Brazil made it possible to include blind studentsin higher education. Teachers’ lack of knowledge about the braillesystem can represent a barrier between them and students who useit for writing and reading. Computer-vision-based transcriptionsolutions represent mechanisms for reducing understanding restrictionson this system. However, such tools face nuisances inherentto image processing systems, e.g., illumination, noise, and scale,harming the result. This paper presents an automated approachto mitigate transcription errors in braille texts for the Portugueselanguage. We propose a selection function, combined with dictionaries,that provides the best correspondence of words based ontheir braille representation. We validated our proposal on a datasetof synthetic images by submitting them to different noise levelsand testing the proposal’s robustness. Experimental results confirmthe effectiveness of the solution compared to a standard approach.As a contribution of this paper, we expect to provide a method tosupport robust and adaptable solutions to real use conditions.

The article discusses the role of toponyms in the formation of a multicultural personality. Based on the analysis of dictionaries, reference books, the author gives examples of the use of toponymic nicknames of cities and regions of Germany.

Nowadays, teaching languages for specific purposes, in particular in the field of entrepreneurship, has to focus on pragmatic and intercultural aspects in response to a multicultural professional reality that comprises different areas of knowledge. Our study aims at analyzing the speech act of making a request in German and Spanish by Portuguese native speakers, i.e. BA students of Languages and Business Relations at University of Aveiro. For this study, two different types of tests were performed: the Discourse Completion Task (DCT) and the Rating Assessment Test. The data provided by the answers given to these two surveys will help the teacher to understand the pragmatic difficulties students have when making a request in these two foreign languages. The information obtained will help the teacher to focus on aspects that are really problematic from the pragmatic point of view, and at the same time, to find and implement strategies and activities that help students improve their pragmatic awareness and overcome difficulties that may arise in intercultural communication. Hence, the objective is to contribute to an adequate development of the students' pragmatic and intercultural communicative competence.