Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Polymeric drug delivery systems'

Delivery across skin offers many advantages compared to oral or parenteral routes e.g. non-invasive, avoiding first-past metabolism, improved bioavailability and reduction of systemic side effects. Microneedle (MN) are minimally-invasive devices that painlessly by-pass the skin's stratum corneum, which is the principal barrier to topically-applied drugs. Polymeric MN delivery systems were designed and evaluated to transdermally deliver two model drugs, the small water soluble drug ibuprofen sodium and the large protein ovalbumin (OVA). A range of hydrogel forming materials for MN production was evaluated to identify the most suitable super swelling hydrogel MN array that are hard in the dry state but, upon insertion into skin, rapidly take up interstitial fluid. The MN themselves contain no drug, but instead drug are loaded into lyophilized patches. Novel super swelling hydrogel forming MN arrays were fabricated from aqueous blends containing 20% w/w poly(methyl vinyl ether co maleic acid) (Gantrez® S97), 7.5% w/w poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and 3% sodium carbonate (Na2C03). In addition, dissolving MN arrays loaded with a high dose of non-potent therapeutic drug were fabricated from aqueous blends of 70% w/w Gantrez® AN139 (PH 7) and 30% ibuprofen sodium. Successful drug delivery was achieved in this research work using novel polymeric MN, super swelling hydrogel MN and dissolving MN. The in vitro studies has been shown first ever example of polymeric MN being loaded with a NSAIDs. The novel concept of super swelling hydrogel MN integrated with lyophilized patches loaded with ovalbumin was evaluated. They enabled the sustained delivery of the ibuprofen sodium and ovalbumin both in vitro and in vivo. Gamma sterilization can be done without compromising polymeric MN properties. Finally, hydrogel forming MN arrays can be successfully and reproducibly applied by human volunteers given appropriate instruction so the use of MN applicator devices may not be necessary, thus possibly enhancing patient compliance.

The objective of this work was to develop suitable delivery systems for biological agents that have antimicrobial activities using biocompatible polymers, aiming to reduce their toxicity when administered. Two biological agents, colistin as an antibacterial agent and nystatin (Nys) as an antifungal agent, are the focus of this thesis as they are potent treatments for current pathogen infections, especially to the multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria/fungi, but have potential toxicity to human. Polymeric drug delivery systems, including prodrug, hydrogel and micelle formulations, have been developed and discussed for their potential as topical and systemic regimes. The majority of the work was focused on the effect of the covalently attachment of synthetic polymers onto the biological agents upon their antimicrobial activities and the toxicity. The conjugation between colistin and polymers was achieved successfully through either irreversible or releasable linkages. Although irreversible polymer modifications on colistin showed no antimicrobial activity (chapter 2), an acceptable antibacterial activity was observed from the polymer-colistin conjugates with a releasable linkage through either ‘grafting-to’ (chapter 3) or ‘grafting-from’ (chapter 4) approaches. On the other hand, even though the pure polymer-Nys conjugate with a releasable imine linkage cannot be obtained due to the nature of the labile imine bond, the crude conjugate showed an excellent antifungal activity and a reduced toxicity compared to the native Nys (chapter 6). Other polymeric delivery systems were also discussed in this thesis. The incorporation of colistin within a developed hydrogel delivery system as an antibacterial patch for burn infections was investigated through in vitro and in vivo studies, showing a similar antibacterial activity as the native colistin solution against MDR Gram-negative bacteria with no systemic toxicity (chapter 5). Finally, an amphiphilic polymer containing boronic acid groups on the side chains was synthesised and used to target the hydroxyl groups on Nys, expecting to build up an environmental responsive micelle through dynamic boronate ester bond (chapter 7). Although more work is still needed, this system showed a potential to improve Nys solubility.

Introduction: Embolic agents are used to block blood flow of hypervascular tumours, ultimately resulting in target tissue necrosis. However, this therapy is limited by the formation of new blood vessels within the tumour, a process known as angiogenesis. Targeting angiogenesis led to the discovery of anti-angiogenic factors, large molecular weight proteins that can block the angiogenic process. The aim of this research is development of poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) aqueous solutions that cross-link in situ to form a hydrogel that functions as an embolic agent for delivery of macromolecular drugs. Methods: PVA (14 kDa, 83% hydrolysed), functionalised by 7 acrylamide groups per chain, was used to prepare 10, 15, and 20wt% non-degradable hydrogels, cured by UV or redox initiation. Structural properties were characterised and the release of FITCDextran (20kDa) was quantified. Degradable networks were then prepared by attaching to PVA (83% and 98 % hydrolysed) ester linkages with an acrylate end group. The effect on degradation profiles was assessed by varying parameters such as macromer concentration, cross-linking density, polymer backbone and curing method. To further enhance the technology, radiopaque degradable PVA was synthesised, and degradation profiles were determined. Cell growth inhibition of modified PVA and degradable products were also investigated. Results: Redox initiation resulted in non-degradable PVA networks of well-controlled structural properties. Increasing the solid content from 10 to 20wt% prolonged the release time from few hours to ~ 2 days but had no effect on the percent release, with only a maximum release of 65% achieved. Ester attachment to the PVA allowed flexibility in designing networks of variable swelling behaviors and degradation times allowing ease of tailoring for specific clinical requirements. Synthesis of radiopaque degradable PVA hydrogels was successful without affecting the polymer solubility in water or its ability to polymerize by redox. This suggested that this novel hydrogel is a potential liquid embolic with enhanced X-ray visibility. Degradable products had negligible cytotoxicity. Conclusion: Novel non-degradable and radiopaque degradable PVA hydrogels cured by redox initiation were developed in this research. The developed PVA hydrogels showed characteristics in vitro that are desirable for the in vivo application as release systems for anti-angiogenic factors.

De nos jours, les maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l'intestin (MICI) comme la rectocolite hémorragique et la maladie de Crohn touchent près de 200 000 personnes en France. Elles se caractérisent par l'inflammation de la paroi de différentes régions du tractus gastro-intestinal (TGI). Les deux sont des maladies chroniques qui impliquent une inflammation de la muqueuse colique. La principale différence entre la maladie de Crohn et la rectocolite hémorragique réside dans la localisation et la nature de l’inflammation. La maladie de Crohn peut toucher n’importe quelle partie du tractus gastro-intestinal (TGI), de la bouche à l’anus, mais dans la plupart des cas, elle atteint l’iléon. En revanche, la rectocolite hémorragique est limitée au côlon et au rectum.Le ciblage du colon peut offrir des avantages majeurs pour le traitement des MICI. Les formes galéniques conventionnelles entraînent une libération prématurée de la substance active dans l'estomac et l’intestin grêle. La substance active est alors absorbée dans la circulation sanguine ce qui provoque de sérieux effets secondaires. De ce fait la concentration de substance active qui arrive au site d’action (partie distale du TGI) est très faible, ce qui entraîne une faible efficacité thérapeutique voire échec de la thérapie.Pour pallier ce problème, une forme galénique idéale devrait effectivement protéger la substance active dans le haut TGI, puis la libérer dans la partie distale du TGI de manière contrôlée. Des systèmes réservoirs (granules enrobés, capsules…) ou des systèmes matriciels (comprimés, extrudats…) peuvent être utilisés pour protéger la substance active dans le haut TGI. Les polysaccharides qui ne sont dégradés que par des enzymes bactériennes localisées dans le colon peuvent être utilisés dans le développement des formes galéniques pour le traitement des MICI. L’objectif de ce travail était de développer de nouvelles formes galéniques contenant un polysaccharide (pectine, gomme de guar…) dégradable par la flore colique et d’un polymère thermoplastique hydrophobe (éthylcellulose, HPMC…) qui vas réduire l’hydrophilicité du polysaccharide. Or, le mélange des deux polymères ne doit pas enrober le polysaccharide qui va servir pour le ciblage de la partie distale du TGI
Chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) today affects close to 200,000 people in France. They are characterized by the inflammation of the wall of a part of the digestive tract. They usually include Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn’s disease. Both are chronic diseases that involve inflammation of the colonic mucosa. The main difference between Crohn’s disease and Ulcerative Colitis is the location and nature of inflammation. Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the GIT from mouth to anus but in most cases attacks the terminal ileum. In contrast, Ulcerative Colitis is restricted to the colon and the rectum. An ideal dosage form should effectively protect the drug in the stomach and small intestine and subsequently release the drug in the colon in a targeted and controlled manner. The objective of this work was to develop new drug delivery systems containing a polysaccharide (pectin, guar gum, inulin ...), which are degradable by the colonic bacteria and a hydrophobic thermoplastic polymer (ethylcellulose, polyurethane, polyvinyl acetate ...), which will reduce the hydrophilicity of the polysaccharide. The technique used for the preparation of these dosage forms is hot-melt extrusion. It is a continuous and free solvent process that allows the manufacturing of a dosage form called "extrudate" by forcing the soften material through an orifice. It has been demonstrated that extrudates based on polyvinyl acetate/polyurethane and inulin can minimize the release of a model active substance in the upper part of GIT due to the hydrophobic properties of polyvinyl acetate. Indeed, these extrudates uptake low amount of water and lose low dry mass upon exposure to media simulating the stomach and the small intestine. However, once in contact with the colonic flora, these systems show a considerable loss of mass due to the degradation of inulin by enzymes secreted by colonic bacteria. In another study, hot melt extrudates based on ethylcellulose blended with different types of polysaccharides (guar gum, inulin, corn starch, maltodextrin, pectin and chitosan) were studied for the development of controlled drug delivery systems. Anhydrous theophylline and diprophylline have been used as model drugs. This study was useful to set the extrusion parameters: temperature 100 °C; screw speed 30 rpm; feed rate 3 cc/min; 30 % dibutyl sebacate as a plasticizer. Importantly, hot melt extrudates based on ethylcellulose:guar gum blends offer an interesting potential as controlled drug delivery systems: They can be prepared at temperatures of about 100 °C, provide broad spectra of drug release patterns (in particular about constant drug release rates). Finally, hot melt extrudates remained stable after 1 year storage at ambient conditions

Since the early 80’s the forward steps in genetics and proteomics, have led a particular interest to biotech products, such as DNA and proteins. Although difficult, their large-scale production enabled the therapeutic use of this compounds. Proteins and DNA sequences can be very interesting therapeutic molecules owing to their high selectivity/affinity for the receptor or the specific site of action. Unfortunately, some issues still limit their pharmaceutical use, such as the susceptibility to enzymatic degradation, rapid renal clearance and immunogenicity. To overcome these limitations, many researchers are seeking solutions in the field of drug delivery systems (DDSs). In this respect, many systems have been developed and conjugation with PEG (polyethylene glycol) can be considered one of the leading approaches. PEGylation brings to the conjugated molecule great solubility and stability to proteolytic digestion, furthermore it reduces the tendency to aggregate and reduces the immunogenicity. Thanks to these advantages and the particular characteristics of PEG, to date, there are on the market 12 pegylated compounds: 9 are proteins, one peptide, one aptamer and a liposomal formulation, containing doxorubicin. The improvements in the pharmacokinetic profile of these drugs, thanks to the use of drug delivery systems, can be also applied in the field of tissue engineering, where the same issues are of fundamental importance for the development of scaffolds for cells capable of releasing growth factors. In the last years various polymers have been studied by many research groups to find an alternative to PEG, but its excellent biocompatibility and the know-how in its use has not brought any polymer to be truly competitive against PEG. Nevertheless, PEG presents some limits such as its non-biodegradability and in some case there are reports of antibodies against PEG. Therefore, there is an increased need for a PEG substitute. In the first section of this work hyaluronic acid (HA) has been studied as a candidate polymer for bioconjugation of proteins (HAylation). HA, being biodegradable can compensate this limit of PEG. HA, is also present in humans and is metabolized by hyaluronidase. Moreover, HA has the advantage of a high loading compared to PEG, thanks to the presence of repetitive functional groups in each monomer. This part of the work was focused on the study of HA conjugation (HAylation) to two model enzymes, trypsin and Ribonuclease A, and then to an interesting protein in pharmaceutical field, insulin. In order to avoid cross-linking phenomena, only a fraction of all carboxyl groups of the polymer has been modified to aldehyde allowing the conjugation with the amino groups of the protein models. Furthermore, by modulating the pH of reaction two protein-HA conjugates were obtained, selective N-terminal (pH 6) or random (pH 8), this taking advantage of the different pKa values of the amino groups in the proteins. The first products obtained with the enzymes Ribonuclease A and trypsin were tested verifying the residual activity compared to the native proteins. All conjugates, in particular those obtained by N-terminal selective conjugation, maintain a good activity on small substrates (30% decrease); only the HA-derived trypsin retains about 60% of residual activity against the substrate with a high weight molecular. Furthermore, enhanced stability over time was found for HA-trypsin respect to the free enzyme (45% on average) and also susceptibility to hyaluronidase was confirmed for both conjugates. Polymer validation as potential protein carrier was then evaluated by preparing conjugates with bovine insulin, as an example of pharmacologically active protein. Two conjugates were synthesized by N-terminal selective conjugation starting from polymers with different degree of aldehyde derivatization, 4% and 21%, yielding products with a protein loading of 17% and 32% (w/w), respectively. The therapeutic efficacy of the conjugates in comparison with insulin was tested in Sprague Dawley rats with induced diabetes. The conjugate with a lower protein loading was more effective and with a longer pharmacodynamic effect on the reduction on blood glucose level. The second section of the work was focused on an innovative strategy of enzymatic PEGylation of oligonucleotides. Briefly, the method investigated on model oligonucleotides is composed of two steps: the first consists in the chemical conjugation of a short oligonucleotide to a PEG chain, the second step is the enzymatic-mediated conjuagation of the PEGylated oligonucleotide with a DNA sequence by the DNA T4 ligase. To study the enzymatic PEGylation, 4 oligo sequences have been prepared as ligation model: two complementary pairs ending with sticky-ends in turn complementary (18-mer + 21-mer and 16-mer + 19-mer). The 18-mer has a thiol group in 5’-ending, in order to perform the coupling with PEG. Applying some modifications to ligation classical protocols, excellent results were obtained: PEGylated portion completely ligate the other ds-DNA and no undesired products were found. To further confirm the effective ligation, the ligated and PEGylated sequence was restricted with EcoRI. Indeed, the EcoRI recognized a sequence that is present only the ligated DNA. Complete restriction was found in absence and even in the presence of the polymer, further confirming the successes of ligation. Furthermore it was investigated if a reduced number of bases coupled to PEG can still preserve the requirements for the ligase enzyme activity. Thus, the pair of the complementary sequences then coupled to PEG has been reduced to half (9-mer + 12-mer). Even with a shorter PEGylated sequence a complete ligation was obtained. In conclusion in this thesis it has been demonstrated that HA can be a valid alternative to PEG for protein conjugation. In the field of oligonucleotide delivery an enzymatic approach of oligonucleotide conjugation can open new horizons that so far have not been completely explored.
Dai primi anni 80 i passi avanti fatti nel campo della genetica e della proteomica, hanno portato ad un particolare interesse nei confronti dei prodotti biotecnologici, quali DNA e proteine. L’utilizzo terapeutico di queste entità, seppur non privo di difficoltà, è stato facilitato dalla loro produzione su larga scala. Proteine e sequenze oligonucleotidiche si sono rivelate interessanti come agenti terapeutici essendo molecole dotate d’elevatissima selettività/affinità per il recettore o il sito d’azione specifico. L’impiego farmaceutico può evidenziare alcuni svantaggi che ne possono limitare l’utilizzo, come ad esempio la suscettibilità alla degradazione da parte di proteasi e DNasi, la rapida clearance renale e l’immunogenicità. Per affrontare tali limiti, molti ricercatori hanno cercano soluzioni nel campo dei drug delivery sistems (DDSs). A tal proposito, sono stati sviluppati molti sistemi e la coniugazione al PEG (polietilen glicole) è risultata essere una delle più promettenti. La PEGhilazione, infatti, conferisce alle molecole coniugate maggiore solubilità e stabilità nei confronti della digestione proteolitica, una ridotta tendenza all’aggregazione ed una ridotta immunogenicità. Grazie a questi vantaggi ed alle particolari caratteristiche del PEG, ad oggi sono presenti nel mercato 12 composti PEGhilati: 9 sono proteine, un peptide, un aptamero ed una formulazione liposomiale (contenente doxorubicina). Le migliorie apportate ai profili farmacocinetici di questi farmaci biotech grazie all’uso di DDSs possono essere anche impiegate nel campo dell’ingegneria tessutale, dove le medesime problematiche sono di basilare importanza per lo sviluppo di scaffold per cellule, in grado di rilasciare fattori di crescita. Il polietilen glicole (PEG) è il polimero leader per la coniugazione di proteine. Negli ultimi anni diversi polimeri sono stati studiati per trovare una valida alternativa a questo polimero, ma la sua eccellente biocompatibilità e la conoscenza nel suo utilizzo non ha ancora portato nessun polimero ad essere realmente competitivo nei suoi confronti. Nonostante tutto, anche l’utilizzo del PEG presenta alcuni limiti, quali la non-biodegradabilità e la documentata presenza di anticorpi anti-PEG sviluppati in alcuni casi specifici. Per questo motivo si è alla ricerca di un polimero che possa validamente sostituire il PEG. Nella prima parte di questo lavoro di tesi è stato studiato l’acido ialuronico (HA) per la bioconiugazione di proteine (HAylation). Essendo biodegradabile, l’HA può essere vantaggioso rispetto al PEG. L’HA è un polimero endogeno ed è metabolizzato dalle ialuronidasi, inoltre ha il vantaggio di poter raggiungere una capacità di loading elevate rispetto al PEG, grazie alla presenza di gruppi funzionali ripetitivi in ciascun monomero. In questa parte del lavoro di tesi, la ricerca si è concentrata sullo studio della coniugazione dell’HA a due enzimi modello, Ribonuclease A e tripsina, e poi ad un interessante proteina per uso farmaceutico, l’insulina. Per evitare fenomeni di cross-linking, solo una parte dei gruppi carbossilici del polimero è stata coniugata ad uno spacer aldeidico, consentendo la coniugazione con i gruppi amminici delle proteine. Inoltre, modulando il pH di reazione si sono potuti ottenere coniugati con legame selettivo all’N-terminale (pH 6) oppure random (pH 8), sfruttando la differente pKa degli ammino gruppi nelle proteine. I primi coniugati ottenuti con gli enzimi Ribonuclease A e tripsina sono stati studiati verificandone l’attività residua rispetto alle proteine native. Tutti i coniugati, in particolare quelli ottenuti per legame selettivo all’N-terminale, mantengono una buona attività su piccoli substrati (diminuzione del 30%); solo il derivato HA-tripsina mantiene circa il 60% di attività residua nei confronti del substrato ad alto peso molecolare. Inoltre, sempre per HA-tripsina, si è trovata una maggiore stabilità nel tempo rispetto l’enzima nativo (mediamente 45%) e si è confermata la suscettibilità di entrambe i coniugati nei confronti della ialuronidasi. La valutazione del polimero come potenziale carrier per proteine è proseguita preparando dei coniugati con l’insulina bovina, come esempio di proteina farmacologicamente attiva. Sono stati sintetizzati due coniugati con modalità selettiva all’N-terminale a partire da polimeri con diverso grado di modifica con gruppi aldeidici, pari a 4 e 21% e si sono ottenuti prodotti con il 17 e 32% (p/p), rispettivamente, di loading proteico. L’efficacia terapeutica dei coniugati in comparazione con l’insulina è stata testata su ratti Sprague Dawley con diabete indotto. Il coniugato con un minore loading proteico si è rivelato essere più efficace e con una riduzione dei livelli di glucosio nel sangue più prolungata. Nella seconda parte di questo lavoro di tesi si è studiata un’innovativa strategia di PEGhilazione enzimatica di sequenze oligonucleotidiche al fine di sviluppare questo approccio per il delivery di oligonucleotidi. Il metodo è stato messo a punto con sequenze nucleotidiche modello e l’approccio è stato il seguente: una breve sequenza oligonucleotica viene legata chimicamente ad una catena di PEG. Poi, mediante l’azione catalitica della T4 DNA ligase la porzione di PEG-DNA viene coniugata ad un’altra sequenza oligonucleotidica. Per lo studio di PEGhilazione enzimatica si è ideato un modello costituito da 4 sequenze oligonucleotidiche di riferimento: due coppie complementari terminanti con sticky-ends complementari a loro volta (18-mer + 21-mer e 16-mer + 19-mer). L’oligo di 18 nucleotidi portava in posizione 5’ una funzione tiolica, che è stata impiegata per la coniugazione col polimero. Dopo aver apportato alcune variazioni ai protocolli classici di ligazione si sono ottenuti ottimi risultati: completa ligazione del modello PEGhilato ed assenza di prodotti indesiderati. Un’ulteriore conferma di ligazione del modello PEGhilato si è ottenuta tramite digestione con EcoRI. Infatti, solamente dopo la ligazione è possibile trovare nella sequenza oligonucleotidica il sito di restrizione dell’enzima. In presenza o in assenza di polimero la restrizione è avvenuta completamente. Si è poi voluto indagare se una sequenza PEGhilata con un numero di basi ridotto potesse comunque mantenere i requisiti per essere substrato della T4 DNA ligase. Così, la coppia di sequenze complementari designata alla PEGhilazione è stata ridotta alla meta della sua lunghezza (9-mer + 12-mer). Anche con la sequenza PEGhilata così accorciata la ligazione è avvenuta completamente. In conclusione questo lavoro di tesi ha dimostrato che l’HA può essere una promettente alternativa al più noto PEG per la modifica di proteine. Nell’ambito del delivery di oligonucleotidi lo sviluppo di un approccio enzimatico di coniugazione può aprire nuovi orizzonti in questo settore il cui potenziale non è stato ancora esplorato.

Polymeric biomaterials have become ubiquitous in modern medical devices. ‘Smart’ materials, materials that respond to external stimuli, have been of particular interest for biomedical applications such as drug delivery. Poly(n-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAAm) is the best studied thermally responsive, biocompatible, ‘smart’ polymer and has been integrated into many potential drug delivery devices; however, the architectural design of the polymer in these devices is often overlooked. My research focus was the exploration of pNIPAAm architecture for biological applications. Two new biomaterials were synthesized as a result. Architectural modification of linear pNIPAAm was used to synthesize a well-defined homopolymer pNIPAAm with a sharp transition slightly above normal body temperature under isotonic conditions. This polymer required a combination of polymerization and control techniques including controlled radical polymerization, hydrogen bond induced tacticity, and end-group manipulation. The synthesis of this polymer opened up a variety of biomedical possibilities, one of which is the use of these polymers in a novel hydrogel system. Through the use of the controlled linear pNIPAAm synthesized through chain architectural modification, hydrogels with physiological transition temperatures were also synthesized. These hydrogels showed greater shrinking properties than traditional hydrogels synthesized in the same manner and showed physiological mechanical properties. Highly branched pNIPAAm was also optimized for biological applications. In this case, the branching reduced the efficacy of end-groups in transition temperature modification but increased the efficacy of certain copolymers. The resulting biomaterial was incorporated into a nanoparticle drug delivery system. By combining gold nanoparticles with highly branched pNIPAAm, which was designed to entrap small molecule drugs, a hybrid system was synthesized where heating of the nanoparticle through surface plasmon resonance can trigger drug release from the pNIPAAm. This system proved to be easy to synthesize, effective in loading, and controlled in release. As shown from the applications, architectural control of pNIPAAm can open up new possibilities with this polymer for biomedical applications. Small structural changes can lead to significant changes in the bulk properties of the polymer and should be considered in future pNIPAAm based medical devices.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Committee Chair: Dr. Niren Murthy; Committee Member: Dr. Carson Meredith; Committee Member: Dr. Julia Babensee; Committee Member: Dr. Mark Prausnitz; Committee Member: Dr. Ravi Bellamkonda.

Thesis (Ph.D)--Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009.
Committee Chair: Murthy, Niren; Committee Member: Bellamkonda, Ravi; Committee Member: Davis, Michael; Committee Member: May, Sheldon; Committee Member: Milam, Valeria. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Dept. of Chemistry and School of Computing and Engineering. University of Missouri--Kansas City, 2004.
"A dissertation in chemistry and software architecture." Advisor: Yan-Ching Jean. Typescript. Vita. Description based on contents viewed Feb. 27, 2006; title from "catalog record" of the print edition. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 205-218). Online version of the print edition.

Thesis for the Degree of Master of Science in Bioorganic Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
This work describes the studies on the development of new cyclodextrin-hydrogel systems in supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) with potential application in drug delivery. Three β-cyclodextrin (CDs) derivatives were synthesized: 6-monoacryloyl-β-CD, 2-monoacryloyl-β-CD and 6-monoacryloly-heptakis-(2,3-di-O-benzyl)-β-CD. Their structures were assigned by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared (IR) and mass spectrometry (MS) using the technique of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF). These functionalized β-CDs were co-polymerized in scCO2 and the resulting co-polymers were characterized by high resolution magnetic angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR. Swelling tests were performed showing that the presence of CD decreases the swelling capacity of the corresponding co-polymers. The β-CD co-polymers were impregnated with a model drug, metronidazole, using a batch supercritical fluid impregnation process. Experiments in vitro were realized in order to evaluate the performance of the cyclodextrin-hydrogel system as drug release device at different pHs, 2.2 and 7.4. The co-polymer with 2.5 % of 2-monoacryloyl-β-CD was the one that impregnated more drug and showed more interesting results, since at pH 2.2 the release is more controlled. The effect of the percentage of β-CD in the co-polymers performance was also investigated. The co-polymer with more percentage of 2-monoacryloyl-β-CD (8.8%) showed a more controlled drug release at pH 7.4. The results with 2.5 % of β-CD indicate that the co-polymer would be more suitable for oral administration, whereas with 8.8 % would be suitable for parenteral administration.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of the amphiphilic block copolymer poly((vinylpyrrolidone)-b-poly(vinyl acetate)) (PVP-b-PVAc) as a vehicle for hydrophobic anti-cancer drugs. PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers of constant hydrophilic PVP block length and varying hydrophobic PVAc block lengths were synthesized via xanthate-mediated controlled radical polymerization (CRP). The methodology consisted of growing the PVAc chain from a xanthate end-functional PVP. In an aqueous environment the amphiphilic block copolymers selfassembled into spherical vesicle-like structures consisting of a hydrophobic PVAc bilayer membrane, a hydrophilic PVP corona and an aqueous core. The self-assembly behaviour and the physicochemical properties of the self-assembled structures were investigated by 1H NMR spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic and static light scattering. Drug loading studies were performed using a model hydrophobic drug, clofazimine, and a common anti-cancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) to evaluate the potential of the PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers for drug delivery,. Clofazimine and PTX were physically entrapped into the hydrophobic domain of the self-assembled PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers via the dialysis method. The drug-loaded PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers were characterized regarding particle size, morphology, stability and drug loading capacity in order to assess their feasibility as a drug vehicle. The polymer vesicles had a relatively high drug loading capacity of 20 wt %. The effect of the hydrophobic PVAc block length on the drug loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency were also studied. Drug loading increased with increasing the hydrophobic PVAc block length. The effect of the drug feed ratio of clofazimine and PTX on the drug loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency were also investigated. The optimal formulation for the drug-loaded PVP-b-PVAc was determined and further investigated in vitro. The size stability of the drugloaded PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers was also assessed under physiological conditions (PBS, pH 7.4, 37 °C) and were stable in the absence and presence of serum. PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers were tested in vitro on MDA-MB-231 multi-drug-resistant human breast epithelial cancer cells and normal MCF12A breast epithelial cells to provide evidence of their antitumor efficacy. In vitro cell culture studies revealed that the PVP-b-PVAc drug carrier exhibited no cytotoxicity towards MDA-MB-231 and MCF12A cells, confirming the biocompatibility of the PVP-b-PVAc carrier. In vitro cytotoxicity assays using clofazimine-PVPb- PVAc formulations showed that when MDA-MB-231 cells were exposed to the formulations, an enhanced therapeutic effect was observed compared to the free drug. Cellular internalization of the PVP-b-PVAc drug carrier was demonstrated by fluorescent labeling of the PVP-b-PVAc carrier. Fluorescence microscopy results showed that the carrier was internalized by the MDAMB- 231 cells after 3 hours and localized in the cytoplasm and the perinuclear region. Overall, it was demonstrated that PVP-b-PVAc block copolymers appear to be promising candidates for the delivery of hydrophobic anti-cancer drugs.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie is gebaseer op die gebruik van amfifieliese blokkopolimere van poli((Nvinielpirolidoon)- b-poli(vinielasetaat)) (PVP-b-PVAc) as potensiële geneesmiddeldraers. PVP-b-PVAc blokkopolimere van konstante hydrofiliese bloklengte en verskillende hydrofobiese bloklengte is voorberei via die RAFT/MADIX-proses. Blokkopolimere met vinielasetaat is vanaf poli(N-vinielpirolidoon) met ‘n xantaatendfunksie voorberei. In ‘n wateromgewing vorm die PVP-b-PVAc blokkopolimere vesikel strukture met ‘n hydrofobiese membraan en ‘n hydrofiliese mantel. Die fisies-chemiese eienskappe van die PVP-b-PVAc blokkopolimere is gekarakteriseerd met gebruik van KMR spektroskopie, fluoresent spektroskopie, transmissie elektronmikroskopie (TEM) en dinamiese en statiese lig verstrooiing. Die potensiaal van PVP-b-PVAc as ‘n geneesmiddeldraer is ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van die hydrofobiese geneesmiddel, clofazimine, en ‘n anti-kanker geneesmiddel, paclitaxel. Clofazimine en paclitaxel is ge-inkapsuleer in die hydrofobiese gedeelte van die blokkopolimere via die dialise-metode. Clofazimine-PVP-b-PVAc en paclitaxel-PVPb- PVAc blokkopolimere is gekarakteriseerd met betrekking tot die partikel grootte, morfologie, stabiliteit en laai kapasitiet om die PVP-b-PVAc blokkopolimere as geneesmiddeldraers te evalueer. Die PVP-b-PVAc geneesmiddeldraer het ‘n relatiewe hoë laai kapsiteit van 20 gew % aangetoon. Die invloed van die bloklengte op die laai kapasitiet is ook ondersoek en beskryf. ‘n Toename in die laai kapasitiet is gesien met ‘n toename in die hydrofobiese bloklengte. Die invloed van die hoeveelheid geneesmiddel op die laai kapasitiet en die inkapsuleer doeltreffendheid is ook ondersoek. Die optimale formulasie is gevind en verder gebruik vir in vitro studies. Die stabiliteit van die geneesmiddeldraer in fisiologiese omstandighede (pH 7.4, 37 °C) is ook beskryf. Resultate toon aan dat die sisteem stabiel is onder hierdie omstandighede in die afwesigheid en aanwesigheid van serum. In vitro eksperimente is op MCF12A epiteel-borsselle en MDA-MB-231 epiteelborskankerselle getoets om die anti-tumoraktiwiteit te ondersoek. Resultate toon aan dat die PVP-b-PVAc geen sitotoxiese effek op die selle het nie, wat aandui dat die polimere bioverenigbaar is. Verder is dit bewys dat die PVP-b-PVAc geneesmiddel formualsie ’n hoër sitotoxisiteit besit as die vry-geneesmiddel. Fluoresent studies het aangetoon dat die geneesmiddeldraer na 3 uur opgeneen word deur MDA-MB231 selle en gelokaliseerd is in die sitoplasma en in die omgewing van die kern van die selle. In die algemeen is dit aangetoon dat PVP-b-PVAc blokkopolimere potensiële kandidate vir die lewering van hydrofobiese geneesmiddels is.

Hydrogels are three dimensional networks of hydrophilic homopolymers or copolymers generally covalently or ionically crosslinked. They interact with aqueous media by swelling to some equilibrium value by retaining the aqueous media in their structures. This study concerns the investigation of the swelling and the controlled drug release behaviour of hydrogels synthesized via the photopolymerisation process. The study of hydrogels in this project was oriented towards their biomedical applications as controlled drug delivery devices. It is a known fact that the complete conversion of monomers to polymers may not be achieved in the polymerisation process thus there is always a certain component of unreacted toxic monomers still remained in the polymer matrix. These monomers have the tendency to leach out of the polymer matrices when the polymers are in contact with an aqueous medium thus rendering the hydrogel to be nonbiocompatable. The polymers synthesized in this work were washed thoroughly in milli-Q-water and then evaluated in vitro for any possible toxic effect on human keratinocyte (HaCaT)v cells using a 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diaphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation assay. The cytotoxicity results indicated that the hydrogels understudy sustained and allowed a positive growth of the HaCat cells in the duration of the cytotoxicity experiment, thus proving to be satisfactorily compatible.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

New methods for the preparation of porous biomedical scaffolds have been explored for applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery. Scaffolds with controlled pore morphologies have been generated which incorporate cyclodextrin-drug inclusion complexes as the drug delivery component. Supercritical CO2 was explored as the main processing fluid in the complex formation and in the foaming of the polymer scaffold. The co-solvents, ethanol, ethyl acetate and acetone, were explored in each stage, as needed, to improve the solvent power of CO2. The first goal was to promote cyclodextrin-drug complex formation. Complex formation by traditional methods was compared with complex formation driven by processing in supercritical CO2. Complex formation was promoted by melting the drug in supercritical CO2 or in CO2 + co-solvent mixtures while in the presence of cyclodextrin. Some drugs, such as piroxicam, are prone to degradation near the drug's ambient melting temperature. However, this approach using CO2 was found to circumvent drug thermal degradation, since drug melting temperatures were depressed in the presence of CO2. The second goal was to produce porous polymeric matrices to serve as tissue engineering scaffolds. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(ε-caprolactone) were investigated for foaming, since these biomedical polymers are already commonly used and FDA approved. Polymer foaming with CO2 is an alternative approach to conventional solvent-intensive methods for porosity generation. However, two major limitations of polymer foaming using CO2 as the only processing fluid have been reported, including the formation of a non-porous outer skin upon depressurization and limited pore interconnectivity. Approaches to circumvent these limitations include the use of a co-solvent and controlling depressurization rates. The effect of processing parameters, including foaming temperatures and depressurization rate, as well as co-solvent addition, were examined in polymer foaming using CO2. Drug release dynamics were compared for foams incorporated with either pure drug, cyclodextrin-drug physical mixture or cyclodextrin-drug complex. Pore morphology, polymer choice and drug release compound choice were found to alter drug release profiles.
Ph. D.

For controlled drug delivery applications, an ideal carrier system should release its drug payload only at the site where the therapeutic activity is required. One elegant strategy for site-selective release of drugs is to utilize the acidic sites in the body, for example, tumor sites and intracellular endocytic compartments. The objective of this thesis is to develop a series of new acid-cleavable polymeric nanoparticles for pH-triggered delivery oftherapeutics. Four new acid-cleavable benzaldehyde acetal crosslinkers have been designed and synthesized. They were then used in the generation of acid-labile polymeric nanoparticle drug carrier systems via various synthetic strategies and drug loading approaches for the delivery of therapeutics with different nature: (l) the coreshell poly(butyl acrylate)-g-poly(polyethylene glycol acrylate) nanoparticles, synthesized via the reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT)-mediated dispersion polymerization, were used for the delivery of hydrophobic drugs; (2) the core-crosslinked poly(hydroxyethyl acrylate)-b-poly(butyl acrylate) copolymer micelles, synthesized via the RAFT-mediated chain-extension polymerization, were used for the delivery of an antitumor drug, doxorubicin; (3) the poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) microgel particles, synthesized via the inverse-emulsion polymerization, were used for the delivery of biomacromolecular drugs. The designed physiochemical features such as the size, surface chemistry, cytotoxicity and the pH-triggered drug release properties of the developed carrier systems have been assessed. The synthesized systems offered release of the drug payload at slightly acidic conditions. The structural integrity of the polymeric carriers remained intact in the physiological, neutral pH conditions. The results support the potential value of the developed systems to be used for acidic-site delivery of therapeutics e.g. tumor sites and intracellular compartments. The content of this thesis has been published as three peer-reviewed international journal articles.

A major drawback of chemotherapy is the lack of selectively leading to damage in healthy tissue, which results in severe acute side effects to cancer patients. The use of nanoparticles as a drug delivery system has emerged as novel strategy to overcome the barriers of immunogenic response, controlled release of therapeutic, and targeting the toxicity only to cancerous cells. In this study, polymeric nanoparticles composed of transition metals and particles derived from natural biopolymers have been generated via self-assembly. For example, nanoparticles composed of cobalt crosslinked with albumin (Co-alb NPs) via Co-amine coordination chemistry of lysine residue were syntheisized in various sizes. The method to generate Co-alb NPs involves no thermal heat, organic solvent or any surfactants, which is ideal for the production of large amounts in a timely manner. The Co-alb NPs displayed exceptional stability under physiological conditions (pH 7.4) for several days with minor changes in size; however degradation could be triggered by reductant (reduced glutathione (GSH), 10 mM) with complete disappearance of particles in less than 2 hour. Numerous therapeutics that are highly effective toward cancer cells have been developed; however, many cannot be administered to patients due to poor solubility in water and pH dependent properties. We have successfully encapsulated 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycampothecin (SN-38) into Co-alb NPs with encapsulation efficiency as high as 94% and loading capacities greater than 30%. We employed an emulsion-solvent evaporation method to incorporate SN-38 into Co-alb (SN38 Co-Alb NPs). Release of the drug from SN38 Co-Alb NPs was determined for particles incubated in PBS or PBS-GSH. SN38 Co-Alb NPs were exceptionally stable under physiological condition (PBS pH 7.4), but exhibited sustained release of SN-38 over time in the presence of GSH. Uptake and toxicity of the particles were also investigated in a gastric carcinoma cell line (SNU-5) where high degrees of macropinocytic uptake were observed. The particles displayed significant toxicity making them a prime candidate for further testing in animal models.

Hydrogels are three dimensional networks of hydrophilic homopolymers or copolymers generally covalently or ionically crosslinked. They interact with aqueous media by swelling to some equilibrium value by retaining the aqueous media in their structures. This study concerns the investigation of the swelling and the controlled drug release behaviour of hydrogels synthesized via the photopolymerisation process. The study of hydrogels in this project was oriented towards their biomedical applications as controlled drug delivery devices. It is a known fact that the complete conversion of monomers to polymers may not be achieved in the polymerisation process thus there is always a certain component of unreacted toxic monomers still remained in the polymer matrix. These monomers have the tendency to leach out of the polymer matrices when the polymers are in contact with an aqueous medium thus rendering the hydrogel to be nonbiocompatable. The polymers synthesized in this work were washed thoroughly in milli-Q-water and then evaluated in vitro for any possible toxic effect on human keratinocyte (HaCaT)v cells using a 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diaphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation assay. The cytotoxicity results indicated that the hydrogels understudy sustained and allowed a positive growth of the HaCat cells in the duration of the cytotoxicity experiment, thus proving to be satisfactorily compatible.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Akron, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, 2007.
"December, 2007." Title from electronic thesis title page (viewed 02/25/2008) Advisor, Stephanie T. Lopina; Faculty readers, Bi-min Newby, Helen Qammar; Department Chair, Lu-Kwang Ju; Dean of the College, George K. Haritos; Dean of the Graduate School, George R. Newkome. Includes bibliographical references.

During this doctoral research work new potential drug delivery vehicles for targeted treatment of cancers were developed. For this purpose, both soft and hard materials were subject of study. Firstly, the synthesis, the characterization and the biological evaluation of monomeric â-cyclodextrins functionalized with folic acid (FA) were the focus of this research. In particular, four new conjugates (CyD-FAs), both 3- and 6-functionalized â-CyDs (â-CyD3 and â-CyD6) linked to the á- or ã-carboxylic group of the FA were synthesized, isolated and fully characterized. Furthermore, the ability of these compounds to include the anticancer drug LA-12 and to deliver it selectively to FR (+) tumor cell lines was investigated. Since the promising results obtained with these CyD-FA conjugates as carriers for LA-12, polymeric nanoparticles based on cross-linked cyclodextrins were designed for drug delivery purposes. These systems, offer the advantages of CyD-type complexation in a synergistic way, resulting more effective than the parent CyDs. In particular, CyD-based polymers and oligomers were synthesized, functionalized with FA and tested as delivery systems towards different hydrophobic anticancer or anti-inflammatory agents. Furthermore, for selected systems, the binding constants of the formed inclusion complexes were determined as well. Concerning hard materials, mesoporous silica nanoparticles were investigated. A new disc-shaped mesoporous material, the nanodiscs (NDs), was synthesized, isolated and fully characterized. This material was firstly used for the preparation of self-assembled monolayers (SAM), to be employed in targeted cancer cell adhesion and in-situ drug delivery. For this purpose, the NDs-monolayers were functionalized with FA as targeting moiety. Thanks to their large surface area and the possibility of high density of superficial functionalization with bioactive molecules, these systems resulted effective in binding cancer cells even upon short contact times. Moreover, exploiting the porosity of the synthesized particles, the intracellular release of small hydrophobic molecules pre-loaded in the channels of the NDs were achieved. Secondly, preliminary biological experiments carried out to test the cellular uptake of NDs, and the drug-carrier ability were performed. Finally, in the attempt to increase the biodegradability of these interesting structures, disulfide-doped mesoporous silica nanodiscs (ss-NDs) were also prepared. Full characterization and preliminary biological assays of these hybrid materials was also performed, and their degradation in redox conditions investigated. This novel material, taking advantage of bio-redox reactions, undergoes a controlled disintegration process in presence of reducing agents (i.e. glutathione), displaying an improved drug delivery action.

Polymer-based drug delivery systems have fantastic potential in chemotherapy as they can reduce drug side effects, help in patient compliance and provide targeting. Nanoprecipitation is used to encapsulate small drug molecules into polymer nanoparticles to form a drug delivery system. A major obstacle in polymer-based drug delivery systems reaching the clinic is their inability to load sufficient drug molecules. Little is known about the processes involved in the encapsulation of drug molecules into these delivery systems. An insight into the processes that govern the formation of these particles and encapsulation of small drug molecules within them is therefore desirable. We used molecular dynamics to model nanoprecipitation by simulating the dispersion of an acetone drop, containing polymer, into water containing drug. To allow sufficient dispersion of acetone a large amount of water is required, thus coarse-graining becomes mandatory. However, we maintain accuracy for our polymer-drug interactions by using a multiscale force field. Atomistic polymer and drug molecules contain coarse-grain virtual sites which facilitate interactions with the coarse-grain solvent molecules. We also employed fully atomistic reference simulations via resolution transformation to optimise our multiscale force field. This thesis details the theory and design behind this model of nanoprecipitation including how other techniques produced inferior results. Initial simulations with our multiscale model matched an experimental trend and were shown to be accurate relative to atomistic reference simulations. We also analysed a fully atomistic simulation of nanoprecipitation that took several months to complete. This atomistic simulation was used as a reference to update the multiscale force field. The updated force field improved on some aspects of the simulation but there are still areas that need improvement. Insight from the simulations provides an understanding of the experimental results and trends. The transferability of the model should help in designing more efficient polymer-based drug delivery systems in the future. We conclude with future work on modelling polymer-based drug delivery systems including alternate methods to gain understanding of not only drug incorporation but also drug release.

[EN] Nowadays, one of the biggest concerns that permanently keep the attention of main important sectors of human society is health. Modern medical science is compromised with not only providing good adequate treatments but also effective specific solutions for each type of disease or human pathology. In this direction, innovative approaches like tissue engineering or regenerative medicine, controlled drug delivery systems and nanomedicines emerge to bring alternatives to situations hard to solve with conventional treatment and strategies, including the replacement of damaged or diseases tissues and/or organs. Specifically, this research is mainly aimed to design a combined system for controlled, stable and localized release of therapeutic agents that are able to exert their effect selectively on the area that warrants treatment. This construct will have enough versatility to be adapted to almost any kind of treatment, from cancer to tissue regeneration, always that the key requirement of the treatment was the need to provide the treatment of localized, stable and controlled manner. With the purposes of making easier the understanding as well as the design of the system, I was decided, for the proof of concept, to use drugs and materials with known activity applied on tissue regeneration and for the treatment of chronic wounds. The system in question consists of three main elements: 1) The first element is the polymer conjugates of therapeutic agents, which contribute to increasing the selectivity of the therapeutic action of the drug, as well as improved stability, bioavailability and biocompatibility thereof. If the drug is hydrophobic, conjugation contributes to increase its solubility in water, and in the case of proteins used as therapeutic agents, the combination helps reduce the body's immune response, increasing the chance of successful of the treatment. 2) The second element are the biodegradable polymeric microparticles, which in this case act like encapsulation agents for polymeric conjugate , thus allowing to have a second control point in the release kinetics of the therapeutic agents . Simultaneously, the microparticles also play a role in modifying the texture of the final construct, ascribing mechanical and physicochemical properties that help to improve some biological properties of the final material, such as the affinity, adhesion and cell proliferation. 3) The third element consists of a nanoporous membrane made of a biodegradable polymer by electrospinning, which constitute the unifier element of the whole system. This membrane provides manageability to the construct and is itself the last point of control in the release kinetics of the therapeutic agent or agents. Besides, it must be biocompatible and stable at ambient conditions, since this probably is going to be exposed to the environment while protecting the wound, in the case of this kind of application. These three elements, which themselves are complex systems separately, are systematically combined to achieve a synergistic relationship between them so that each one power the qualities of the other two. The resulting construct was characterized and it demonstrated to have characteristic properties that can be used as a control parameter during manufacture of this new material. Also, preliminary biological studies developed "in vitro" indicated that the proposed system may be a good candidate for deeper studies as alternative treatment for chronic wounds and other pathologies that require localized administration for long periods of time.
[ES] Actualmente, una de las mayores preocupaciones que permanentemente laman la atención de los principales sectores de la sociedad humana es la salud. La ciencia médica moderna está comprometida no solo con suministrar tratamientos adecuados, sino más bien ofrecer soluciones efectivas y específicas para cada tipo de enfermedad o patología humana. En este sentido, estrategias innovadoras como la ingeniería de tejidos o la medicina regenerativa, los sistemas de liberación controlada de fármacos y las nanomedicinas, surgen como buenas alternativas para abordar situaciones difíciles de resolver aplicando los tratamientos y estrategias terapéuticas convencionales, como es el caso cuando se hace necesario reemplazar tejidos o incluso órganos dañados por algún traumatismo o enfermedad. Concretamente, el presente trabajo de investigación tiene por objetivo principal diseñar un sistema combinado para la liberación controlada, estable y localizada de agentes terapéuticos que sean capaces de ejercer su efecto de forma selectiva sobre la zona que amerita el tratamiento. Este constructo tendrá la versatilidad suficiente como para poder adaptarse a casi cualquier tipo de tratamiento, desde el cáncer hasta la regeneración de tejido, siempre que el requisito clave del tratamiento sea la necesidad de suministrar el tratamiento de manera localizada, estable y controlada. Para efectos de facilitar la compresión y el diseño del sistema se escogió para la prueba de concepto materiales y fármacos asociados a la regeneración de tejidos, como tratamiento para casos de heridas crónicas. El sistema en cuestión está constituido por tres elementos principales: 1) El primer elemento son los conjugados poliméricos de agentes terapéuticos que contribuirán a aumentar la selectividad de la acción terapéutica del fármaco, así como también a mejora la estabilidad, biodisponibilidad y biocompatibilidad de los mismos. En caso de que el fármaco sea hidrofóbico, la conjugación contribuye a aumentar su solubilidad en agua, y en el caso de usar proteínas como agentes terapéuticos, la conjugación contribuye a disminuir la respuesta inmunológica del cuerpo incrementando las posibilidad de éxito del tratamiento. 2) El segundo elemento son micropartículas poliméricas biodegradables, que en este caso actúan con agentes de encapsulación para los conjugados poliméricos, permitiendo así contar con un segundo punto de control en la cinética de liberación de los agentes terapéuticos. Simultáneamente, las micropartículas también cumplen un papel de modificador de la textura del constructo final, adjudicándole propiedades mecánica y fisicoquímicas que contribuyen a mejorar las propiedades biológicas del material final, como son la afinidad, la adhesión y la proliferación celular. 3) El tercer elemento consiste en una membrana polimérica biodegradable nanoporosa hecha por electrospinning, que constituyen el elemento unificados del sistema, aporta manejabilidad al constructo y es en sí mismo el último punto de control en la cinética de liberación del agente terapéutico. Este último debe ser biocompatible y estable en condiciones ambientales, puesto que probablemente este expuesto al ambiente mientras protege la herida, en el caso concreto de este tipo de aplicación. Estos tres elementos, que en sí mismos constituyen sistemas complejos por separado, se han combinado sistemáticamente para alcanzar una relación sinérgica entre ellos de manera que cada uno potencia las cualidades de los otros dos. El constructo resultante se caracterizó demostrando tener propiedades características que se pueden utilizar como parámetro de control durante la fabricación del mismo. Así mismo estudios in vitro del sistema desarrollado señalan que puede ser un buen candidato para el tratamiento de heridas crónicas entre otras patologías que requieran tratamientos localizados.
[CAT] Actualment, una de les majors preocupacions que permanentment llepen l'atenció dels principals sectors de la societat humana és la salut. La ciència mèdica moderna està compromesa no solament amb subministrar tractaments adequats, sinó més aviat oferir solucions efectives i específiques per a cada tipus de malaltia o patologia humana. En aquest sentit, estratègies innovadores com l'enginyeria de teixits o la medicina regenerativa, els sistemes d'alliberament controlat de fàrmacs i les nanomedicines, sorgeixen com a bones alternatives per a abordar situacions difícils de resoldre aplicant els tractaments i estratègies terapèutiques convencionals, com és el cas quan es fa necessari reemplaçar teixits o fins i tot òrgans danyats per algun traumatisme o malaltia. Concretament, el present treball de recerca té per objectiu principal dissenyar un sistema combinat per a l'alliberament controlat, estable i localitzada d'agents terapèutics que seguen capaços d'exercir el seu efecte de forma selectiva sobre la zona que amirita el tractament. Aquest constructe tindrà la versatilitat suficient com per a poder adaptar-se a quasi qualsevol tipus de tractament, des del càncer fins a la regeneració de teixit, sempre que el requisit clau del tractament sega la necessitat de subministrar el tractament de manera localitzada, estable i controlada. Per a efectes de facilitar la compressió i el disseny del sistema es va escollir per a la prova de concepte materials i fàrmacs associats a la regeneració de teixits, com a tractament per a casos de ferides cròniques. El sistema en qüestió està constituït per tres elements principals: 1) El primer element són els conjugats polimèrics d'agents terapèutics que contribuiran a augmentar la selectivitat de l'acció terapèutica del fàrmac, així com també a millora l'estabilitat, biodisponibilitat i biocompatibilitat dels mateixos. En cas que el fàrmac sega hidrofòbic, la conjugació contribueix a augmentar la seua solubilitat en aigua, i en el cas d'usar proteïnes com a agents terapèutics, la conjugació contribueix a disminuir la resposta immunològica del cos incrementant les possibilitat d'èxit del tractament. 2) El segon element són microparticles polimèriques biodegradables, que en aquest cas actuen amb agents d'encapsulació per als conjugats polimèrics, permetent així comptar amb un segon punt de control en la cinètica d'alliberament de l'agent terapèutics. Simultàniament, les microparticles també compleixen un paper de texturitzant del constructe final, adjudicant-li propietats mecànica i fisicoquímiques que contribueixen a millorar la propietats biològiques del material final, com són l'afinitat, l'adhesió i la proliferació cel·lular. 3) El tercer element consisteix en una membrana polimèrica biodegradable nanoporosa feta per electrospinning, que constitueixen el element unificats del sistema, aporta manejabilitat al constructe i és en si mateix el ultimi punt de control en la cinètica d'alliberament de l'agent terapèutic. Aquest últim ha de ser biocompatible i estable en condicions ambientals, ja que probablement aquest exposat a l'ambient mentre protegeix la ferida, en el cas concret d'aquest tipus d'aplicació. Aquests tres elements que en si mateixos constitueixen sistemes complexos per separat, s'han combinat sistemàticament per a aconseguir una relació sinergètica entre ells de manera que cadascun potencia les qualitats dels altres dos. El constructe resultant es va caracteritzar demostrant tenir propietats característiques que es poden utilitzar com a paràmetre de control durant la fabricació del mateix. Així mateix estudis in vitro del sistema desenvolupat assenyalen que pot ser un bon candidat per al tractament de ferides cròniques entre altres patologies que requeriren tractaments localitzats.
Rodríguez Escalona, GDJ. (2016). DEVELOPMENT OF CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS OF POLYMERIC NANOMEDICINES ASSOCIATED TO SCAFFOLDS FOR TISSUE REGENERATION [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/63231
TESIS

Skin wound dressings are commonly used to stimulate and improve the repair of the injured tissue. In a healthy organism, the wound healing process is a highly articulate cascade of events that take place sequentially but with an overlap. Commercially available patches and sterile gauzes are commonly used to separate the wound from the external environment and avoid bacterial contaminations. Although constituting a physical barrier that protects the wound area, these systems do not possess some pivotal characteristics that can effectively guide the healing process. In the last decades, the interest in exploiting the properties of natural-based polymers (e.g. biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability) for wound dressing fabrication has been growing. Natural polymers are a promising class of materials able to improve the healing process and protect the wound against bacterial infections. In particular, plant-based biopolymers have been shown promising features that make them ideal for the fabrication of nano/micro-structured scaffolds for wound healing applications. More detailed considerations about it will be discussed in Chapter 1. This doctoral thesis aimed to develop and fabricate plant-based wound dressings, mainly composed of zein, an alcohol-soluble protein extracted from corn, and pectin, the most abundant polysaccharide placed in the plant cell wall. In the literature, there are some studies in which zein and pectin were mixed to produce micro/nanoparticles. Nonetheless, little is known about their blends used for the production of other types of micro and nanocomposites, such as films and nano/microfibers. In the first project, discussed in Chapter 2, zein and pectin were used to fabricate composite polymeric films. The samples were chemically and physically analyzed. The degradation rate of the samples was monitored over time after their immersion in various buffers with different pH values. The presence of the pectin inside the composite films led to a faster degradation rate, as also demonstrated by thermogravimetric analyses. This trend was also confirmed by monitoring the release of a hydrophilic model compound loaded inside the constructs, which resulted in a higher release for the samples containing pectin. Moreover, the films showed the ability to inhibit the growth of three skin pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans), demonstrating an excellent antimicrobial activity. Finally, in vitro biocompatibility was confirmed on a representative class of skin cells via MTS assay and through cell morphology inspection by confocal microscopy. In a second project, discussed in Chapter 3, plant-based microfibrous scaffolds were fabricated through vertical electrospinning, starting from various zein/pectin formulations. These systems were loaded with various concentrations of a bioactive molecule, Vitamin C (VitC), evaluating its release from the 3D scaffolds over time in parallel to its antioxidant properties and collagen synthesis stimulation activity. Pectin's ability to crosslink in the presence of Ca2+ was exploited by immersing the samples in a calcium chloride solution. In this way, non-crosslinked and crosslinked samples were obtained, characterized, and compared. The main comparisons were made in terms of degradation rate and water uptake ability. These analyses highlighted the ability of the crosslinked samples to behave as a hydrogel when immersed in an aqueous solution, resulting in a more susceptibility toward a tested protease. In vitro biocompatibility was confirmed on two representative skin cell populations through MTS assay, confocal microscopy investigation, and direct plating test. Subsequently, the ability of the VitC to stimulate the synthesis of collagen in fibroblasts was confirmed by RT-PCR. Finally, the samples that showed better biocompatibility and gene expression characteristics were selected for the in vivo test on a mouse model of skin burns. The investigation outcomes demonstrated the ability of our newly designed construct to significantly reduce the inflammatory cytokine in the wound area. Lastly, the general conclusions of this thesis study and some considerations for future steps are summarized in Chapter 4.

Thesis (M. S.)--Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009.
Committee Chair: Milam, Valeria; Committee Member: Boyan, Barbara; Committee Member: Li, Mo; Committee Member: McDevitt, Todd; Committee Member: Sandhage, Ken.

Homing is the process that stem cells move to their own stem cell niches under the influence of chemokines like stromal-derived factor-1&alpha
(SDF-1&alpha
) upon bone marrow transplantation (BMT). There is a need for increasing homing efficiency after BMT since only 10-15% of the transplanted cells can home to their own niches and a limited amount of donor marrow can be transplanted. In this study, we aimed to develop and characterize bone marrow targeted liposomal SDF-1&alpha
delivery system prepared by extrusion method. Alendronate conjugation was chosen to target the liposomes to bone marrow microenvironment, particularly the endosteal niche. Optimization studies were conducted with the model protein (

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Akron, Dept. of Chemistry, 2006.
"May, 2006." Title from electronic dissertation title page (viewed 10/11/2006). Advisor, Daniel J. Smith; Committee members, Michael J. Taschner, Wiley J. Youngs, Kim C. Calvo, Darrell H. Reneker; Department Chair, Michael J. Taschner; Dean of the College, Ronald F. Levant; Dean of the Graduate School, George R. Newkome. Includes bibliographical references.

L’objectif de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre le mécanisme d’interaction entre le tartrate de métoprolol et des films de polymethacrylate quaternaire (Eudragit RL et Eudragit RS). Pour des raisons de comparaison, des films contenant soit la base libre du métoprolol soit l’acide tartrique libre ont été préparés. Tout d’abord, les systèmes contenant une quantité variable d’un de ces composés (l’acide libre, la base libre ou le sel) ont été caractérisés à l’état sec par microscopie à lumière polarisée, diffraction des rayons X, analyse enthalpique différentielle et analyse des propriétés mécaniques. La base libre s’est révélée être le plastifiant le plus efficace parmi les trois espèces pour l’Eudragit RL et Eudragit RS, mais avec une solubilité limitée dans les polymères. De part son caractère hydrophobe, il peut interagir avec les squelettes polymériques hydrophobes. Les films contenant le sel semblent quant à eux présenter des interactions ioniques entre les groupes ammonium quaternaire cationiques (QAGs) chargées positivement et les anions tartriques chargés négativement, comme le suggère les effets différents observés avec l’Eudragit RL et l’Eudragit RS présentant des concentrations différentes en QAGs. Il est important de noter que la combinaison de l’acide et de la base sous forme d’un sel permet d’éviter la précipitation du principe actif à de fortes teneurs en métoprolol. Dans un second temps, des films à base d’Eudragit RL ou Eudragit RS contenant de l’acide tartrique, la base libre du métoprolol et le tartrate de métoprolol tartrate ont été caractérisés physico-chimiquement et plus particulièrement vis-à-vis des cinétiques de prise en eau et libération des différents composés au cours de leur exposition au 0. 1M HCl, tampon phosphate pH 7. 4 et l’eau distillée. Une solution analytique appropriée Résumé III de la seconde loi de diffusion de Fick tenant compte des conditions initiales et «boundary» a été fittée aux données expérimentales mesurées. De cette manière les mécanismes de transport de masse sous-jacents ont pu être élucidés et les coefficients de diffusion apparents de l’eau et des substances incorporées dans les différents réseaux polymériques déterminés. Les composés jouent le rôle de plastifiant pour l’Eudragit RL, et ce également à l’état humide. Il est intéressant de noter que les effets plastifiants du tartrate de métoprolol étaient beaucoup plus prononcés que ceux de l’acide tartrique, résultant en une augmentation des coefficients de diffusion avec une augmentation de la quantité initiale en principe actif. L’action plastifiante de la base libre du métoprolol est quant à elle beaucoup plus limitée à l’état humide du fait de la précipitation du principe actif en environnement aqueux. La pénétration de l’eau dans les systèmes à base d’Eudragit RL, de même que la libération de l’acide tartrique, de la base libre du métoprolol et du tartrate de métoprolol dans les milieux étudiés sont essentiellement contrôlés par diffusion pure, indépendamment du type de fluide. Cependant, à des teneurs modérées et importantes en métoprolol sous forme de base libre, la précipitation du principe actif dans les films d’Eudragit RL humides rend les mécanisme de transport de masse beaucoup plus complexes. Dans les systèmes basés sur l’Eudragit RS, la diffusivité du tartrate de métoprolol et sa base libre augmente significativement en augmentant les teneurs initiales en principe actif, illustrant la forte capacité plastifiante de ces composants pour ce polymère. Contrairement aux films d’Eudragit RL, la précipitation de la base libre du métoprolol ne survient qu’à de fortes teneurs initiales en principe actif, du fait d’une prise en eau des films plus faible due à une teneur en QAGs plus faible dans ce polymère. Les nouvelles connaissances plus approfondies obtenues sur les mécanismes sous-jacents à la libération du principe actif dans les réseaux d’Eudragit RL et Eudragit RS peuvent aider à faciliter l’optimisation de ce type de forme galénique