Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Pollution'
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1
Au, Ka-lun Adrian, and 區嘉麟. "Light pollution." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2010. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B45170253.
2
Ito, Christine. "Light Pollution." Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School, 2013. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd/402.
Abstract:
Although pollution can take many different forms, it is predominately thought of in the context of its effects on air, water, and soil. A lesser considered form of pollution is light pollution. And although its effects are less widely discussed than other types of pollution, light pollution adversely impacts a growing population of urban dwellers and wildlife. In addition, to impacting the health and safety of individuals and wildlife, light pollution impedes scientific exploration by observatories and consumes excessive amounts of energy. For example, wasted or unused lighting, consumes electricity above and beyond the minimum required to provide necessary lighting. In 2007, 22% ofthe United States' total electricity use powered lighting equating to 915 Terawatt hours (TWh) (Fighting Light Pollution 6-9). As a point of comparison, Russia's entire electricity consumption in 2010 was 915 TWh ("Key World Energy Statistics" 54). Considering only the financial benefit for reducing light pollution, a reduction of 1 TWh per year ($0.10/kWh) would yield $100 million USO in cost savings. Beyond the financial benefits of reducing light pollution, there would be a secondary benefit of decreasing the amount of non-renewable energy resources expended.
In contrast to other forms of pollution, the solutions for reducing light pollution are readily available and can produce near instantaneous results. For example, there are fixture options exist that shield or minimize the light trespass. Additionally, there exist a number of lamp bulb options that allows the appropriate brightness to be applied for each environment with a range of choices with different cost or energy efficiency. The effects of light pollution and impact of reducing light pollution are distributed and can only be realized when multiple disparate light systems incorporate reduction techniques.
This project predicts the energy and economic effects of widespread application of light pollution reduction design, while applying the systems engineering approach to define the notional requirements, architecture, and analysis tools for a single instance of a lighting system. The systems engineering artifacts are customizable for a specific lighting system. Additionally, the traditional stakeholder requirements have been mapped against light pollution objectives, underscoring the point that the two are not mutually exclusive-it is possible to build a lighting system that simultaneously meets user needs and reduces light pollution.
3
Gharib, J. "Water pollution." Thesis, Сумський державний університет, 2013. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31047.
Abstract:
It is hard to imagine and believe that 75% of the earth is covered with water; and its inhabitants are not satisfied with clean water to drink and other home uses. Some people in Africa travelling hundreds of miles every day to fetch clean water from a hole that was not properly drilled and that with only a bucket that cannot meet daily needs. On the other hand the human body is 70% water too, and when exposed to dirty water, diseases erupt (epidemics) which lead to 3.4million deaths of people each year. And Nearly 99% of deaths occur in developing the countries.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31047
4
Silyuk, O. V., and T. N. Burenko. "Air pollution." Thesis, Вид-во СумДУ, 2007. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/17563.
5
Syrotenko, Sergiy. "Water pollution." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2007. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/13086.
Abstract:
The urbanization and industrialization create new problems of preservation of pure water. The crude or badly cleared drains of cities are dumped in reservoirs. Security clearing constructions still lags behind development of the industry. Unlike household sewage industrial drains considerably differ on the structure. They contain acids, alkalis, oils both other organic and inorganic connections. Poisons, synthetic and radioactive substances can contain a number of industrial drains.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/13086
6
Lyashenko, V. V. "Pollution in Ukraine." Thesis, Сумський державний університет, 2012. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/28647.
Abstract:
This topic is extremely relevant today because ecology of Ukraine is in critical condition! Ukraine is suffering many environmental problems. There are many consequences of damaging the environment. One of them is water pollution.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/28647
7
Мареха, Ірина Сергіївна, Ирина Сергеевна Мареха, and Iryna Serhiivna Marekha. "Marketing pollution control." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2007. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/7988.
Abstract:
The problem of pollution control is an illuminating example of how governments in a market economy can harness the marketplace mechanisms of supply and demand to address a critical issue confronting the entire society.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/7988
8
Dodotchenko, M. S., and L. Larmak. "Pollution in Ukraine." Thesis, Вид-во СумДУ, 2009. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/16771.
Abstract:
Article focuses on pollution in Ukraine because Ukraine contains some of the most polluted landscapes in Eastern Europe.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/16771
9
Rahmonov, Buzurgmehr. "Ecology and pollution." Thesis, Сумський державний університет, 2013. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31706.
Abstract:
What can I say, about ecology. Word of “Ecology” become to wide. Nowadays human brought many benefits. Related to a huge developed science-technological progress but in that time put life on earth is on the brink of ecological disaster, Population growth, intensification of production and emission of polluting the Earth, led to dramatic changes in the nature and affect the very existence of man. Some of these changes is extremely strong and is so widespread that there are global environmental problems. There are serious problems of pollution (air, water, soil), acid rain, radiation damage to the area and the loss of individual species of plants and living organisms, the impoverishment of biological resources, deforestation and desertification of areas.
When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31706
10
Гладченко, Оксана Робертівна, Оксана Робертовна Гладченко, Oksana Robertivna Hladchenko, and O. Linnik. "Pollution of environment." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2008. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/16005.
11
GILBERT, THERESA JEANNETTE. "TRADABLE POLLUTION PERMITS." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/190450.
12
Smith, Adrian Paul. "Change and continuity in UK industrial pollution regulation : integrated pollution control." Thesis, University of Sussex, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.318496.
Abstract:
This dissertation studies the policy process which produced and implemented the Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) system in 1990, administered by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP). It assesses how IPC was implemented in terms of setting pollution control standards, hQWIPC compares with the air pollution regime it replaced, and in terms of IPC's policy output. Policy network concepts are used to analyse the networks of interaction between policy actors as they seek to influence the policy process. The research involved interviews with these policy actors, plus analysis of relevant documentation - including a content analysis of the new IPC public register. The analysis is presented historically, beginning with the policy network of regulator and industry which negotiated air pollution controls. Public interest groups criticised this regime in the early 1970s for the informal, consensual, and confidential way it set and enforced air pollution standards. During the 1980s, European legislation put pressure upon domestic pollution control practice. Industry began lobbying for improvements to the flexible British regime as a bulwark against European formalism. Several factors led to HMJP's creation and IPC introduction, including European and industrial pressures, but also a belief by government that change had deregulatory potential. Regulatory procedures under IPC are more transparent and formal. However, standard setting was at HMIP's discretion, to be exercised during IPC implementation. HMIP initially intended to break from the past and do this at arms'length from industry. Analysis of this implementation stage uses the organic chemicals sector for case study. It explains why IPC has suffered an 'implementation deficit' compared to HMIP's initial intentions. Moreover, improvements to industrial pollution control are negotiated in a policy network similar to its air pollution predecessor. It is argued that within the formal legal framework, persists an infonnal, consensual, and somewhat opaque pollution regime.
13
Meier, Laurent. "Pollution atmosphérique et asthme." Paris 5, 1999. http://www.theses.fr/1999PA05P112.
14
Yatsenko, Nataliya. "Problems of air pollution." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2011. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/10347.
15
Gorlachyov, P. D. "Aspects of air pollution." Thesis, Вид-во СумДУ, 2005. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/19897.
16
Гладченко, Оксана Робертівна, Оксана Робертовна Гладченко, Oksana Robertivna Hladchenko, and V. Zhuravel. "Pollution of our planet." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2008. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/16002.
17
Hentschel, Eva. "Enforcing Pollution Control Regulation /." The Ohio State University, 1995. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487929745336057.
18
Belausteguigoitia, Juan Carlos. "Economic theory, political economy and pollution : essays on air pollution in Mexico City." Thesis, University of Essex, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.306393.
19
Billionnet, Cécile. "Pollution de l'air intérieur et santé respiratoire : prise en compte de la multi-pollution." Phd thesis, Université Pierre et Marie Curie - Paris VI, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00827664.
Abstract:
Nous avons étudié les effets de l'exposition à de multiples polluants de l'air intérieur sur la santé allergique et respiratoire. Les éléments à considérer pour étudier ce phénomène étaient, d'une part, les corrélations entre polluants et d'autre part leurs effets potentiellement additifs et synergiques. Les analyses menées chez les adultes ont montré que les prévalences des symptômes allergiques et respiratoires étaient plus élevées dans les logements les plus multi-pollués, notamment par les composés organiques volatils (COV). En particulier, les effets sanitaires des COV étaient plus importants lorsque dans le logement il y avait aussi des allergènes d'animaux en excès. Les analyses menées chez les enfants ont montré qu'il était difficile de séparer les effets des différents polluants. Cependant, une mauvaise qualité d'air dans les écoles était associée à une augmentation du risque de symptômes respiratoires. Des analyses prenant en compte l'exposition totale à la pollution ont mis en cause des effets combinés des polluants physico-chimique sur la fonction respiratoire des enfants. Au total, la prise en compte de la pollution multiple a permis de mettre en avant l'effet délétère de certains polluants combinés à d'autres substances, alors que leurs effets isolés n'étaient pas détectés. Nos études ont montré que des associations étaient observées à des concentrations plus faibles que celles observées dans les études toxicologiques, impliquant les effets additifs et synergiques entre les polluants. En conclusion, nos résultats ont mis en évidence des effets combinés entre des polluants variés sur la santé allergique et respiratoire des adultes et des enfants.
20
Huang, Hesha, Mengwei Jiang, and Fan Liu. "Water Pollution in China : study on the relationship between economic development and water pollution." Thesis, Högskolan Kristianstad, Sektionen för hälsa och samhälle, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hkr:diva-10861.
Abstract:
Purpose/aim The purpose of the research is to analyze the relationship between water pollution (WP) and the economic development in China. We found a vicious cycle that at the same time as China’s economy has developed; the WP has become the focus of attention, and has also caused huge economic losses. Faced with this situation, this topic is really worth to study. Design/methodology/approach The research adopted a quantitative methodology for the exploration, and conducted a survey through questionnaires which were answered by different people. These respondents come from four areas in China. After having conducted the survey, we selected three typical provinces as representative for each area, and surveyed the basic information about these places. The sample information was calculated by the Chi-square test. The results will be analyzed together with the findings below. Findings The findings indicated that through an analysis of GDP, population, the economic development level and the degree of WP, there is relationship between economic development and WP. When people ignore the problem of WP, and just focus on the economy, the relationship shows that the more developing of economy, the more serious the WP becomes. Originality/value The original idea in our dissertation is to discuss the relationship between economic development and WP in China. The water problem and economic development form a vicious circle. And it seriously affects the whole China. The study has a value for the improvement of the environmental awareness of all the people in China, and advocates the government to develop the economy, and at the same time protect the water sources.
21
Rundgren, Carl David. "Aspects of pollution in False Bay, South Africa (with special reference to subtidal pollution)." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/18330.
Abstract:
False Bay is the largest (circa 1000km²) natural, coastal embayment on the South African coastline and is located between latitudes 34°04'S and 34°23'S and longitudes 18°26'E and 18°52'E at the southern tip of Africa, near Cape Town, South Africa. The semi-enclosed nature of the bay makes it unsuitable as a 'sink' for all the contaminated urban stormwater run-off and the greatly increased pollution loads entering the bay. All pollution point sources entering False Bay were identified and described, and some of these selected for detailed study, the emphasis being on the impact of some individual discharges on the subtidal macrofauna. The similar biotic characteristics of three subtidal study sites in the region of the Steenbras Water Treatment Plant discharge indicate that the general turbidity and lower salinity characteristics of eastern False Bay are more likely to be responsible for the impoverished diversity near the outfall rather than the aluminium content of the discharge. Toxicity experiments on the bivalves Choromytilus meridionalis, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Perna perna using alum and ferric sludge indicate that there are no significant short-term sub-lethal toxic effects on the rocky shore bivalves and that decreased salinities in the immediate region of the outfall (as a result of the freshwater stream input) may have a more deleterious effect. A study of eighteen subtidal sites in False Bay indicated that overall densities of subtidal macro plastic debris were low, but that there are some 'hot spots' where densities are relatively high viz., Kalk Bay, Strandfontein, Mnandi, Monwabisi and Gordon's Bay. Colonising of debris by benthic organisms does occur, mostly on white plastic. Most of the debris consisted of plastic packaging from local land-based sources, indicating that it originates from wind-blown litter left by beachgoers. The highest density at the Sunnycove Control Site occurred in January during the peak holiday season. A longer term (three years) study of the subtidal environment in the vicinity of the Marine Oil Refiners outfall pipe indicated that the lack of subtidal macro fauna is more likely due to the harsh environmental conditions (abrasion and smothering) rather than the pollution impact of the outfall. This is confirmed by the abundant, healthy and diverse community on the nearby wreck of the Clan Stuart (1917) which indicates a stable ecosystem. The complexity of False Bay - its unique topography, bathymetry, meteorology make it difficult to attain a true climatic or average circulation. This lack of a consistent conceptual overview of the False Bay physical circulation is a short-coming that needs to be urgently addressed if the dangers of pollution inputs are to be accurately assessed. An overall management policy for False Bay should be urgently formulated and an officially constituted body with legislative power is needed if holistic management of the bay is to be achieved and such a prime recreational asset preserved for future generations.
Bibliography: pages 195-225.
22
Youssouf, Hassani. "Effets respiratoires de la pollution atmosphérique : prise en compte de plusieurs niveaux de pollution." Thesis, Paris 6, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA066456/document.
Abstract:
Les objectifs de cette thèse sont d'étudier les effets respiratoires de la pollution atmosphérique en prenant en compte 3 niveaux d'exposition: les niveaux macroscopique, semi-individuel et individuel.Pour le niveau macroscopique, nous avons étudié les effets sanitaires des émissions des feux de forêts dans une étude de type écologique. Au travers d'une revue de la littérature, nous avons observé que plusieurs études épidémiologiques avaient mis en évidence l'association entre l'exposition aux émissions des feux et l'augmentation des maladies cardiopulmonaires et la mortalité pour les individus habitant à proximité. La principale limite à ces études est donnée par l'évaluation de l'exposition. Dans une étude de cas sur les incendies de Marseille de 2009, nous avons observé des effets à la limite de la signification 8 et 9 jours après l'exposition entre les concentrations des particules fines(PM2.5 ) issues des incendies et les effets respiratoires.Pour le niveau semi-individuel, nous avons étudié le lien entre la pollution domestique et professionnelle et les maladies respiratoires chez des agriculteurs auvergnats dans le cadre d'une étude de type transversale. Nous avons observé que les dérivés halogénés et l'étyl-butoxyacetate étaient associés de façon significative aux maladies des petites voies aériennes. La concentration de benzène dans la pièce de vie principale de la ferme était significativement associée à une augmentation du risque d'asthme. Enfin, l'utilisation de l'acide mercapturique, dans le cadre d'une étude de type cas témoin nichée nous a permis de mesurer la dose interne d'exposition du benzène parmi des enfants de l'étude et son lien avec l'asthmeThe objectives of this thesis were to study the respiratory effects of air pollution by taking into account three levels of exposure: the macroscopic, semi-individual and individual levels. For the macroscopic level, we studied the health effects of emissions from forest fires in an ecological study. Through a literature review, we found that several epidemiological studies have shown the association between exposure to wildfire emissions and increase cardiopulmonary disease and mortality for the people living nearby. The main limitation of these studies is given by the exposure assessment. In a case study of the wildfire occurred in Marseille in the summer 2009, we observed effects at the limit of significance 8 and 9 days after exposure between concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5) from fire and respiratory effects .For semi-individual level, we have studied the link between domestic and occupational pollution and respiratory diseases among farmers from Auvergne using a cross-sectional study. We observed that the halogenated hydrocarbons and Etyl-butoxyacetate were significantly associated with the small airways disease. Benzene concentration in the living room of the farm was significantly associated with an increased risk of asthma. Finally, the use of a biomarker (the mercapturic acid) in the context of a case-control study allowed us to measure the internal dose of the exposure to benzene and its link with asthma among children included the study
23
Egan, Christine. "Inuit women's perceptions of pollution." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0016/NQ44995.pdf.
24
Ankarhem, Mattias. "Bioenergy, pollution, and economic growth." Doctoral thesis, Umeå : Umeå University, 2005. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-530.
25
Gratjios, George A. "Airport noise pollution legal aspects." Thesis, McGill University, 1990. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=59857.
Abstract:
This dissertation broadly explores the problems of aircraft noise in the vicinity of major airports.Part 1 defines the technical terms of noise and sonic boom and discusses their harmful effects on airport neighbours and their environment.
Part 2 reviews international legal regulations, commencing with the conference convened by the British Government in 1966, and ending with the ICAO Council proposals to be addressed at the 28th (Extraordinary) Session of the Assembly, in October 1990. Further, ICAO efforts in balancing the conflicting interests between developed and developing countries is highlighted, and the legal status of Annex 16 on Environmental Protection is discussed in some detail.
Part 3 examines national legislation relating to aircraft noise with an emphasis on the approach of the United States.
Part 4 canvasses liability issues through an analysis of the jurisprudence in various countries with a concentration on litigation in the United States. Of particular relevance is the applicability of the 1952 Rome Convention with respect to damages caused by noise and sonic boom.
Part 5 examines and evaluates proposed and already implemented solutions to the airport noise problem.
26
Atapattu, Sumudu Anopama. "State responsibility for air pollution." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.308654.
27
Choy, Wai-tim Felix, and 蔡偉添. "Information technology in pollution prevention." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2001. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B42576015.
28
Taherkhani, Farnaz. "Essays on transboundary pollution games." Thesis, McGill University, 2014. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=121189.
Abstract:
Several important environmental problems such as global warming resulting from greenhouse gas emissions are transboundary by nature. We study the effects of mitigation and adaptation policies in the context of a transboundary pollution game. We approach transboundary pollution problems from two distinct game theoretic perspectives, namely, cooperative (Chapter 1) and non-cooperative game theory (Chapters 2 and 3). In the first chapter, we consider an abatement game where countries choose the amount by which they reduce their emissions from a benchmark (laisser-faire) level. We use a time-consistent Shapley value allocation of the pollution reduction cost, and study the impact of adaptation on this allocation. Adaptation is captured by a change in each country's damage function. We show that a reduction in the damage cost of one country only, can reduce the other countries' welfare. Some countries may end up worse off, even in the case where all countries experience a uniform decrease in pollution damage. An important policy implication of this chapter is that the Shapley value approach to the allocation of abatement costs does not necessarily provide the right incentives for all players to act to reduce pollution damage. In the second chapter, we consider a polluting international oligopoly where firms face a tax on their pollution emissions and can participate in R&D collaboration networks to reduce their emission intensity. Assuming that pollution is transboundary, we develop a model of strategic networks in order to analyze how emission tax policies affect the stability of R&D collaboration networks in a non-cooperative oligopoly. We show that an increase in the emission tax can trigger a decrease in abatement. When the emission-output ratio is identical across different firms, we show that the complete network is stable. However, when the ratios differ, depending on the emission-output ratios and tax rates, other networks may become stable. Moreover, we show that, the complete network could be industry-profit maximizing depending on the network structure (i.e., symmetric or asymmetric), and firms' emission-output ratios. In the case of an asymmetric network, we show that an increase in the emission tax can result in an increase in the industry's profits. A policy implication of this chapter is that, if there is a clean firm (a firm with a very low emission-output ratio, as compared to other firms) among other, dirty firms, then an increase in the tax can improve emissions reduction. However, when the discrepancy between the firms' emission-output ratios is not very large, an increase in the tax can result in a smaller emissions reduction: an intermediate tax will induce a greater level of emissions reduction. In the third chapter, we focus on a transboundary pollution game between two countries to analyze the existence of an Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), i.e. an inverted U-shaped relationship between income levels and pollution. We aim to analyze whether an EKC exists in the event that a country's pollution is not necessarily the result of the economic activities within its borders. Considering a stock pollutant and an endogenous growth model, while assuming interior solutions for the abatement in two polluting countries, we show that the amount of stock pollutant eventually decreases as time approaches infinity. We show, via numerical simulations, that an increase in the degree of pollution spillover γ can change an ever decreasing relationship between the stock pollutant and income to an EKC, or it can transform an EKC--type relationship between the stock pollutant and income to an ever decreasing curve.Plusieurs problèmes environnementaux importants tels que le réchauffement climatique résultant des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES) sont par nature transfrontières. Nous étudions les effets des politiques de réduction des émissions et d'adaptation dans le contexte d'un jeu de pollution transfrontalière. Nous abordons les problèmes de pollution transfrontières à partir de deux perspectives distinctes de la théorie des jeux, à savoir coopératifs (Chapitre 1) et la théorie des jeux non coopératifs (Chapitres 2 et 3). Dans le premier chapitre, nous considérons un jeu d' abattement d'un polluant transfrontière. Nous utilisons la formule de la valeur Shapley pour déterminer l'allocation du coût de la réduction de la pollution. L'allocation dans le temps de la valeur de Shapley a la propriété de cohérence dynamique. Nous étudions l'impact de l'adaptation sur cette allocation. L'adaptation est capturée par un changement dans la fonction de dommage de chaque pays. Nous montrons qu'une réduction du coût des dommages d'un seul pays, peut réduire le bien-être des autres pays. Certains pays peuvent voir leur bien-être diminuer, même dans le cas où tous les pays connaissent une baisse uniforme des dommages de la pollution. Une importante implication de ce chapitre est que l'approche de la valeur Shapley (à la répartition des coûts de réduction des émissions) ne fournit pas nécessairement les incitations appropriées pour tous les joueurs d'agir pour réduire les dégâts de la pollution. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous considérons un oligopole international polluant où les entreprises font face à une taxe sur leurs émissions de polluants et peuvent participer à des réseaux de collaboration en R&D afin de réduire l'intensité de leurs émissions. Supposons que la pollution est transfrontalière, nous développons un modèle de réseaux stratégiques en vue d'analyser comment les politiques de taxation de la pollution affectent la stabilité des réseaux de collaboration en R&D dans un oligopole non coopératif. Nous montrons que l'augmentation de la taxe sur les émissions peut déclencher une diminution de la réduction de pollution. Lorsque le taux d'émission par unité d'output est identique à travers les différentes entreprises, nous montrons que l'ensemble du réseau est stable. Toutefois, lorsque les ratios diffèrent, d'autres réseaux peuvent devenir stable. Dans le cas d'un réseau asymétrique, nous trouvons que l'augmentation de la taxe sur les émissions peut entraîner une augmentation des profits de l'industrie. Une implication de ce chapitre est que, s'il y a une firme propre parmi des firmes polluantes (une firme avec un ratio très faible d'émission-sortie, par rapport aux autres firmes), une augmentation de la taxe peut améliorer la réduction des émissions. Toutefois, lorsque l'écart entre les taux d'émissions par output des firmes est faible, une taxe intermédiaire va induire un plus grand niveau de réduction des émissions. Dans le troisième chapitre, nous nous concentrons sur un jeu de pollution transfrontière entre deux pays afin d'analyser l'existence d'une courbe environnementale de Kuznets (CEK), c'est-à-dire, une relation en U-inversé entre le niveau de revenu et la pollution. Nous visons à analyser si une CEK existe dans le cas où la pollution d'un pays n'est pas nécessairement le résultat des activités économiques au sein de ses frontières. Considérant un polluant de stock et un modèle de croissance endogène, tout en se concentrant sur les solutions intérieures pour la réduction des émissions polluantes dans les deux pays. Nous montrons, à travers des simulations numériques, que l'augmentation de degré de débordement de la pollution γ peut changer une relation toujours décroissante entre le polluant et les revenus en une relation en forme de CEK, ou il peut transformer une relation en forme de CEK entre le polluant et les revenus à une relation représentée par une courbe toujours décroissante.
29
Harvey, M. J. "Pollution transfer by occult deposition." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.378479.
30
Zeki, E. M. "Air pollution by fine particles." Thesis, University of Leeds, 1985. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.355500.
31
Myers, George Foster. "Children's ideas about air pollution." Thesis, University of Liverpool, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.343649.
32
Hickman, Alice. "Air pollution at transport interchanges." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2018. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/8617/.
Abstract:
Air pollution from DEEEs is becoming an increased international concern, and whilst attention has been primarily focused on the automotive industry, concerns have also been raised about emissions from diesel rail vehicles. The research is designed to assess the hypothesis that diesel rolling stock severely impacts air quality at Birmingham New Street station due to the station’s enclosed nature. To assess this hypothesis, an extensive series of long term measurements were made at Birmingham New Street station. The monitoring campaign consisted of diffusion tube measurements, to measure NO2 at locations in and around the station, followed by measurements of NOx, PM, CO2 and BC at stationary and mobile sites at the platform level. The results illustrated that diesel trains serving the station elevated pollutant concentrations, particularly oxides of nitrogen. During the sampling campaign the average NO2 concentration in the centre of platform 10/11 was 407 μg/m3, approximately 10 times greater than the EU ambient air quality limit. NO exceed its WEL 35% of the time during the monitoring campaign for the same site. Furthermore, this research concludes that CO2 is not suitable as a surrogate for assessing DEEEs exposure. NO2 concentrations exceeded their relevant exposure limits, whilst CO2 did not exceed the ventilation system’s 50% speed threshold, as a result it is unlikely that harmful pollutants were being successfully exhausted from the station. The environmental analysis identified a potential trapped vortex in the West end of the station, which could have an impact on the ventilation system in place at Birmingham New Street station. It is clear that this research has been pivotal in driving a focus towards air quality with the railway industry and has prompted further research at other enclosed railway stations.
33
Kendall, Michaela. "Particulate pollution and stone deterioration." Thesis, Middlesex University, 1998. http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/13410/.
Abstract:
The soiling and damage of building surfaces may be enhanced by particulate air pollution, reducing the aesthetic value and lifetimes of historic buildings and monuments. This thesis focuses on the deposition of atmospheric particulate material to building surfaces and identifies potential sources of this material. It also identifies environmental factors influencing two deterioration effects: surface soiling and black crust growth. Two soiling models have been compared to assess their effectiveness in predicting the soiling rates of two materials - stone and wood - in five cities in Europe. An exponential decay model was found to describe the reduction of reflectance well at two of these sites, while a square root relationship is not as effective. Different measures of weekly particulate concentration were not statistically related to soiling rate, whereas S02, rainfall, and temperature were statistically related to reflectance loss over time. Wind speed and solar insolation were also indicated to influence soiling rates. Concentrations of total suspended particulate (TSP), particulate elemental carbon (PEC), total organic carbon (TOC) and thirty-nine particulate-associated hydrocarbons were measured in airborne particles at two sites in London, for one year. These hydrocarbons were also measured in black crusts from St Paul's Cathedral to relate atmospheric and deposited material, and to identify potential sources of the deposited particulate matter. Detailed scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analysis of black crust \ similarly indicated potential sources of these deposition layers. Analysis revealed the complex structure of these crusts, comprising gypsum "growth stems ", calcite and large numbers of particles mainly originating from oil combustion. Hydrocarbon analysis supported the fact that oil combustion - probably at Bank power station - was the dominant source of this deposited layer. Other particle morphologies were commonly found, such as those typical of coal combustion and diesel engine exhaust. Metals analyses also indicated other possible sources such as vehicles.
34
Thatcher, Cindy. "Novel environmental pollution control catalysts." Thesis, University of Surrey, 2005. http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/844282/.
Abstract:
This thesis comprises of the analysis of a commercial three way catalyst (TWC), as well as the discovery, development and analysis of a novel environmental pollution control catalyst for the abatement of automobile exhaust gases (namely CO by oxidation, HC (propane) by oxidation and NOX by reduction. All work was undertaken in collaboration with Blackthorn Autocatalysts, Chichester, West Sussex. The commercial TWC work comprised of two parts: (i) catalytic poisoning effects on the commercial TWC by metal compounds used in lead replacement petrol on activity of CO oxidation and HC oxidation. (ii) platinum group metal losses from the commercial TWC during laboratory simulation of an automobile exhaust gas during normal driving conditions. Here the author finds that (i) is more significant than (ii). The work on the novel catalyst also comprises of two parts: (i) The activity of a Keggin-type catalyst of the form [AlO4Al12(OH)24(H2O)12]7+ was compared to that of the TWC with respect to CO oxidation, HC oxidation and NOX reduction with varying Fe3+/Al3+ and Au3+/Fe3+/Al3+ substitutions. Comparisons of various preparative methods are made. Selected catalysts are characterised and probed in depth. (ii) A spinel-type catalyst of the form %Au/CoXFe3-XO4 was selected and activity with respect to CO oxidation, HC oxidation and NOX reduction with varying values of x and Au3+ loadings were compared to the TWC. It was characterised in full. Fe substituted Keggins-type catalysts proved to compare favourably with a commercial TWC in HC oxidation, but no CO oxidation and proved to be thermally unstable at the high temperatures experienced by TWCs. 1% Au containing cobalt-ferrite spinel-type catalysts of the form COXFe3-XO4 were x = 1.5 proved to compare very favourable when compared to the commercial TWC. Achieving lower LOTs for CO and HC oxidation under stoichiometric conditions. It was also found to be very active in NOX reduction under net reducing conditions. These Au/CoXFe3-XO4 catalysts were readily supported on pre-calcined Fecralloy at a level of 0.2 wt%, but more work is required to achieve higher loadings and higher activities. The application of such materials to the catalysis of environmental pollution control could be significant.
35
Schulte-Römer, Nona, Etta Dannemann, and Josiane Meier. "Light Pollution – A Global Discussion." Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZ, 2018. https://slub.qucosa.de/id/qucosa%3A35641.
Abstract:
In recent years, artificial light at night is increasingly recognized as a multifaceted problem that is expanding on a global scale. Astronomers were the first to criticize the loss of the dark, star-filled night. In recent years, biologists, physicians, and scientists from many other disciplines have joined the protest against light pollution.
36
Olar, О. І., O. Yu Mykytyuk, and T. V. Biryukova. "Health hazards of noises pollution." Thesis, БДМУ, 2019. http://dspace.bsmu.edu.ua:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/19233.
37
Tiazhkorob, Y. "How to stop water pollution." Thesis, Sumy State University, 2017. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/65664.
Abstract:
Water pollution is one of the biggest threats to the environment today. The impact of water pollution on wildlife and their natural habitat can be immense. Human activity is destroying our oceans and the life that it contains. While some pollution occurs directly in or at the edge of the ocean from ships and coastal communities, a majority of it comes from land and air pollution that may occur miles and miles away.
38
Matyushenko, I. Yu. "Grave effects of air pollution." Thesis, Сумський державний університет, 2012. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/28649.
39
Durgin, Timothy George. "Pollution Prevention in Lake Tai." The Ohio State University, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1275507366.
40
Gorr, Matthew W. "Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Dysfunction." The Ohio State University, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1428674045.
41
Magnusson, Albin. "Water Pollution and Economic Growth." Thesis, Umeå universitet, Nationalekonomi, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-184578.
Abstract:
Water pollution is a cornerstone of environmental issues, where it not only harms human health but also has major economic consequences. This study examines whether there is proof of the inverted U – shape Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) between water pollution and GDP per capita for 16 European countries between the years 1992 and 2018. The study is divided into two parts, one part where the focus is on whether there is an EKC for all 16 countries together and the other part examines in which of these 16 countries it is possible to find the EKC. This study uses a dynamic econometric technique, the generalized method of moments (GMM) but also a fixed effects regression model (FEM). Furthermore, an OLS time series analysis has been used to examine the relationship for each country. This study could not find empirical support for the EKC hypothesis between BOD and GDP per capita on European data, but that there is evidence that it exists an inverted U – shape EKC for Albania and North Macedonia.
42
Bat, Levent. "Pollution effects on marine invertebrates." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 1996. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk/R?func=search-advanced-go&find_code1=WSN&request1=AAIU083075.
Abstract:
In this study, the amphipod Corophium volutator and the polychaete Arenicola marina were evaluated as test organisms for use in sediment toxicity tests by adapting standard protocols developed by the EPA/COE and Thain et al. (1994) respectively for conducting 10-day sediment toxicity tests. Although these species have been used to assess the toxicity of marine and estuarine sediments, the detailed ecotoxicologies of these animals are not well documented. In particular, the effects of specific contaminants of known concentrations on this bioassay are not known. Here, I report several experiments carried out using clean intertidal sediment contaminated with the heavy metals copper, zinc and cadmium, and employing the Corophium and the Arenicola bioassay protocol. Concentrations of copper, zinc and cadmium were determined in tissues of Corophium exposed for 4 and 10 days to contaminated sediment using four protocols to allow for any material present in the gut. Significant differences in metal concentrations occurred between the protocols where gut contents were removed and those where they were left intact. These findings have implications for the way in which analyses of metal burdens are carried out for invertebrates in ecotoxicological work. Corophium survival in seawater with dissolved copper, zinc and cadmium was higher in the presence of sediment than without sediment, although the concentrations of these metals in Corophium tissues were the same in both cases. Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were inversely related to seawater concentrations of copper, zinc and cadium, with the lowest exposure concentration, (0.1 mg l-1 for both copper and zinc, 0.01 mg l-1 cadmium) having the highest BCF. Both live amphipods and those that had died accumulated copper, zinc and cadmium in their bodies during the bioassay, and bioconcentration factors were always higher for dead than for living amphipods for each metal.
43
Malby, Andew Reginald. "Cilmatic auditing of air pollution." Thesis, Lancaster University, 2009. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.539672.
44
Choy, Wai-tim Felix. "Information technology in pollution prevention." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2001. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B42576015.
45
Wilson, L. G. "Groundwater Pollution Monitoring Case Studies." Water Resources Research Center, University of Arizona (Tucson, AZ), 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/305357.
Abstract:
Investigators who were closely associated with five groundwater monitoring programs were asked to critically examine their studies as a guide to others involved in similar projects. The particular question to be answered was, "What monitoring techniques should have or could have been implemented?" given
that time and money were not constraints.
The case studies involved contamination of aquifers from oil field brine disposal, plating waste disposal, landfill leachate, nitrate from multiple sources, and recharge from an oxidation pond.
Among the general recommendations of the investigators,
resulting from the process of critical evaluation of their associated projects, were the following: establish interdisciplinary committees to set up the monitoring program; maximize the density of well network; use alternative methods to wells; completely analyze the samples, including heavy
metals; thoroughly examine the hydrogeology of the problem site; use tracers; develop predictive computer models of the flow system; monitor in the zone of aeration, where applicable; develop innovative methodologies; and continue monitoring until the problem is thoroughly quantified.
46
Giorgis-Allemand, Lise. "Pollution atmosphérique et reproduction humaine." Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017GREAS003/document.
Abstract:
Une fraction importante de la population est exposée à la pollution atmosphérique ; ses effets sur la mortalité et la morbidité cardiovasculaire et respiratoire sont connus, et un effet de l'exposition au cours de la grossesse sur le poids de naissance et la croissance fœtale est probable ; un effet sur le risque de naissance prématurée a aussi été suggéré par de nombreuses études, essentiellement en Amérique. En revanche, la capacité des couples à concevoir -fertilité- et les paramètres de la fertilité féminine ont été très peu étudiés en lien avec cette exposition.L’objectif de ce doctorat était de documenter un effet éventuel de la pollution atmosphérique sur la fonction de reproduction humaine et tout particulièrement sur les caractéristiques du cycle menstruel, la probabilité de survenue d’une grossesse (fertilité) et le risque de naissance prématurée.Nous nous sommes appuyés sur une cohorte de couples n’utilisant pas de méthode contraceptive (l’Observatoire de la fertilité en France) et sur treize cohortes de naissances européennes participant au projet ESCAPE (European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects).Nous avons observé un allongement de la durée de la phase folliculaire du cycle menstruel (période du cycle entre le début des règles et l’ovulation) avec l’exposition de la femme aux particules en suspension dans l’atmosphère (n=158, β=1,6 jour pour une augmentation de la concentration des particules de diamètre aérodynamique inférieur à 10 µm -PM10- de 10 µg/m3 dans le mois précédant le cycle, intervalle de confiance, IC à 95%, 0,3; 2,9). En utilisant deux designs d’étude en parallèle sur la même population, l’approche des durées en cours et l’approche de cohorte prévalente, nous avons mis en évidence une tendance à une diminution de la probabilité de grossesse en association avec l’exposition à la pollution atmosphérique pour la première approche (cohorte prévalente : n=468, risque relatif de grossesse, HR : 0,69 pour une augmentation des PM10 de 10 µg/m3 dans les 70 jours précédant l’inclusion, IC à 95%, 0,43;1,12) ; la tendance était similaire avec l’approche des durées en cours (n=516, durée médiane sans contraception multipliée par 1,29 pour une augmentation des PM10 de 10 µg/m3 dans les 70 jours précédant l’arrêt de la contraception, IC à 95%, 0,97;1,70).Le risque de naissance prématurée, analysé avec un modèle de survie en prenant en compte l’exposition comme une variable dépendant du temps, n’était pas associé à divers polluants atmosphériques dans les cohortes du projet ESCAPE (n=46 791, OR=0,97 pour une augmentation du niveau moyen de PM10 de 10 µg/m3 pendant la grossesse, IC à 95%, 0,87 ;1,07). Nous avons par ailleurs mis en évidence une augmentation du risque de naissance prématurée avec la pression atmosphérique pendant le premier trimestre de grossesse et avec la température moyenne pendant le premier trimestre, au moins dans l’intervalle entre -5°C et 10°C. Nous avons montré qu’une partie de la littérature en faveur d’une association entre particules fines et risque de naissance prématurée pourrait être sujette à un biais causé par des durées de fenêtres d’exposition différentes entre les enfants nés avant terme et ceux nés à terme.Dans l’ensemble, ce travail confirme la nécessité d’utiliser un modèle de survie avec variables dépendant du temps pour étudier le risque de naissance prématurité et appelle à poursuivre les recherches concernant des effets possibles des polluants atmosphériques sur le cycle menstruel et la fertilité, pour lesquels nos travaux font partie des premiers réalisés en population généraleA large fraction of the population is exposed to atmospheric pollution, which has known effects on cardiovascular and respiratory mortality and morbidity and probable effect on birthweight and fetal growth. So far, the biological aptitude to conceive for couples -fecundity- and the female markers of fecundity have been seldom studied in relation with this environmental exposure.The aim of this PhD was to quantify the possible association between atmospheric pollution and specific health outcomes related to human reproduction: menstrual cycle characteristics, probability of pregnancy and preterm birth risk. We relied on a population of couples not using any contraceptive method (Observatory of Fecundity in France) and on 13 birth cohorts participating in the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects.We observed that higher levels of atmospheric pollutants during the 30 days before the start of a menstrual cycle were associated with longer follicular phase (n=158, β=1.6 days per each increase by 10 µg/m3 in particulate matters with an aerodynamical diameter of less than 10 µm -PM10; 95% confidence interval: 0.3;2.9). In the population recruited in OBSEFF study, we observed a trend for an increased time to pregnancy with short-term NO2 and PM10 levels in an original approach relying on two seldom used study designs focusing on a marker of fecundity in parallel: the prevalent cohort approach (n=468, hazard ratio of pregnancy, HR: 0.69 per each increase by 10 µg/m3 in PM10 during the 70 days before the inclusion, with a 95% CI of 0.43;1.12) and the current duration approach (n=516, median current duration of unprotected intercourse multiplied by 1.29 per each increase by 10 µg/m3 in PM10 during the 70 days before the contraception stop, 95% CI: 0.97;1.70). In the cohorts included in ESCAPE, preterm delivery risk studied by a survival model with time-dependent exposures was not associated with atmospheric pollutants levels during pregnancy (n=46,791, OR=0.97 per each increase by 10 µg/m3 in PM10 during the whole pregnancy, 95% CI 0.87;1.7). We observed an increased risk of preterm birth with higher atmospheric pressure during the first trimester of pregnancy and to some extent with temperature between -5°C and 10°C during the first trimester of pregnancy. We additionally showed that using exposure windows with different durations between cases and non-cases is a source of a bias in preterm birth studies that may impact several studies in the literature.This work demonstrated that using a survival model with time-dependent exposures is crucial to study preterm delivery risk. It appeals for additional research on the possible adverse effects of atmospheric pollution on menstrual cycle and fecundity, as our studies are among the first ones conducted in a general population on those topics
47
Lyons, Russell John. "Indoor exposure to particle pollution." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2000.
48
Sauret, Caroline. "Ecologie des communautés bactériennes marines soumises à une pollution pétrolière : influence des facteurs environnementaux, de la prédation et de la récurrence des pollutions." Paris 6, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011PA066582.
Abstract:
Plusieurs millions de tonnes de pétrole sont déversés chaque année dans les Océans de manière volontaire ou accidentelle, présentant des risques majeurs pour la santé humaine et l’environnement. Parmi les méthodes employées pour la remédiation des hydrocarbures, la biostimulation des bactéries hydrocarbonoclastes par ajout de nutriments est une approche privilégiée. La réussite de cette méthode nécessite une connaissance la plus complète possible des microorganismes en jeu et des facteurs environnementaux qui les influencent. Dans ces travaux de thèse, nous avons tout d’abord évalué in situ l’importance relative du pétrole parmi d’autres facteurs physico-chimiques sur la structuration des communautés bactériennes. Dans un second temps, une étude en conditions contrôlées simulant une pollution accidentelle nous a permis de démontrer que les caractéristiques d’un site, précédemment soumis ou non à une pollution chronique, ont une influence directe sur la cinétique de réponse des communautés bactériennes et leur capacité à dégrader un pétrole complexe en condition de biostimulation. Une attention particulière a également été portée sur l’effet des facteurs de régulation des communautés bactériennes de type « top-down » (prédation par les protozoaires et lyse virale) sur la biodégradation des hydrocarbures, révélant notamment un rôle prépondérant des virus dans le contrôle des communautés bactériennes impactées par le pétrole. Enfin, l’adaptation au milieu marin du DNA-Stable Isotope Probing nous a permis de décrire précisément la diversité des bactéries associées à la dégradation du phénanthrène, révélant la dominance de Cycloclasticus sp. Dans les sites étudiés.
49
Ganzleben, Catherine F. "Permitting pollution : integrated pollution prevention and control as a driver of innovation in the European Community." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.289011.
50
Cullen, Richard J. "Industrial pollution control down on the farm : integrated pollution prevention & control and intensive pig farming." Thesis, University of Hull, 2005. http://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:7049.
Abstract:
Multi-medium pollution control has finally transcended the boundary from its roots in traditional manufacturing industry, and has entered the realm of intensive pig farming. This research has revealed the problems that face pig farmers when confronted by the Integrated Pollution Prevention & Control (IPPC) Directive (1996/61/EC). It has developed approaches that could assist intensive pig farmers in making important choices. A parallel study of the re-licensing of landfill facilities, an industry that is a veteran of licensing, has provided an ideal comparator. The literature on both industries was extensively searched for what was previously known. This has been supported by original research, including interviews with both landfill managers and pig farmers. These interviews were preceded by tours of landfill sites and pig farms - something that is seldom performed within the data collection stage of research where interviews are used. Differences between words and actions became apparent. These were analysed and their motivating factors considered. These discrepancies, evident through this verification process, serves to caution other researchers about the distortions that can arise when interviews alone are used. Identifying these discrepancies is also important because policy is often formulated using information collected though interview-based surveys. It may be the case that policy outcome deficit can result from the difference between words and actions. For decades farming has been moulded by society's desires in a similar vein to a nationalised industry. However, it is not a nationalised industry, but a collection of private individuals, family businesses, and larger companies. Multi-medium pollution control has been tried before. Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) was pioneered in England and Wales in 1991. Comparing the first years of that regime with the experiences that the Environment Agency are currently having reveals that many of the lessons have not been learnt. The funding available to the regulator, and the charges levied against the regulated are negotiated through compromises whereby environmental protection may be the loser. In this study, industry structures have been examined, revealing that the landfill industry is biased towards large operating companies. Re-licensing for the landfill industry is essentially a tightening of existing emission control, with relatively few additions. Landfill operators have the ability to pass costs on. Different experiences have been found between small and large landfill operators. Many small operators will go out of business. In this context it is noted that the structure of the intensive pig farming industry is biased towards smaller operators. Existing literature demonstrates that Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) have difficulty implementing environmental regulation. Through this study, this knowledge has been supplemented by close examination of two industries that have hitherto been omitted from the SME - environmental regulation debate. Industry characteristics are important factors that are here explored in detail, through inter-industry comparisons based upon size and through size comparisons within each industry. Within both industries large size is not just a scaled-up version of a small business. In fact the cultures and organisational structures are different. Essentially, intensive pig farmers have limited choices. Those at the small end of the scale may be able to de-stock and temporarily escape the threshold beyond which strict environmental controls come into play. Many at this scale may decide to retire and abandon pig farming. Alternatives for these farmers include pursuing niche or more specialised markets. Intermediate in size, Family Farming Businesses exhibit characteristics of both large and small businesses. Their future is a little more uncertain as there is a momentum to continue farming - a key characteristic which makes family businesses different. The largest businesses are better placed to implement the controls, or to challenge and to find the least cost compliance route. However, the competition from imports, and an inability to gain more for the meat they produce may force this category to increase the size of operation even further, so as to lower unit costs.