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1

Stern, Robert J. "The evolution of plate tectonics." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376, no. 2132 (October 2018): 20170406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0406.

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To understand how plate tectonics became Earth's dominant mode of convection, we need to address three related problems. (i) What was Earth's tectonic regime before the present episode of plate tectonics began? (ii) Given the preceding tectonic regime, how did plate tectonics become established? (iii) When did the present episode of plate tectonics begin? The tripartite nature of the problem complicates solving it, but, when we have all three answers, the requisite consilience will provide greater confidence than if we only focus on the long-standing question of when did plate tectonics begin? Earth probably experienced episodes of magma ocean, heat-pipe, and increasingly sluggish single lid magmatotectonism. In this effort we should consider all possible scenarios and lines of evidence. As we address these questions, we should acknowledge there were probably multiple episodes of plate tectonic and non-plate tectonic convective styles on Earth. Non-plate tectonic styles were probably dominated by ‘single lid tectonics’ and this evolved as Earth cooled and its lithosphere thickened. Evidence from the rock record indicates that the modern episode of plate tectonics began in Neoproterozoic time. A Neoproterozoic transition from single lid to plate tectonics also explains kimberlite ages, the Neoproterozoic climate crisis and the Neoproterozoic acceleration of evolution. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics’.
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2

Brown, Michael, Tim Johnson, and Nicholas J. Gardiner. "Plate Tectonics and the Archean Earth." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 48, no. 1 (May 30, 2020): 291–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-081619-052705.

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If we accept that a critical condition for plate tectonics is the creation and maintenance of a global network of narrow boundaries separating multiple plates, then to argue for plate tectonics during the Archean requires more than a local record of subduction. A case is made for plate tectonics back to the early Paleoproterozoic, when a cycle of breakup and collision led to formation of the supercontinent Columbia, and bimodal metamorphism is registered globally. Before this, less preserved crust and survivorship bias become greater concerns, and the geological record may yield only a lower limit on the emergence of plate tectonics. Higher mantle temperature in the Archean precluded or limited stable subduction, requiring a transition to plate tectonics from another tectonic mode. This transition is recorded by changes in geochemical proxies and interpreted based on numerical modeling. Improved understanding of the secular evolution of temperature and water in the mantle is a key target for future research. ▪ Higher mantle temperature in the Archean precluded or limited stable subduction, requiring a transition to plate tectonics from another tectonic mode. ▪ Plate tectonics can be demonstrated on Earth since the early Paleoproterozoic (since c. 2.2 Ga), but before the Proterozoic Earth's tectonic mode remains ambiguous. ▪ The Mesoarchean to early Paleoproterozoic (3.2–2.3 Ga) represents a period of transition from an early tectonic mode (stagnant or sluggish lid) to plate tectonics. ▪ The development of a global network of narrow boundaries separating multiple plates could have been kick-started by plume-induced subduction.
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3

Lenardic, A. "The diversity of tectonic modes and thoughts about transitions between them." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376, no. 2132 (October 2018): 20170416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0416.

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Plate tectonics is a particular mode of tectonic activity that characterizes the present-day Earth. It is directly linked to not only tectonic deformation but also magmatic/volcanic activity and all aspects of the rock cycle. Other terrestrial planets in our Solar System do not operate in a plate tectonic mode but do have volcanic constructs and signs of tectonic deformation. This indicates the existence of tectonic modes different from plate tectonics. This article discusses the defining features of plate tectonics and reviews the range of tectonic modes that have been proposed for terrestrial planets to date. A categorization of tectonic modes relates to the issue of when plate tectonics initiated on Earth as it provides insights into possible pre-plate tectonic behaviour. The final focus of this contribution relates to transitions between tectonic modes. Different transition scenarios are discussed. One follows classic ideas of regime transitions in which boundaries between tectonic modes are determined by the physical and chemical properties of a planet. The other considers the potential that variations in temporal evolution can introduce contingencies that have a significant effect on tectonic transitions. The latter scenario allows for the existence of multiple stable tectonic modes under the same physical/chemical conditions. The different transition potentials imply different interpretations regarding the type of variable that the tectonic mode of a planet represents. Under the classic regime transition view, the tectonic mode of a planet is a state variable (akin to temperature). Under the multiple stable modes view, the tectonic mode of a planet is a process variable. That is, something that flows through the system (akin to heat). The different implications that follow are discussed as they relate to the questions of when did plate tectonics initiate on Earth and why does Earth have plate tectonics. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics’.
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O'Neill, Craig, Simon Turner, and Tracy Rushmer. "The inception of plate tectonics: a record of failure." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376, no. 2132 (October 2018): 20170414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0414.

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The development of plate tectonics from a pre-plate tectonics regime requires both the initiation of subduction and the development of nascent subduction zones into long-lived contiguous features. Subduction itself has been shown to be sensitive to system parameters such as thermal state and the specific rheology. While generally it has been shown that cold-interior high-Rayleigh-number convection (such as on the Earth today) favours plates and subduction, due to the ability of the interior stresses to couple with the lid, a given system may or may not have plate tectonics depending on its initial conditions. This has led to the idea that there is a strong history dependence to tectonic evolution—and the details of tectonic transitions, including whether they even occur, may depend on the early history of a planet. However, intrinsic convective stresses are not the only dynamic drivers of early planetary evolution. Early planetary geological evolution is dominated by volcanic processes and impacting. These have rarely been considered in thermal evolution models. Recent models exploring the details of plate tectonic initiation have explored the effect of strong thermal plumes or large impacts on surface tectonism, and found that these ‘primary drivers’ can initiate subduction, and, in some cases, over-ride the initial state of the planet. The corollary of this, of course, is that, in the absence of such ongoing drivers, existing or incipient subduction systems under early Earth conditions might fail. The only detailed planetary record we have of this development comes from Earth, and is restricted by the limited geological record of its earliest history. Many recent estimates have suggested an origin of plate tectonics at approximately 3.0 Ga, inferring a monotonically increasing transition from pre-plates, through subduction initiation, to continuous subduction and a modern plate tectonic regime around that time. However, both numerical modelling and the geological record itself suggest a strong nonlinearity in the dynamics of the transition, and it has been noted that the early history of Archaean greenstone belts and trondhjemite–tonalite–granodiorite record many instances of failed subduction. Here, we explore the history of subduction failure on the early Earth, and couple these with insights from numerical models of the geodynamic regime at the time. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics'.
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5

Cavadas, Bento, and Sara Aboim. "Using PhET™ interactive simulation plate tectonics for initial teacher education." Geoscience Communication 4, no. 1 (February 10, 2021): 43–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-43-2021.

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Abstract. Using digital educational resources (DERs) in science education is an effective way of promoting students' content knowledge of complex natural processes. This work presents the usage of the digital educational resource CreativeLab_Sci&Math | Plate Tectonics, designed for exploring the PhET™ Plate Tectonics simulator, in the context of the education of pre-service teachers (PSTs) in Portugal. The performance of the PSTs was analysed based on the five tasks into which the DER was organized. Results show that the DER contributed to the successful achievement of the following learning outcomes for PSTs: describing the differences between the oceanic crust and continental crust regarding temperature, density, composition and thickness, associating the plate tectonic movements with their geological consequences, and identifying the plate tectonic movements that cause the formation of some geological structures. Results also show that PSTs considered the PhET™ Plate Tectonics simulator a contributor to their learning about plate tectonics.
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6

Hansen, Vicki L. "Global tectonic evolution of Venus, from exogenic to endogenic over time, and implications for early Earth processes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376, no. 2132 (October 2018): 20170412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0412.

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Venus provides a rich arena in which to stretch one's tectonic imagination with respect to non-plate tectonic processes of heat transfer on an Earth-like planet. Venus is similar to Earth in density, size, inferred composition and heat budget. However, Venus' lack of plate tectonics and terrestrial surficial processes results in the preservation of a unique surface geologic record of non-plate tectonomagmatic processes. In this paper, I explore three global tectonic domains that represent changes in global conditions and tectonic regimes through time, divided respectively into temporal eras. Impactors played a prominent role in the ancient era, characterized by thin global lithosphere. The Artemis superstructure era highlights sublithospheric flow processes related to a uniquely large super plume. The fracture zone complex era, marked by broad zones of tectonomagmatic activity, witnessed coupled spreading and underthrusting, since arrested. These three tectonic regimes provide possible analogue models for terrestrial Archaean craton formation, continent formation without plate tectonics, and mechanisms underlying the emergence of plate tectonics. A bolide impact model for craton formation addresses the apparent paradox of both undepleted mantle and growth of Archaean crust, and recycling of significant Archaean crust to the mantle. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics’.
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7

Verstappen, Herman Th. "Indonesian Landforms and Plate Tectonics." Indonesian Journal on Geoscience 5, no. 3 (September 28, 2010): 197–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.17014/ijog.5.3.197-207.

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DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v5i3.103The horizontal configuration and vertical dimension of the landforms occurring in the tectonically unstable parts of Indonesia were resulted in the first place from plate tectonics. Most of them date from the Quaternary and endogenous forces are ongoing. Three major plates – the northward moving Indo-Australian Plate, the south-eastward moving SE-Asian Plate and the westward moving Pacific Plate - meet at a plate triple-junction situated in the south of New Guinea’s Bird’s Head. The narrow North-Moluccan plate is interposed between the Asia and Pacific. It tapers out northward in the Philippine Mobile Belt and is gradually disappearing. The greatest relief amplitudes occur near the plate boundaries: deep ocean trenches are associated with subduction zones and mountain ranges with collision belts. The landforms of the more stable areas of the plates date back to a more remote past and, where emerged, have a more subdued relief that is in the first place related to the resistance of the rocks to humid tropical weathering Rising mountain ranges and emerging island arcs are subjected to rapid humid-tropical river erosions and mass movements. The erosion products accumulate in adjacent sedimentary basins where their increasing weight causes subsidence by gravity and isostatic compensations. Living and raised coral reefs, volcanoes, and fault scarps are important geomorphic indicators of active plate tectonics. Compartmental faults may strongly affect island arcs stretching perpendicular to the plate movement. This is the case on Java. Transcurrent faults and related pull-apart basins are a leading factor where plates meet at an angle, such as on Sumatra. The most complicated situation exists near the triple-junction and in the Moluccas. Modern research methods, such as GPS measurements of plate movements and absolute dating of volcanic outbursts and raised coral reefs are important tools. The mega-landforms resulting from the collision of India with the Asian continent, around 50.0 my. ago, and the final collision of Australia with the Pacific, about 5.0 my. ago, also had an important impact on geomorphologic processes and the natural environment of SE-Asia through changes of the monsoonal wind system in the region and of the oceanic thermo-haline circulation in eastern Indonesia between the Pacific and the Indian ocean. In addition the landforms of the region were, of course, affected by the Quaternary global climatic fluctuations and sea level changes.
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8

Sleep, Norman H. "Martian plate tectonics." Journal of Geophysical Research 99, E3 (1994): 5639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/94je00216.

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9

Maddox, John. "Observational plate tectonics." Nature 315, no. 6022 (June 1985): 711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/315711a0.

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10

Wigginton, N. S. "Reconstructing Plate Tectonics." Science 341, no. 6152 (September 19, 2013): 1321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.341.6152.1321-b.

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11

Silver, P. G., and M. D. Behn. "Intermittent Plate Tectonics?" Science 319, no. 5859 (January 4, 2008): 85–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1148397.

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12

Kushnir, D. G. "New geodynamics: geosyncline plate tectonics." Actual Problems of Oil and Gas, no. 34 (November 30, 2021): 3–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.29222/ipng.2078-5712.2021-34.art1.

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For the first time, on the basis of the data set of the Taimyr geophysical site, the processes that cause vertical oscillatory movements of large blocks of the continental crust and largely determine its deep structure are confidently recorded. In this regard, the conceptual apparatus of plate tectonics is being expanded due to terms that were not originally used for it, previously used within the framework of geosyncline theory. Modern geodynamics combines concepts opposed in the past, thereby forming a conceptually new geosyncline plate tectonics. Under the new paradigm, the oil and gas prospects of an area are determined not so much by its confinement to a geostructure of any age, as by the current stage of the geosyncline cycle, characterized by subsidence, active sedimentation processes and formation of a sedimentary basin or, conversely, orogenesis and dominant erosion of sediments. Thus, one or another scenario will cause a different inflow of hydrocarbons from the generation area, which means that regional tectonic movements largely predetermine the realization of the hydrocarbon potential, making them one of the most important criteria for its assessment.
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13

Vérard, Christian, and Ján Veizer. "On plate tectonics and ocean temperatures." Geology 47, no. 9 (August 2, 2019): 881–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g46376.1.

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Abstract Plate tectonics, the principal vehicle for dissipation of planetary energy, is believed to buffer the δ18O of seawater at its near-modern value of 0‰ SMOW (Standard Mean Ocean Water) because the hot and cold cells of hydrothermal circulation at oceanic ridges cancel each other. The persistence of plate tectonics over eons apparently favors attribution of the well-documented oxygen isotope secular trends for carbonates (cherts, phosphates) to progressively warmer oceans, from 40–70 °C in the early Paleozoic to 60–100 °C in the Archean. We argue that these oceanic hydrothermal systems are dominated by low-temperature (<350 °C) cells that deplete the percolating water in 18O. Seawater δ18O is therefore a proxy for, rather than being buffered by, the intensity of plate tectonics. Detrending the Phanerozoic carbonate δ18Oc secular trend for its “tectonic” component yields a stationary time series that, interpreted as a proxy for Phanerozoic climate, indicates low-latitude shallow ocean temperatures oscillating between 10 and 30 °C around a baseline of 17 °C, attributes comparable to modern temperature values.
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14

Barnes, Gina L. "Tectonic Archaeology as a Foundation for Geoarchaeology." Land 10, no. 5 (April 23, 2021): 453. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land10050453.

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This article proposes a new subdiscipline, Tectonic Archaeology, based on the efforts of Japanese archaeologists to deal with the effects of earthquakes, volcanic tephra cover, and tsunami on archaeological sites. Tectonic Archaeology is conceived as an umbrella term for those efforts and as a foundation for Geoarchaeology in general. Comparisons distinguish between Geoarchaeology and Tectonic Archaeology, and a survey of major archaeological journals and textbooks reveals how the concept of ‘tectonics’ and specifically the processes of Plate Tectonics have been treated. Al-though the term ‘tectonics’ occurred fairly frequently, particularly as affecting coastlines and sea levels, it was not thoroughly defined and discussed. Volcanic activity was most mentioned in journals due to its provision of resources and modification of the landscape, while the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan seems to have stimulated more studies in Archaeoseismology. The textbooks were found to have scattered references to Plate Tectonic processes but no clear approach tying these together. The major exception is the Encyclopedia of Archaeology which addresses volcanoes, Archaeoseismology, and tsunami—soon to be linked together vis à vis Earth processes. Tectonic Archaeology attempts first to explain the processes of Plate Tectonics to underwrite investigation of their effects; it is applicable worldwide, in continental and coastal contexts.
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15

Van Der Linden, Willem J. M. "Geosynclines—Concept and place within plate tectonics." Tectonophysics 111, no. 1-2 (January 1985): 170–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(85)90079-4.

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16

Sissingh, W. "Palaeozoic and Mesozoic igneous activity in the Netherlands: a tectonomagmatic review." Netherlands Journal of Geosciences - Geologie en Mijnbouw 83, no. 2 (June 2004): 113–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016774600020084.

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AbstractTo date, igneous rocks, either intrusive or extrusive, have been encountered in the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic sedimentary series of the Netherlands in some 65 exploration and production wells. Following 17 new isotopic K/Ar age determinations of the recovered rock material (amounting to a total of 28 isotopic ages from 21 different wells), analysis of the stratigraphic distribution of the penetrated igneous rock bodies showed that the timing of their emplacement was importantly controlled by orogenic phases involving intra-plate wrench and rift tectonics. Magmatism coincided with the Acadian (Late Devonian), Sudetian (early Late Carboniferous), Saalian (Early Permian), Early Kimmerian (late Late Triassic), Mid-Kimmerian (Late Jurassic), Late Kimmerian (earliest Cretaceous) and Austrian (latest Early Cretaceous) tectonic phases. This synchroneity presumably reflects (broadly) coeval structural reorganizations of respectively the Baltica/Fennoscandinavia-Laurentia/Greenland, Laurussia-Gondwana, African-Eurasia and Greenland/Rockall-Eurasia plate assemblies. Through their concomitant changes of the intra-plate tectonic stress regime, inter-plate motions induced intra-plate tectonism and magmatism. These plate-tectonics related events determined the tectonomagmatic history of the Dutch realm by inducing the formation of localized centres, as well as isolated spot occurrences, of igneous activity. Some of these centres were active at (about) the same time. At a number of centres igneous activity re-occurred after a long period of time.
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17

CAVADAS, BENTO. "PLATE TECTONICS IN PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS: FROM THE 1960s TO THE 1980s." Earth Sciences History 40, no. 2 (July 1, 2021): 538–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/1944-6187-40.2.538.

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Plate tectonics caused a revolution within earth sciences which then was transposed into science textbooks. The main objective of this paper is to explore how plate tectonics influenced Portuguese and Spanish science textbooks published from the 1960s through the 1980s. For this purpose, a qualitative method based on the concept of didactic transposition is used. The didactic transposition of seafloor spreading evidence such as ridges, rifts and trenches, transform faults, seafloor sediments, the age of seafloor basaltic rocks, the magnetic anomalies on the seafloor, the Benioff zones and the subduction process, and also the didactic transposition of the formation of mountains ranges and island arcs, convection currents, plate tectonics concepts, boundaries and motion, and plate tectonics acceptance are studied in a comprehensive sample of science textbooks. The analysis of textbooks shows that the didactic transposition of seafloor spreading, and plate tectonics started mainly in 1970s Portuguese and Spanish textbooks and had a strong development in 1980s textbooks. No major differences were found between the approaches to plate tectonics in similar age Portuguese and Spanish textbooks. At the beginning of the 1970s, textbooks presented partial evidence for seafloor spreading, such as magnetic anomalies and the characteristics of ridges, rifts and trenches. They also addressed convection currents but only those that were related to geosynclines. In the mid 1970s and in the 1980s, textbooks presented more comprehensive evidence of seafloor spreading, by adding didactical transpositions of transform faults, seafloor sediments and the age of seafloor rocks. They also presented in more detail topics such as magnetic anomalies, the Benioff zones, orogenic processes and the tectonic significance of ridges, rifts and trenches. Plate tectonic theory was presented in major textbooks as widely accepted, and discussions about speculative facts or processes were rare.
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18

Zerkle, Aubrey L. "Biogeodynamics: bridging the gap between surface and deep Earth processes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 376, no. 2132 (October 2018): 20170401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0401.

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Life is sustained by a critical and not insubstantial set of elements, nearly all of which are contained within large rock reservoirs and cycled between Earth's surface and the mantle via subduction zone plate tectonics. Over geologic time scales, plate tectonics plays a critical role in recycling subducted bioactive elements lost to the mantle back to the ocean–biosphere system, via outgassing and volcanism. Biology additionally relies on tectonic processes to supply rock-bound ‘nutrients’ to marine and terrestrial ecosystems via uplift and erosion. Thus, the development of modern-style plate tectonics and the generation of stable continents were key events in the evolution of the biosphere on Earth, and similar tectonic processes could be crucial for the development of habitability on exoplanets. Despite this vital ‘biogeodynamic’ connection, directly testing hypotheses about feedbacks between the deep Earth and the biosphere remains challenging. Here, I discuss potential avenues to bridge the biosphere–geosphere gap, focusing specifically on the global cycling and bioavailability of major nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) over geologic time scales. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics’.
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19

Klimczak, Christian, Paul K. Byrne, A. M. Celâl Şengör, and Sean C. Solomon. "Principles of structural geology on rocky planets." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 56, no. 12 (December 2019): 1437–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2019-0065.

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Although Earth is the only known planet on which plate tectonics operates, many small- and large-scale tectonic landforms indicate that deformational processes also occur on the other rocky planets. Although the mechanisms of deformation differ on Mercury, Venus, and Mars, the surface manifestations of their tectonics are frequently very similar to those found on Earth. Furthermore, tectonic processes invoked to explain deformation on Earth before the recognition of horizontal mobility of tectonic plates remain relevant for the other rocky planets. These connections highlight the importance of drawing analogies between the rocky planets for characterizing deformation of their lithospheres and for describing, applying appropriate nomenclature, and understanding the formation of their resulting tectonic structures. Here we characterize and compare the lithospheres of the rocky planets, describe structures of interest and where we study them, provide examples of how historic views on geology are applicable to planetary tectonics, and then apply these concepts to Mercury, Venus, and Mars.
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20

Hegarty, Neil. "Plate Tectonics / Placas Tectônicas." ABEI Journal 22, no. 1 (September 4, 2020): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.37389/abei.v22i1.3839.

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21

SAITO, Yasuji. "Plate tectonics and sedimentation." Journal of the Fuel Society of Japan 67, no. 5 (1988): 280–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3775/jie.67.280.

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22

KAWAKAMI, Shin-ichi, Yuji KANAORI, and Masahiko HAYAKAWA. "Plate tectonics on Venus?" Journal of the Geological Society of Japan 96, no. 4 (1990): 297–318. http://dx.doi.org/10.5575/geosoc.96.297.

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23

Cowen, Ron. "Plate Tectonics... on Mars." Science News 155, no. 18 (May 1, 1999): 284. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4011534.

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24

Keast, Allen, and J. C. Briggs. "Biogeography and Plate Tectonics." Copeia 1989, no. 3 (August 8, 1989): 817. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1445536.

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25

Selvans, Michelle M. "Plate tectonics on ice." Nature Geoscience 7, no. 10 (September 7, 2014): 695–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2256.

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26

McKenzie, Dan. "Plate tectonics on Mars?" Nature 399, no. 6734 (May 1999): 307–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/20554.

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27

Mather, Paul. "Website Review: Plate tectonics." Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 23, no. 3 (September 1999): 465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030913339902300323.

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28

Van Kranendonk, M. J. "Onset of Plate Tectonics." Science 333, no. 6041 (July 21, 2011): 413–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1208766.

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29

Katzoff, Judith A. "Plate tectonics on Venus." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 68, no. 17 (1987): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/eo068i017p00484-01.

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30

Hall, Shannon. "Dawn of Plate Tectonics." Scientific American 317, no. 6 (November 14, 2017): 12–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1217-12.

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31

Jablonski, David I. "Plate Tectonics and Evolution." Paleontological Society Special Publications 11 (2002): 227–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s247526220000993x.

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The realization that the continents are mobile and not fixed in position, and the discovery of the processes driving that mobility, is one of the great scientific achievements of the 20th Century. From the outset, fossil evidence has been important in reconstructing past continental positions, usually by providing data on ancient similarities and differences that appear at odds with present-day geographies. However, the fossil record does much more than provide evidence on ancient continental positions: it also shows the diverse evolutionary effects that the dynamics of the Earth's crust have had on the passengers inhabiting those mobile continents.
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32

Draper, Grenville, Stephen Phipps, and Steven Edelman. "Deformation and plate tectonics." Geology 16, no. 3 (1988): 282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0282:dapl>2.3.co;2.

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33

Draper, Grenville, Stephen Phipps, and Steven Edelman. "Deformation and plate tectonics." Geology 16, no. 3 (1988): 283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0283:dapt>2.3.co;2.

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34

Jablonski, David. "Plate Tectonics and Evolution." Paleontological Society Special Publications 9 (1999): 283–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2475262200014131.

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The realization that the continents are mobile and not fixed in position, and the discovery of the processes driving that mobility, is one of the great scientific achievements of the 20th Century. From the outset, fossil evidence has been important in reconstructing past continental positions, usually by providing data on ancient similarities and differences that appear at odds with present-day geographies. However, the fossil record does much more than provide evidence on ancient continental positions: it shows the diverse evolutionary effects that the dynamics of the Earth's crust have had on the passengers inhabiting those mobile continents.
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35

attson, Peter H. "Seismology and Plate Tectonics." Journal of Structural Geology 13, no. 10 (January 1991): 1197–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(91)90079-x.

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36

Richards, Paul G., and Peter Cattermole. "Seismology and plate tectonics." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 68, no. 3-4 (September 1991): 295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9201(91)90049-n.

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37

Fahrenkamp-Uppenbrink, J. "Pioneer of plate tectonics." Science 350, no. 6263 (November 19, 2015): 923–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.350.6263.923-r.

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38

Harlow, George E., Tatsuki Tsujimori, and Sorena S. Sorensen. "Jadeitites and Plate Tectonics." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 43, no. 1 (May 30, 2015): 105–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105215.

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39

Mitra, Dharmaj. "Plate Tectonics and Reality." IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences 12, no. 03 (March 2017): 35–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/3008-1203013539.

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40

Chamot-Rooke, Nicolas, and Alain Rabaute. "Plate tectonics from space." Episodes 30, no. 2 (June 1, 2007): 119–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2007/v30i2/007.

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41

Hein, Annamae J. "The Plate Tectonics Project." Science Activities: Classroom Projects and Curriculum Ideas 48, no. 4 (September 2011): 111–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00368121.2010.551615.

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42

Garwin, Laura. "Reflections on plate tectonics." Nature 375, no. 6533 (June 1995): 632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/375632a0.

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43

Khain, Victor E. "Plate tectonics in Russia." Terra Nova 7, no. 6 (November 1995): 607–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.1995.tb00709.x.

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44

Rikitake, T. "Seismology and plate tectonics." Tectonophysics 204, no. 1-2 (March 1992): 191–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90289-i.

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45

Batten, D. J. "Biogeography and plate tectonics." Cretaceous Research 10, no. 4 (December 1989): 357–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0195-6671(89)90010-4.

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46

Molnar, Peter. "Continental tectonics in the aftermath of plate tectonics." Nature 335, no. 6186 (September 1988): 131–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/335131a0.

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47

Y. Al-Ghalibi, Furat, and Laith Kh. Al-Hadithy. "Halabjah-Iraq Earthquake, Comparisons and General Review." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 4.20 (November 28, 2018): 190. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i4.20.25924.

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Abstract:
The collapsed seismic force level depends on region nature where the construction is to be built because of an earthquake released an energy which generated by a sudden randomly movement of earth segments (plate tectonics). Structure geographic location plays a major role in seismic analysis and design of structures because of the global seismicity influenced by the earthquake hypocenter and plate tectonics nature. An earthquake will occur if earth tectonic plate shaft and the mass of earth materials moved with plates stress interface and energy released because of ground vibration which its amplitude reduced with rupture distance. Also the earth vibration generates a large random inertia force that should carried by the structural components safety. In the present study, a comparisons of Halabjah-Iraq Earthquake with many world earthquake is investigated, generally Halabjah earthquake classified as medium risk earthquake
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48

Ziegler, Peter A. "Plate tectonics, plate moving mechanisms and rifting." Tectonophysics 215, no. 1-2 (December 1992): 9–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90072-e.

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49

Dewey, J. F., E. S. Kiseeva, J. A. Pearce, and L. J. Robb. "Precambrian tectonic evolution of Earth: an outline." South African Journal of Geology 124, no. 1 (March 1, 2021): 141–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.25131/sajg.124.0019.

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Abstract Space probes in our solar system have examined all bodies larger than about 400 km in diameter and shown that Earth is the only silicate planet with extant plate tectonics sensu stricto. Venus and Earth are about the same size at 12 000 km diameter, and close in density at 5 200 and 5 500 kg.m-3 respectively. Venus and Mars are stagnant lid planets; Mars may have had plate tectonics and Venus may have had alternating ca. 0.5 Ga periods of stagnant lid punctuated by short periods of plate turnover. In this paper, we contend that Earth has seen five, distinct, tectonic periods characterized by mainly different rock associations and patterns with rapid transitions between them; the Hadean to ca. 4.0 Ga, the Eo- and Palaeoarchaean to ca. 3.1 Ga, the Neoarchaean to ca. 2.5 Ga, the Proterozoic to ca. 0.8 Ga, and the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic. Plate tectonics sensu stricto, as we know it for present-day Earth, was operating during the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic, as witnessed by features such as obducted supra-subduction zone ophiolites, blueschists, jadeite, ruby, continental thin sediment sheets, continental shelf, edge, and rise assemblages, collisional sutures, and long strike-slip faults with large displacements. From rock associations and structures, nothing resembling plate tectonics operated prior to ca. 2.5 Ga. Archaean geology is almost wholly dissimilar from Proterozoic-Phanerozoic geology. Most of the Proterozoic operated in a plate tectonic milieu but, during the Archaean, Earth behaved in a non-plate tectonic way and was probably characterised by a stagnant lid with heat-loss by pluming and volcanism, together with diapiric inversion of tonalite-trondjemite-granodiorite (TTG) basement diapirs through sinking keels of greenstone supracrustals, and very minor mobilism. The Palaeoarchaean differed from the Neoarchaean in having a more blobby appearance whereas a crude linearity is typical of the Neoarchaean. The Hadean was probably a dry stagnant lid Earth with the bulk of its water delivered during the late heavy bombardment, when that thin mafic lithosphere was fragmented to sink into the asthenosphere and generate the copious TTG Ancient Grey Gneisses (AGG). During the Archaean, a stagnant unsegmented, lithospheric lid characterised Earth, although a case can be made for some form of mobilism with “block jostling”, rifting, compression and strike-slip faulting on a small scale. We conclude, following Burke and Dewey (1973), that there is no evidence for subduction on a global scale before about 2.5 Ga, although there is geochemical evidence for some form of local recycling of crustal material into the mantle during that period. After 2.5 Ga, linear/curvilinear deformation belts were developed, which “weld” cratons together and palaeomagnetism indicates that large, lateral, relative motions among continents had begun by at least 1.88 Ga. The “boring billion”, from about 1.8 to 0.8 Ga, was a period of two super-continents (Nuna, also known as Columbia, and Rodinia) characterised by substantial magmatism of intraplate type leading to the hypothesis that Earth had reverted to a single plate planet over this period; however, orogens with marginal accretionary tectonics and related magmatism and ore genesis indicate that plate tectonics was still taking place at and beyond the bounds of these supercontinents. The break-up of Rodinia heralded modern plate tectonics from about 0.8 Ga. Our conclusions are based, almost wholly, upon geological data sets, including petrology, ore geology and geochemistry, with minor input from modelling and theory.
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50

Heron, Philip J., Russell N. Pysklywec, and Randell Stephenson. "Exploring the theory of plate tectonics: the role of mantle lithosphere structure." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 470, no. 1 (March 1, 2018): 137–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp470.7.

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AbstractThis review of the role of the mantle lithosphere in plate tectonic processes collates a wide range of recent studies from seismology and numerical modelling. A continually growing catalogue of deep geophysical imaging has illuminated the mantle lithosphere and generated new interpretations of how the lithosphere evolves. We review current ideas about the role of continental mantle lithosphere in plate tectonic processes. Evidence seems to be growing that scarring in the continental mantle lithosphere is ubiquitous, which implies a reassessment of the widely held view that it is the inheritance of crustal structure only (rather than the lithosphere as a whole) that is most important in the conventional theory of plate tectonics (e.g. the Wilson cycle). Recent studies have interpreted mantle lithosphere heterogeneities to be pre-existing structures and, as such, linked to the Wilson cycle and inheritance. We consider the current fundamental questions in the role of the mantle lithosphere in causing tectonic deformation, reviewing recent results and highlighting the potential of the deep lithosphere in infiltrating every aspect of plate tectonics processes.
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