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1
Rao, Sudhakar M., and R. Malini. "Use of permeable reactive barrier to mitigate groundwater nitrate contamination from on-site sanitation." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5, no. 2 (April 3, 2015): 336–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.159.
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Nearly 50% of India's population depends on variants of pit-toilet systems for human waste disposal. Nitrate contamination of groundwater by pit-toilet leachate is a major environmental concern in the country as it sources a major proportion (50–80%) of potable water from aquifers. Therefore, minimizing nitrate contamination of groundwater due to leachate infiltration from pit-toilet systems is essential. Batch and column experiments demonstrated the capability of bentonite-enhanced sand (BES) specimens to reduce nitrate concentrations in synthetic solutions (initial NO3-N concentration = 22.7 mg/L, C/N = 3) by about 85–90% in 10 to 24 hour by a heterotrophic denitrification process. Based on the laboratory results, it is recommended that use of a BES-permeable reactive barrier layer at the base of pit-toilets will facilitate heterotrophic denitrification and mitigate nitrate contamination of the underlying aquifer.
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Jurmang, Comfort Isuwa. "Social Studies for Awareness of Toilet Facilities in Job to Achieve Environmental Sanitation." International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 19 (December 2013): 192–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilshs.19.192.
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Social studies is a field of study concern with the study of people, places and environments. Ten children were randomly selected from five public primary schools in Jos to identify where people defecate through observations and interview. 100 % of the respondents did not know what water closet and lavatory are. Water closet is locally referred to as water system toilet. 100 % of them know toilet room, urinal, bathroom and pit latrines. Public institutions like Banks, Motor Parks, Fuel station and Public primary schools have different levels of provisions of toilets. Institutions that all have toilet facilities for the public are banks, and fuel stations. They observed that the toilets in banks are more kept neat than those at the fuel stations. The motor parks are worse in having toilet facilities. Only 20 % (1) of the motor parks inspected have toilet facilities. The remaining 80 % (4) did not have any toilet facilities. The 20 % (1) motor parks that has toilet, is privately run so that users pay N10 for using the toilet. 20 % (1) of the public schools have usable toilets. 80 % (4) schools include those without toilets completely and those with but never usable at all.
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Nancy S, K. Mujibur Rahman, K. Mohamed Ali, Govindarajan PK, and Thirumeni S. "Why Villagers Use Toilets Only During Specific Time and Season? A Mixed-Methods Study in Rural Tamil Nadu." National Journal of Community Medicine 13, no. 12 (December 31, 2022): 889–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.55489/njcm.131220222500.
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Background: Due to the efforts of sanitation promotion interventions in India, majority of the villagers started using toilets. But there is an inconsistency in toilet usage with regard to time and season. Objectives: The objectives were to determine the time and seasonal variations in toilet usage among villagers who use toilets and to identify the reasons for time and seasonal variations in toilet usage. Methodology: A community-based mixed-methods study was executed in the four field practice villages of UHTC, Villupuram. After IEC clearance, 405 individuals who were using an owned toilet were selected by Simple Random Sampling. Qualitative component (free listing) was used for questionnaire development and quantitative component (survey + observation) was used for data collection. Results: Majority, 52% villagers used toilets only in the night and 64% villagers used toilets during rainy season. Fear of darkness and snakes, emergency and large family size were the common reasons for night time toilet usage. While, non-availability of open space, illness on exposure to rain and quick filling of toilet pit contributed to toilet usage in the rainy season. Conclusion: The study findings would help in the development of culturally-sensitive and socially-acceptable key messages for future sanitation promotion interventions.
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Rao, Sudhakar M., Lydia Arkenadan, Nitish V. Mogili, Saksham K. Atishaya, and Priscilla Anthony. "Bioremediation of pit toilet sewage." Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science 12, no. 2 (March 2017): 26–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jenes.16.00020.
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Byansi, Jade Zziwa, Richard Mutabazi, Joel Buwaguzibwa, and Najib Bateganya Lukooya. "Enhancing waterborne toilets to reduce water usage in schools: experience from Kampala, Uganda." International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 15, no. 7 (April 22, 2022): 62–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v15i7.6s.
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Over 620 million children worldwide lacked a basic sanitation service at their school and 12% of schools have facilities that are not usable. In Kampala’s public primary school, the pupil to stance area stands at 57:1 as compared to the required 40:1 by the public health regulation of 2000. A number of waterborne toilets have been constructed in schools to change the pupil to stance ratio from 118:1 to 57:1 in the period 2012- 2018. However, the administrators of schools have denied 07% of the toilets in schools to be accessed by pupils in an effort to control water bills. Administrators prefer pupils to use pit latrines to waterborne toilets because they use less water. This acerbates the inadequacy of access to sanitation in schools in Kampala. The objective of this work was to develop a waterborne sanitation facility that meets the school administrators’ preferences features of VIP latrine with water usage of less than 10 liters of water to flush the toilet. Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) has constructed water based toilets referred to as ‘channel flush’ toilets in public schools to reduce water usage. The channel flush toilet uses a channel as a receiving chamber for faecal matter which is flushed intermittently to the septic tank or bio-digester. Each toilet block is flushed four times a day with each flushing time using 60 liters of water. With the channel flush toilet, schools use about 4 liters per child per day on flushing toilets leading to a 90% water usage reduction. Emptying has been reduced from 30 cubic meters to 5 cubic meters per year. The toilet is recommended to be used in schools and public places such as markets and taxi parks.
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Byansi, Jade Zziwa, Richard Mutabazi, Joel Buwaguzibwa, and Najib Bateganya Lukooya. "Enhancing waterborne toilets to reduce water usage in schools: experience from Kampala, Uganda." International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 15, no. 7 (April 22, 2022): 62–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v15i7.6s.
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Over 620 million children worldwide lacked a basic sanitation service at their school and 12% of schools have facilities that are not usable. In Kampala’s public primary school, the pupil to stance area stands at 57:1 as compared to the required 40:1 by the public health regulation of 2000. A number of waterborne toilets have been constructed in schools to change the pupil to stance ratio from 118:1 to 57:1 in the period 2012- 2018. However, the administrators of schools have denied 07% of the toilets in schools to be accessed by pupils in an effort to control water bills. Administrators prefer pupils to use pit latrines to waterborne toilets because they use less water. This acerbates the inadequacy of access to sanitation in schools in Kampala. The objective of this work was to develop a waterborne sanitation facility that meets the school administrators’ preferences features of VIP latrine with water usage of less than 10 liters of water to flush the toilet. Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) has constructed water based toilets referred to as ‘channel flush’ toilets in public schools to reduce water usage. The channel flush toilet uses a channel as a receiving chamber for faecal matter which is flushed intermittently to the septic tank or bio-digester. Each toilet block is flushed four times a day with each flushing time using 60 liters of water. With the channel flush toilet, schools use about 4 liters per child per day on flushing toilets leading to a 90% water usage reduction. Emptying has been reduced from 30 cubic meters to 5 cubic meters per year. The toilet is recommended to be used in schools and public places such as markets and taxi parks.
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Rao, Sudhakar M., Lydia Arkenadan, and Nitish V. Mogili. "Performance of modified twin pit toilet in Mulbagal town, Karnataka, India." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 8, no. 3 (May 31, 2018): 578–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2018.159.
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Abstract Transformation of ammonium to nitrate upon sewage discharge to sub-surface environment exposes about 65 million households in rural and urban India to risks of drinking nitrate contaminated groundwater. Building on earlier research, a twin pit is modified in Mulbagal town, Karnataka, to remove nitrate in pit toilet sewage and is functional for nearly one year. The first pit serves as an anaerobic chamber, while the second pit facilitates aerobic reactions in the upper half and is equipped with a bio-barrier in its lower half. Quality of treated sewage is monitored by soil water samplers installed adjacent to the pit. After anaerobic digestion in pit 1, sewage flows into the aerobic chamber (upper half of pit 2), where COD/N ratio of 1.49 to 1.73 facilitates aerobic conversion of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate ions. Annamox reactions in a bio-barrier chamber (lower half of pit 2) reduce ammonium and nitrite concentrations, while denitrification reactions in the bio-barrier remove nitrite and nitrate from pit toilet sewage. Besides nitrate, the modified twin pit reduces COD (chemical oxygen demand), ammonium, and thermotolerant coliform levels in the discharged sewage.
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Mkhize, Nosipho, Myra Taylor, Kai M. Udert, Teddy G. Gounden, and Chris A. Buckley. "Urine diversion dry toilets in eThekwini Municipality, South Africa: acceptance, use and maintenance through users' eyes." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7, no. 1 (January 2, 2017): 111–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.079.
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This study was part of the VUNA project aimed to develop an affordable sanitation system that produces a valuable fertiliser, reduces pollution of water resources and promotes health. Urine diversion dry toilets (UDDTs) simplify the on-site hygienisation of faeces and allow for nutrient recovery from urine. Social acceptance is vital for the implementation of the UDDT, because sanitation is only effective if the system not only provides a well-designed toilet and effective waste management, but also offers users a facility that caters to their needs and is sensitive to their cultural lifestyle. This study used qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate acceptance, use and maintenance of UDDTs. Key findings indicate lower levels of acceptance of UDDTs among the elderly, who are accustomed to traditional pit toilets. The users aspire to own a flush toilet, perceived to be indicative of household wealth. A dominant concern was emptying the pit and the quality of the building material. Community interventions are required that will promote acceptance, understanding and encourage proper use and maintenance of the UDDT, and may need some technology modification. There is an urgent need for increased community participation to address users' perceptions, attitudes and behaviour concerning the UDDT.
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Munamati, Muchaneta, Innocent Nhapi, and Shepherd N. Misi. "Types and distribution of improved sanitation technologies in sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7, no. 2 (March 8, 2017): 260–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.123.
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Access to improved sanitation technologies in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is very low. Despite the importance of improved sanitation technologies in sanitation monitoring, little attention has been given towards the types and distributions of improved sanitation technologies used in SSA. This paper presents an analysis of the distribution of improved sanitation technologies in SSA, with particular emphasis on factors influencing their distribution. Study data were derived from demographic health surveys, multiple indicator cluster surveys and World Bank Development Indicators. Results showed that the pit latrine with slab was the most prevalent technology (21%), while the composting toilet had the least coverage (0.6%). Multiple regression analysis results showed positive significant relationships between the following: income and flush toilets connected to sewer (p = 0.000), urban population and flush toilets connected to septic tanks (p = 0.000), development assistance and pit latrine with slab (p = 0.035) and a negative relationship between population and flush toilets connected to pit latrines (p = 0.030). The paper concluded that selection of sanitation technologies is influenced by different factors. In addition, prevailing socio-economic conditions can result in selection of inappropriate technologies. Technology selection, however, should strive to strike a balance between the economic, environmental, human health and socio-cultural sustainability aspects of sanitation.
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Karkana, M. Z., and Adamu Muktar. "Assessment of Faecal Sludge Management in Nguru Town, Yobe State, Northeastern Nigeria." UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research (UJMR) 6, no. 1 (June 30, 2021): 182–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2161.024.
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The aim of the study is to assess faecal sludge management (FSM) in Nguru town, Nguru Local Government area of Yobe State. Random sampling method was used in the selection of respondents in six political wards of the study area. A total of 399 questionnaires were administered to respondents in the study area with the view to identify the types and current practices of faecal sludge management in the study area. The result of the study indicates that majority of the respondents 68% used pit latrine, 24% used water closet while 8% used other type of toilet facilities. However, on the excreta defecation, the finding indicated that 84% had access to household toilets, 8.0% used public toilets, and 6.0% practiced open defecation with the remaining 2% practicing defecation in polythene bags after which they discard it into the bush or on a refuse dump. The study further revealed that majority (54%) of the respondents disposed their toilet sludge by land fill, 31% participants were using any available land for faecal sludge final disposal while 10 % and 5% disposed their toilet by nearby river and composting respectively. The finding indicated that, the faecal sludge management of the study area is unsatisfactory and may pose a risk of environmental and adverse human health. The current practices of faecal sludge management were found below international standard requirement set by WHO. It is therefore recommend that Government should come up with proper orientation and environmental laws should be put in place for the general public and also to provide necessary facilities and arrange for better methods of faecal sludge management. Keywords: FSM, Nguru town, Toilet facilities and open defecation
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Antwi-Agyei, Prince, Bismark Dwumfour-Asare, Kwaku Amaning Adjei, Raphael Kweyu, and Sheillah Simiyu. "Understanding the Barriers and Opportunities for Effective Management of Shared Sanitation in Low-Income Settlements—The Case of Kumasi, Ghana." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12 (June 23, 2020): 4528. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124528.
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Improved sanitation for all is a daunting task for low-income countries, and shared toilets often provide an alternative to private household sanitation for most urban residents. This study sought to provide better understanding of the existing barriers and opportunities for improved management of shared sanitation. The study used focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with 70 users (landlords and tenants) of shared sanitation in Kumasi, Ghana to assess barriers and opportunities of “high-quality” shared sanitation. The commonly used toilet facilities were dry toilets—Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit latrine and Ventilated Improved Pit latrines; and flush systems—water closet and pour flush connected to septic tanks. Between 2 and 21 households, or 4 and 84 people, shared one facility. Participants’ description of “high-quality” (Ideal) shared sanitation was centred on cleanliness, user behaviour, smell, and user crowding. They also identified challenges of shared sanitation as overcrowded users, poor user behaviours, conflicts among users, and high cost associated with frequent desludging. However, opportunities for improvement included users’ preference for shared toilets due to enjoyed benefits, existing facility management practices, and mutual understanding among users (tenants and landlords). Interventions and policy guidelines to influence behaviour change of shared sanitation users are proposed and are intended to be delivered by local government and users.
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Egbinola, Christiana Ndidi, and Amobichukwu Chukwudi Amanambu. "Water supply, sanitation and hygiene education in secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria." Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series 29, no. 29 (September 1, 2015): 31–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bog-2015-0023.
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Abstract Access to potable water supply, sanitation and hygiene education remains relatively low both in the urban and rural areas in developing countries. The main aim of the study was to get an overview of the condition of the water and sanitary facilities in schools and of hygiene education. The method of investigation involved systematic random sampling with the use of questionnaires and interviews with the students and teachers and onsite inspection of the sanitation facilities available within the schools. The results revealed that 24% of schools used W/C while 76% of schools used pit toilets, of which 88% were ordinary pit toilets and 12% VIP. The number of toilets within the schools ranged between 0 and 14 revealing a 185:1 student to toilet ratio within the study area, but ranged widely from 83:1 to 510:1 between schools. The study, however, revealed the absence of wash hand basins in 77% of the schools and no soap in 88% of the schools with wash hand basins. Investing in clean water, sanitation and hygiene education in these public schools should become a priority for governments in developing countries and School Sanitation and Hygiene Education program (SSHE) should be adopted and implemented across schools in Nigeria.
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Olatunji, S., A. Yoade, and S. Olanrewaju. "Environmental Sanitation Practices: Residents’ Involvement in Ilesa, Nigeria." March 2022 6, no. 1 (March 2022): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.36263/nijest.2022.01.0213.
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This study examined residents’ involvement in environmental sanitation in Ilesa, Nigeria. Using multistage sampling, six political wards were selected: three from the high-density area, two from the medium-density area, and one from the low-density area. In all 300 copies of the questionnaire were administered. Data obtained were analysed using percentages and the Pearson correlation. This was with a view to suggesting policy response capable of enhancing healthy environment in the city and others with similar background. Information on the kind of toilet available revealed that 50.9% used flush toilet, 30.1% used pit latrine while 19.0% had no toilet. Likewise, there is paucity of public toilet in the city as 5.0% of the residents claimed availability of public toilet in their neighbourhood while 95.0% said public toilet was not available in their neighbourhood. Furthermore, the agencies responsible for environmental management were found to be wanting in some key functions with implications for healthy living in the area. Based on the findings, policy recommendations are proffered to enhance environmental friendliness in the city.
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Olatunji, S., A. Yoade, and S. Olanrewaju. "Environmental Sanitation Practices: Residents’ Involvement in Ilesa, Nigeria." March 2022 6, no. 1 (March 2022): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.36263/nijest.2022.01.0213.
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This study examined residents’ involvement in environmental sanitation in Ilesa, Nigeria. Using multistage sampling, six political wards were selected: three from the high-density area, two from the medium-density area, and one from the low-density area. In all 300 copies of the questionnaire were administered. Data obtained were analysed using percentages and the Pearson correlation. This was with a view to suggesting policy response capable of enhancing healthy environment in the city and others with similar background. Information on the kind of toilet available revealed that 50.9% used flush toilet, 30.1% used pit latrine while 19.0% had no toilet. Likewise, there is paucity of public toilet in the city as 5.0% of the residents claimed availability of public toilet in their neighbourhood while 95.0% said public toilet was not available in their neighbourhood. Furthermore, the agencies responsible for environmental management were found to be wanting in some key functions with implications for healthy living in the area. Based on the findings, policy recommendations are proffered to enhance environmental friendliness in the city.
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Velkushanova, Konstantina V., Lungi Zuma, and Chris Buckley. "Mechanical properties of faecal sludge." Gates Open Research 3 (October 17, 2019): 1582. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/gatesopenres.13049.1.
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On-site sanitation facilities contribute to the majority of toilet facilities in developing countries as full waterborne sanitation is not feasible or affordable. The characteristics of faecal sludge vary greatly between different locations and types of onsite sanitation facilities and at the same time their understanding is crucial for improvement of the existing faecal sludge management services. The Pollution Research Group (PRG), within the School of Chemical Engineering in the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal have been focussing on the analysis of faecal sludge from different on-site sanitation, such as urine diversion and dehydration toilets, wet and dry ventilated improved pit latrines at household and community levels and unimproved pit latrines. This study was undertaken between 2012 and 2014 and focussed on the characteristics of faecal sludge obtained from different on-site sanitation facilities in the Durban metro area in South Africa. Sampling methods were developed and applied for different depth levels of the pits for each on-site sanitation facility. The analysis followed the PRG standard operation procedures for properties such as: moisture content, total solids, ash content, pH, chemical oxygen demand, density, nutrient contents and thermal properties.
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Delaire, Caroline, Joyce Kisiangani, Kara Stuart, Prince Antwi-Agyei, Ranjiv Khush, and Rachel Peletz. "Can open-defecation free (ODF) communities be sustained? A cross-sectional study in rural Ghana." PLOS ONE 17, no. 1 (January 7, 2022): e0261674. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261674.
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Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is a widely used approach to reduce open defecation in rural areas of low-income countries. Following CLTS programs, communities are designated as open defecation free (ODF) when household-level toilet coverage reaches the threshold specified by national guidelines (e.g., 80% in Ghana). However, because sanitation conditions are rarely monitored after communities are declared ODF, the ability of CLTS to generate lasting reductions in open defecation is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the extent to which levels of toilet ownership and use were sustained in 109 communities in rural Northern Ghana up to two and a half years after they had obtained ODF status. We found that the majority of communities (75%) did not meet Ghana’s ODF requirements. Over a third of households had either never owned (16%) or no longer owned (24%) a functional toilet, and 25% reported practicing open defecation regularly. Toilet pit and superstructure collapse were the primary causes of reversion to open defecation. Multivariate regression analysis indicated that communities had higher toilet coverage when they were located further from major roads, were not located on rocky soil, reported having a system of fines to punish open defecation, and when less time had elapsed since ODF status achievement. Households were more likely to own a functional toilet if they were larger, wealthier, had a male household head who had not completed primary education, had no children under the age of five, and benefitted from the national Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) program. Wealthier households were also more likely to use a toilet for defecation and to rebuild their toilet when it collapsed. Our findings suggest that interventions that address toilet collapse and the difficulty of rebuilding, particularly among the poorest and most vulnerable households, will improve the longevity of CLTS-driven sanitation improvements in rural Ghana.
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Anumveh, Nkemasong Nicasius, Yinkfu Randy Nkuh, Mbella Fiona Mojoko, Fang Amos, Nformi Beatrice Malu, and Baba Adamu. "An Assessment of the Health Implications of Poor Household Toilets on the Population in Bomaka, Buea Municipality, Fako Division, South West Cameroon." International Journal of Global Sustainability 6, no. 1 (December 31, 2022): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijgs.v6i1.20649.
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Household latrines remain one of the most vital aspects of housing facilities neglected in housing development in fast growing urban peripheral zones. The existence of dilapidated latrines has become the new normal in the Bomaka locality and with the associated health consequences. This study sought to investigate the implications of poor household latrines (independent variable) in the Bomaka locality on the health conditions of the inhabitants (dependent variable). The study employed the mixed research design (triangulation) combining the observational and exploratory methods with emphasis on both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Field observations, questionnaires administration, interviews and focused group discussions were the primary data sources while consultation of online and offline documents and the data bases of health facilities were secondary sources of data. The target population was all the households and their toilets stratified into three neighbourhoods following the high priority streets namely the Chief, Kawah and Miss Bright Streets. The population was stratified into classes based on their education, income and occupational status. Through the multistage sampling procedure of stratified random sampling, a total of 150 individuals were selected as respondents. Both descriptive (percentiles) and inferential (correlation analysis) statistical tool were used to process the data to establish the results. Results revealed that majority (69.5%) of the inhabitants owned household latrines with the bulk being outdoor pit toilets (79.5%) followed by external water closets (8.5%). Furthermore, most of the toilets were constructed with plank material (53.3%) with up to 20% of the toilets being open air (unconstructed). A high proportion (67.2%) of the toilets are very poorly constructed and also the man-toilet ratio is very high thereby creating much inconveniences during rush hour periods (mornings and evening). It was established that the dismal toilet facilities have induced significant health problems with the prevalence of infectious diseases dominated by intestinal diseases (56.4%) as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera, which are suffered by 3 persons out of every 10 members of the households. Individuals do adapt to the challenges of poor latrines by defecating in nearby bushy areas and streams, and also in plastic bags for disposal later. This leads to the constant pollution of our water sources and food. This work recommends that the Bomaka locality offers many livelihood options to its population and therefore, adequate sensitisation campaigns, better toilet infrastructural development should be carried out to enhance the level of sanitation and well-being of individual in the locality. Also, regular inspection tours by council hygiene and sanitation department and support NGOs stand out as vital solutions to redress this worsening situation.
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Chitagubbi, Geeta, S. Mudnal, and B. Jhansi. "Involvement of Rural People in Swachh Bharath Mission – A Study on Socio Economic Profile." Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology 41, no. 4 (March 14, 2023): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2023/v41i41871.
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Study was carried out in 2020-2021 from Dharwad taluk (Dharwad district) and Muddebihal taluk (Vijayapura district) of Karnataka. The present research aimed to explore the existing awareness and involvement about Swachh Bharath Mission among rural people. A total of 320 respondents were selected for the study through purposive random sampling technique. Data was collected through personal interview method and analayzed through frequency and percentages. Swachh Bharath Abhiyan is not a new programme. Launched in 1986 as the central rural sanitation programme, the scheme advanced became the total sanitation campaign (1999) and nirmal bharath abhiyan (2012). Some regard it as simply a retitling. It can be concluded from the study that, higher percentage of the respondents belonged to poor class of socio-economic status. Half of the respondents were members of self-help groups. Maximum per cent of respondents possessed television followed by mobile and radio. Gram panchayath was the Source of SBM information according to majority of respondents. Most of the respondents had simple Indian toilets at their houses and more than half of the respondents constructed the toilets through government financial support. Large majority of the respondents carrying the water in bucket to the toilet and little more than the one third of the respondents mentioned inadequate water facility as the reason for non-construction of toilet. Nearly half of the respondents were using cotton cloths during menstruation. Major per cent of the respondents were practice of changing pads/cloths during menstruation at an interval of 5-7 hrs. Large majority of the respondents had open drainage system and majority of the respondents did not practice segregation of wastes and majority of the respondents disposing waste in garbage pit.
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Anda, Martin, Kuruvilla Mathew, and Goen Ho. "Appropriate Technology Hygiene Facility for Small Communities." Water Science and Technology 24, no. 5 (September 1, 1991): 163–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0122.
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Small communities will often need alternative systems of water supply, sanitation, washing and wastewater disposal facilities. Numerous agencies supply various models of ablutions facilities. The Remote Area Hygiene Facility comprises laundry, shower, toilet, wastewater disposal trench, solar water heater, chipheater, hand-operated washing machine and washing line. The toilet is a water–seal, low water demand, pit type. A plastic, solar water heater has been developed to overcome the problems experienced by commercial, metallic units such as blockages, breakages and ruptures due to freezing. The plastic design is more durable in the chosen environment and quite easy to assemble. Wastewater disposal is by evapotranspiration which is shown to be more effective than leach drains in tight, clay soils and promotes the growth of trees and shrubs. The Remote Area Developments Group proposes the installation of these units as community–based training projects to provide general construction skills, environmental hygiene education and a commitment to maintenance.
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S Simelane, Maswati. "A multilevel analysis of the determinants of handwashing behavior among households in Eswatini: a secondary analysis of the 2014 multiple indicator cluster survey." African Health Sciences 20, no. 4 (December 16, 2020): 1996–2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v20i4.58.
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Introduction: Handwashing with soap has received considerable attention due to its importance in the prevention and inter- ruption of the transmission of diseases. Regardless of the positive effects of handwashing with soap, developing countries still have a low rate of handwashing.
Objective: The study aimed to determine the individual, household and community-level factors associated with handwash- ing behavior among households in Eswatini.
Methods: Using the Eswatini Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey conducted in 2014, a secondary analysis was done of the households surveyed. A total of 1,520 households nested in communities with complete data on handwashing practices were included in the analysis. Univariate, bivariate analysis and multivariate multilevel logistic regression were used to estab- lish the factors that were associated with handwashing behavior.
Results: The prevalence of handwashing among households was 56% in 2014. Households whose heads were aged 35-54 and 55 years and older were more likely to practice handwashing (AOR=1.88, 95% CI:1.39, 2.54); and (AOR=1.77, 95% CI: 1.205, 2.62) compared to those aged 15-34 years. Households with a pit latrine or no toilet facility at all, were less likely to practice handwashing (AOR=0.24, 95% CI: 0.17, 0.35); (AOR=0.28, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.71) respectively compared to those with a flush toilet. Region of residence was a community-level variable associated with lower odds of handwashing, with those from the Hhohho (AOR=0.22, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.35) and Manzini region (AOR=0.42, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.67) compared to Lubombo region. Households from communities where access to mass media was high were more likely to practice handwashing (AOR =1.47, 95% CI: 1.05, 2.03) compared to those from communities where access to mass media was low.
Conclusion: Households headed by young adults, with pit latrine or no toilet facility at all and lived in the Hhohho and Manzini regions and with low access to mass media, should be targeted for interventions aimed at improving handwashing practices.
Keywords: Handwashing; factors; Eswatini; households; multilevel logistic regression.
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Rotowa, O. O., and O. Adeleye. "Water and Sanitation Situation in Selected Villages in Ifedore Local Government Area of Ondo State, Nigeria." Nigerian Journal of Environmental Sciences and Technology 5, no. 2 (October 2021): 511–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.36263/nijest.2021.02.0298.
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Water is essential for life, while sanitation is for dignity. Worldwide, Nigeria is second to India in term of open defecation, with an estimated population of 109 million open defecators. The rural areas currently lagged behind the urban areas in term of water and sanitation. A survey of two villages in the Ifedore Local Government of Ondo State, Nigeria was conducted, using 88 respondents selected through purposive sampling technique from Ikota and Aaye village cluster. Findings from the study revealed that sources of water are boreholes, wells and streams. On the other hand, most of the indigenes still practice open defecation, though some of them use water closet, pour flush toilet and variances of pit latrine as toilet. Most of them still expect the government to install and maintain facilities provided. It is suggested that demand driven and the bottom-top approach where the people first believe that water and sanitation prevent diseases and provide longevity be explored. It is believed that reinventing the services of sanitary officers (Wole Wole), will help in disseminating and enforcing proper hygienic practices.
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McGarvey, Stephen T., Justin Buszin, Holly Reed, David C. Smith, Zarah Rahman, Catherine Andrzejewski, Kofi Awusabo-Asare, and Michael J. White. "Community and household determinants of water quality in coastal Ghana." Journal of Water and Health 6, no. 3 (March 1, 2008): 339–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.057.
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Associations between water sources, socio-demographic characteristics and household drinking water quality are described in a representative sample of six coastal districts of Ghana's Central Region. Thirty-six enumeration areas (EAs) were randomly chosen from a representative survey of 90 EAs in rural, semi-urban and urban residence strata. In each EA, 24 households were randomly chosen for water quality sampling and socio-demographic interview. Escherichia coli per 100 ml H2O was quantified using the IDEXX Colilert® system and multi-stage regression models estimated cross-sectional associations between water sources, sanitation and socio-demographic factors. Almost three quarters, 74%, of the households have >2 E. coli /100 ml H2O. Tap water has significantly lower E. coli levels compared with surface or rainwater and well water had the highest levels. Households with a water closet toilet have significantly lower E. coli compared with those using pit latrines or no toilets. Household size is positively associated, and a possessions index is negatively associated, with E. coli. Variations in community and household socio-demographic and behavioural factors are key determinants of drinking water quality. These factors should be included in planning health education associated with investments in water systems.
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Chunga, Richard, M. W. Jenkins, Jeroen Ensink, and Joe Brown. "Moving up the sanitation ladder with the help of microfinance in urban Malawi." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 8, no. 1 (December 8, 2017): 100–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.186.
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Abstract We carried out a stated preference survey in Malawi to examine whether access to microfinance for sanitation would significantly increase the proportion of households upgrading to improved pit latrines or alternative improved sanitation technologies (urine diverting dry toilet, fossa alterna, pour flush). We presented a range of sanitation options at local market prices, initially without and then with a real microfinance option, to 1,300 households sampled across 27 low-income urban settlements in the two largest cities, Lilongwe and Blantyre. When we gave respondents a microfinance option, the proportion of households stating an intention to install improved and unimproved pit latrines decreased significantly, while the proportion stating an intention to upgrade to alternative improved sanitation technologies increased significantly. However, households in the lowest wealth quintile were more likely to state a preference for unimproved pit latrines, suggesting that the benefits of microfinance for sanitation may not accrue equally across wealth strata. Organisations seeking to improve access to safely managed sanitation by promoting alternative sanitation technologies would succeed if households have access to affordable alternative sanitation technologies and microfinance for sanitation. However, poorer households would need more affordable improved sanitation technologies, flexible microfinance options and possibly targeted subsidies to gain access to safely managed sanitation.
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Iwashita, Hanako, Asako Tokizawa, Vu Dinh Thiem, Taichiro Takemura, Tuan Hai Nguyen, Hang Thi Doan, Anh Hong Quynh Pham, Na Ly Tran, and Tetsu Yamashiro. "Risk Factors Associated with Diarrheal Episodes in an Agricultural Community in Nam Dinh Province, Vietnam: A Prospective Cohort Study." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4 (February 21, 2022): 2456. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042456.
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In Vietnam, data on the risk factors for diarrhea at the community level remain sparse. This study aimed to provide an overview of diarrheal diseases in an agricultural community in Vietnam, targeting all age groups. Specifically, we investigated the incidence of diarrheal disease at the community level and described the potential risk factors associated with diarrheal diseases. In this prospective cohort study, a total of 1508 residents were enrolled during the 54-week study period in northern Vietnam. The observed diarrheal incidence per person-year was 0.51 episodes. For children aged <5 years, the incidence per person-year was 0.81 episodes. Unexpectedly, the frequency of diarrhea was significantly higher among participants who used tap water for drinking than among participants who used rainwater. Participants who used a flush toilet had less frequent diarrhea than those who used a pit latrine. The potential risk factors for diarrhea included the source of water used in daily life, drinking water, and type of toilet. However, the direct reason for the association between potential risk factors and diarrhea was not clear. The infection routes of diarrheal pathogens in the environment remain to be investigated at this study site.
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Alabi, Oluwole Titilayo, Sakariyau Jamiu Kayode, AbdulKadir Misbahu, and Oluwadare Joel Olaifa. "Effect of Physical Characteristics on Resident’s Satisfaction in a High-Density Area of Ilorin Metropolis." Path of Science 7, no. 9 (September 30, 2021): 1001–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.22178/pos.74-1.
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This study looked at the impact of a resident’s physical attributes on housing satisfaction in Ilorin to figure out how to uncover the significant relationship in Ilorin. The research took a quantitative method. A questionnaire was designed and distributed to 126 household heads, with 94 responses. Households were polled using systematic random sampling to collect information on socio-economic variables and housing satisfaction. To analyze the effect of variables, the data were subjected to descriptive statistics and linear regression using SPSS. The study found that physical factors have a substantial impact on home satisfaction in the studied area. The study discovered that toilet facilities, rendered and painted walls, tiles, a well-equipped kitchen, no finishing wall, electricity and generator as an alternative means of lighting a kitchen without modern facilities, concrete, and a pit toilet are all factors that influence residents’ satisfaction. It was also discovered that the most excellent mean score was for bathroom facilities, rendered and painted walls, and tiles. It was suggested that the government make the missing social amenities available and rehabilitate the deteriorating ones as urgent. To improve resident satisfaction in the study region, proper routine management of social amenities should be done.
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Adzawla, William, Hamdiyah Alhassan, and Adams Imoru Jongare. "Explaining the Effects of Socioeconomic and Housing Characteristics on the Choice of Toilet Facilities among Ghanaian Households." Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2020 (May 20, 2020): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/4036045.
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Open defecation remains a major environmental sanitation challenge facing all areas of Ghana. This notwithstanding, the socioeconomic drivers of this phenomenon are overlooked. This study, therefore, analysed the factors that influence the choice of toilet facilities over the practice of open defecation in the country. Ghana Living Standard Survey round 7 (GLSS7) data were analysed using multinomial logit regression. From the data, a majority of households used improved toilet facilities (WC, KVIP, and pit latrines with slab) in Ghana and over one-fourth of households engaged in open defecation. The regression result revealed that the choice of toilet facilities over the practice of open defecation was significantly influenced by the sex of the household head, age, household size, education, marital status, locating in urban areas, regional locations, ownership of dwelling, type of dwelling, expenditure on rent, expenditure quintile, and per capita consumption expenditure of the household. Specifically, male, younger, less educated, and first income-quintile household heads have higher probability of practicing open defecation in Ghana. These variables point to specific policy directions that should be corrected or targeted to minimize, if not eliminate, the practice of open defecation in the country. The Media Coalition Campaign against Open Defecation should be intensified and directed towards the males, youths, and the less educated populace. This study also justified that calls for Ghanaians to change their attitudes or behavior towards open defecation are mere rhetoric if such calls are not defined within the socioeconomic conditions of the people of the area.
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Shabani, M., A. Zacharia, V. Mushi, M. Joseph, C. Kinabo, and T. Makene. "Prevalence and predictors of intestinal schistosomiasis among the adult population, and water and sanitation conditions - A community-based cross-section study at Muleba District, Tanzania." Rwanda Medical Journal 79, no. 1 (May 24, 2022): 36–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/rmj.v79i1.5.
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INTRODUCTION: Intestinal schistosomiasis is one of the serious public health problems in all age groups and can lead to considerable morbidity and mortality, especially in communities with an inadequate supply of safe water and sanitation services. This study was conducted to establish the current burden of intestinal schistosomiasis among adults in the Muleba District and assess water and sanitation conditions that might influence the transmission of intestinal schistosomiasis.METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted between July and August 2020. A total of 328 stool samples were collected and processed using formal-ether concentration and Kato-Katz methods. Water and sanitation data were collected using a questionnaire interview conducted among participants. Participants were randomly selected from four villages. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software version 23.RESULTS: Thirty-six participants (11%) were infected with Schistosoma mansoni. The prevalence was higher among households using water from improved sources, houses without sanitation facilities, and participants who do not use sanitation facilities. We found a significantly increased risk of S. mansoni infection among participants in households without toilet facilities than those with ventilated improved pit latrine (OR =4.10, p = 0.001).CONCLUSION: The prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis infection among the adult population in Muleba indicates a moderate risk of transmission. The type of toilet facility is a significant factor in the perpetuation of S. mansoni transmission.
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Islam, MS, BC Sarker, NA Mahmud, and ASM Saifullah. "Water quality and Sanitation status: A study on Char land of Bhuapur upazila under Tangail district." Journal of the Bangladesh Agricultural University 11, no. 2 (August 6, 2014): 209–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v11i2.19895.
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The study was aimed to review the damage of sanitation facilities; since Char lands dwellers faces manifold challenges concerning sanitation, hygiene and water during flood. It also explored the possibilities of overcoming the negative impacts of floods on sources of safe drinking water and sanitation. The study result shows that, about 54% of the overall latrines were included ring slab with water seal, pit latrine, bush or hanging toilet of the flood affected people during the flood. Around 19% of the respondents use to do toilet in the open area during flood. Different NGOs e.g. Jamuna Char Development Project (JCDP), Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), CARE and Red Crescent Society of Bangladesh works for rehabilitation of the flood affected people and give early warning on the flood. Depending on location and sanitation conditions, drinking water sources may be contaminated by flood water during flood and many waterborne diseases can spread out like Cholera, Dysentery, Diarrhoea, diseases of the skin, Typhoid etc. meantime. The conducted survey also reports that, drinking water and sanitation condition is not dependable (on the commentary of 64.8% of the responders). Therefore, the flood affected people of Bhuapur are usually underprivileged from appropriate sanitation facility on flood. They somehow conform themselves while a chain of problems strikes hardly during flood. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v11i2.19895 J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 11(2): 209-214, 2013
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Israel, O. K., A. A. Olotu, A. Idowu, A. R. Ojewuyi, M. O. Odusan, and O. A. Adeniji. "Biologic quality of households' drinking-water in an urban local government area of Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria." Research Journal of Health Sciences 11, no. 4 (August 3, 2023): 353–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/rejhs.v11i4.8.
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Background: Inadequate access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) facilities is a global public health issue with several associated illnesses, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. It is imperative to understand the availabilities of these facilities, to provide baseline data for policy design and implementation. This study assessed access to WASH facilities. It also examined the factors associated with drinking-water contamination by coliform organisms in households within Ogbomoso North Local Government Area, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
Methods: Cross-sectional design was employed and a two-stage cluster-sampling method was used to recruit eligible respondents from 100 households. Interviewer-administer, semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used for inferential statistics.
Results: Mean age of respondents was 40.5±16.7years, 81.0% of the households practiced open defecation, and 78.9% of those with toilet facilities used pit latrines. The most common water source was borehole (71.6%); available within 5 minutes walking distance to residence of 68.0% of study participants. Sixty-three percent of the households had high drinking water coliform counts. High drinking-water coliform counts were influenced by the presence or absence of toilets facilities (OR=4.61, CI=1.22-1.68), types of toilets (OR=2.63, CI=3.22-5.34), and water sources (OR=0.12, CI=0.47-0.68).
Conclusion: Access to good quality water and basic sanitation facilities is sub-optimal in the study setting despite being an urban community. Authors advocate for more vibrant and intentional government efforts at ensuring equitable access to WASH facilities in the Nigerian communities. This is to fast-track the nation's journey towards the actualization of the sustainable development goal (SDG)-6.
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Obeng, Peter A., Sampson Oduro-Kwarteng, Bernard Keraita, Henrik Bregnhøj, Robert C. Abaidoo, Esi Awuah, and Flemming Konradsen. "Redesigning the ventilated improved pit latrine for use in built-up low-income settings." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 9, no. 2 (February 25, 2019): 374–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2019.098.
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Abstract The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine has the potential to address the challenge of access to improved sanitation in built-up low-income settings. However, its conventional technical design fails to address the needs and preferences of some users. The objective of this paper was to test the technical performance of modified engineering designs of the technology to respond to some preferences of toilet users. The entry of air from multiple windows in the superstructure and installation of insect screens in windows were tested in an experimental VIP latrine. The modified design achieved the recommended ventilation rate of 20 m3/h when a vent pipe diameter of 150 mm was used. The study concludes that adopting a multidirectional airflow design leads to a lower ventilation rate as compared to the conventional design. However, when fitted with the recommended size of vent pipe, this modified design achieves more than twice the recommended ventilation rate with or without an insect screen installed in the windows. Nevertheless, the practice in which 100 mm diameter vent pipes are used with insect screens installed in windows is likely to lead to odour problems due to inadequate ventilation through the vent pipe.
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Rawlings, A., and S. Seghosime. "Evaluation of water supply, sanitation and hygiene facilities in Ekosodin Community of Ovia North-East LGA, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria." Nigerian Journal of Technology 41, no. 4 (November 3, 2022): 632–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njt.v41i4.1.
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Globally, poor access to improved water and sanitation remains a major contributing factor to high morbidity and mortality rates among the populace. Thus, access to water supply and sanitation is essential for sustainable development. In this study, a cross sectional descriptive survey method was adopted. Data were collected via questionnaires and observational checklist which were designed to extract information on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). The data were then, analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 26.0). Four hundred and twenty (420) semi-structured questionnaires were administered to households in Ekosodin Community. Three hundred and ninety seven (397) copies were retrieved and thus analysed. Results indicated that 374 (94.2%) households reported having access to water and that borehole was their main source of water supply. Over 130 (32.7%) household reported not treating their water before use. Types of toilet facilities frequently use by households were water closet system (flush toilet) 243 (61.2%) and pit latrine 85 (21.4%). However, households practice open defecation at low levels 6 (1.5%). Solid waste disposal methods mainly adopted by households are: open dumpsite 224 (56.4%) and burning 150 (37.8%). Majority of the households cleaned their water storage containers every six months or annually. Results further revealed that most of the respondents 382 (96.2%) practice hand washing after toilet 82 (20.65%), before cooking 79 (19.89%), before eating 55 (13.85%) and every other time 94 (23.6%) excluding the aforementioned, after cooking, after eating and after handling children’s faeces. It was observed that 243 (57.9%) houses have no drainage system, 237 (56.4%) have no waste storage facility, 312 (74.3%) have refuse dumpsite and 354 (84.3%) did not have odour of excreta in the surrounding. It was deduced from this study that households have poor access to adequate WASH facilities/services. Hence, it is recommended that water supply infrastructures, sanitation infrastructures and promotion of hygiene should be enhanced in order to improve access to adequate WASH facilities/services in the community.
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Chukwu, H. O., O. Owhoeli, and C. C. Amuzie. "Intestinal Parasites in School-Aged Children of Rumuodogo, Emohua Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria." International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE & Health 44, no. 4 (February 21, 2023): 7–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ijtdh/2023/v44i41400.
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Aim: This epidemiological survey was carried out to assess the prevalence of intestinal parasites in School aged Children.
Place and Duration of study: The study was carried out in Rumuodogo Community in Emohua Local Government area of Rivers State, Nigeria between the months of March to June 2019.
Methodology: Microscopic examination of stool samples from 200 school-aged pupils between the ages 3-18 years was carried out using formol-ether concentration and direct wet mount, and stained iodine. Demographic as well as epidemiological data were obtained using a questionnaire.
Results: The finding reveals an overall prevalence of 49.5%. However, there was a significant difference in the parasite prevalence values between the age groups (P = 0.01). The common intestinal parasites identified were Ascaris lumbricoides 19.5%, Ancylostoma duodenale 9.5%, Trichuris spp. 6%, Strongyloides spp. 4.5%, Enterobius spp. 1%, Taenia solium, 1.5%, Taenia saginata 1%, Entamoeba histolytica 4.5%, Giardia lamblia 4% and Schistosoma mansoni 2%. The prevalence of intestinal parasites infections with respect to the available and use of toilet facility revealed that Pit toilet users had the highest prevalence of 62 (56.9%) while no infection was recorded among users of water closet toilet. When age groups were compared, the result showed that age group 3-6 years were significantly more infected than the other age groups (P = 0.01). There was no significant difference between other age groups. The findings however, showed that age groups 6-10 years had the highest prevalence of 55.6%. Maximum of seven children had multiple infections. The male female ration was 62:37 while the percentage for males was 43.2% and 50% for females.
Conclusion: Intestinal parasitic infections are associated with reduced development of children manifested by a reduced physical fitness which may result from vitamin deficiencies, inducing intestinal bleeding, and protein energy malnutrition. Therefore, the high prevalence of intestinal parasites recorded in this study calls for an intensified effort in the control of the infections. Regular deworming of children and environmental sanitation should be carried out to further reduce the prevalence.
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Mittal, Akshit, Rahul Singh, Sumedha Chakma, and Gaurav Goel. "Permeable reactive barrier technology for the remediation of groundwater contaminated with nitrate and phosphate resulted from pit-toilet leachate." Journal of Water Process Engineering 37 (October 2020): 101471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101471.
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Mutyambizi, Chipo, Tholang Mokhele, Catherine Ndinda, and Charles Hongoro. "Access to and Satisfaction with Basic Services in Informal Settlements: Results from a Baseline Assessment Survey." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12 (June 19, 2020): 4400. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124400.
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Subjective responses of satisfaction with basic services delivery is an indicator of service delivery performance. This study provides an overview of the status of basic service delivery and determines the factors associated with service delivery satisfaction within informal settlements targeted for upgrading in South Africa. A multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between satisfaction with basic services of water, sanitation, refuse and electricity with several predictors including individual factors, household factors, community factors and service-related factors. The most common source of drinking water, toilet facility and refuse disposal method were communal tap (55%) pit latrine (53%) and local authorities (34%), respectively. Approximately 52% of the respondents in the study reported not having access to electricity. Results also show that satisfaction in basic services delivery varies and is influenced by service-related factors. Interventions targeted at improving the quality of basic service provided are essential to meet the targets set out in the sustainable development goals.
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Naidoo, D., C. E. Archer, S. Septien, C. C. Appleton, and C. A. Buckley. "Inactivation of Ascaris for thermal treatment and drying applications in faecal sludge." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 10, no. 2 (April 6, 2020): 209–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2020.119.
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Abstract Ascaris lumbricoides is the most common helminth of human health importance, and the most resilient helminth found in faecal sludge. There are numerous types of sludge treatments; however, heating and drying are most commonly used for pathogen inactivation. Ascaris suum eggs were heated in a water bath at 40–55 °C for 10 seconds to 60 minutes in water, as well as heated in both urine diversion dry toilet and ventilated improved pit latrine sludge at 40 °C, 60 °C and 80 °C for times ranging from 5 seconds to 120 minutes. Eggs were also spiked into sludges of different moisture contents and incubated over 12 weeks at 25 °C, with samples analysed weekly. Overall, we concluded that eggs were inactivated at temperatures >50 °C, that the temperature–time relationship directly impacted the efficacy of heat treatment, that suspension medium had no effect, and that eggs survived better in wet rather than dry sludges.
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Williams Olatunji, Rotimi, and Noeem Taiwo Thanny. "Availability and adequacy of WASH facilities in secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria." E3S Web of Conferences 211 (2020): 01023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202021101023.
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The curtailment of infectious diseases is facilitated through observance of good hand hygiene, a habit which tends to be low less observed in developing countries. This paper investigated the level of availability and adequacy of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) materials in secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria. The sample size is made up of 620 respondents, selected through a combination of purposive, stratified, and simple random sampling methods. Research instruments adopted included questionnaires, focus group discussion guide, document observation, and unobtrusive observation. Quantitative data were analyzed through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The study showed that the majority of the respondents (87.4%) admitted that the most typical type of toilet facility is a water closet, followed by pit latrine (13.7%) and open space (1.6%) for defecation. A majority of the respondents considered the provision of a wash hand basin as grossly inadequate. Therefore, researchers recommended improvement of structures, facilities, and materials relating to WASH in schools across Lagos State, Nigeria.
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Nyaaba, Albert Apotele, Augustine Tanle, Louis Kobina Kobina, and Matthew Ayamga. "Determinants of Under-Five Mortality in Ghana: Evidence from the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey." International Journal of Translational Medical Research and Public Health 4, no. 2 (August 4, 2020): 112–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21106/ijtmrph.161.
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Background and Objectives: This study aims to investigate the strength of the association between socio-economic, maternal and environmental determinants and under-five mortality in Ghana.
Methods: We utilized data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, a population-based cross-sectional study, which included 4151 children born alive to women aged 15-49 years. The primary outcome variable was under-five mortality. Descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression were applied to assess the relationship and relative association of the independent variables with the outcome variable.
Results: Children of women with secondary education and above and women within the middle wealth status were 0.593 and 0.886 less likely to experience under five deaths compared to women with no education and women of low wealth status (OR=0.593; 95% CI 1.690 to 2.063; p< 0.01) (OR =0.886; 95% CI 1.48 to 1.63; p<0.01). Women who had their first birth at age 20-29 years were 0.764 less likely to experience under-five deaths compared to those aged 15-19 years (OR= 0.764; 95% CI 0.994 to 1.191; p<0.01). Children born in households with pit toilets were more likely (OR= 1.51; 95% CI 1.20 to 2.30; p<0.01) to die before age five compared to children born in households with flushed toilet. Women who used bore hole /well water were more likely (OR= 1.686; 95% CI 2.94 to 3.01; p< 0.05) to experience under-five deaths compared to women who used piped water.
Conclusion and Implications for Translation: This study identified the determinants that significantly predicted under-five deaths and the magnitude of the influence on under-five deaths in Ghana. It accentuates the need for increased maternal education, delayed child bearing, provision of improved drinking water and toilet facilities to reduce under-five deaths in Ghana.
Key words: • Socio-economic • Maternal health • Child health • Environmental factors • Under-five mortality • Ghana • Demographic and Health Survey • DHS
Copyright © 2020 Nyaaba, et al. Published by Global Health and Education Projects, Inc. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in this journal, is properly cited.
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Kumwenda, Save, Chisomo Msefula, Wilfred Kadewa, Bagrey Ngwira, and Tracy Morse. "Estimating the Health Risk Associated with the Use of Ecological Sanitation Toilets in Malawi." Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2017 (2017): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/3931802.
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Use of Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) sludge is becoming popular due to increasing price of organic fertilizers in Malawi; however, there is little evidence on the associated risks. Quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) was done to determine health risks associated with use of EcoSan. Pathogens considered includedEscherichia coli (E. coli),Salmonella,and soil transmitted helminths (STHs). Exponential and Beta Poisson models were used to estimate the risk from helminthic and bacterial pathogens, respectively. Main exposure pathways were through poor storage of sludge, contamination of foods during drying, walking barefoot on the ground contaminated with sludge, pit emptying without protection, and application of sludge in the fields. Estimated annual risk forAscaris lumbricoides, Taenia, andhookworms was approximately over 5.6 × 10−1for both Fossa Alternas (FAs) and Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDTs). Risk fromE. coliandSalmonellawas 8.9 × 10−2and above. The risks were higher than WHO acceptable risk for use of faecal sludge in crops of 10−4infections per year. Promoters and users of EcoSan latrines need to consider advocating for strict guidelines to reduce the risk.
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Tsegaw, Menen, Bezawit Mulat, and Kegnie Shitu. "Safe stool disposal and associated factors among mothers of children aged under-two years in Gambia: Evidence from Gambia Demographic Health Survey 2019/20." PLOS ONE 18, no. 5 (May 1, 2023): e0284986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284986.
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Background Appropriate disposal of child stool is vital in preventing the spread of faecal-oral diseases. According to WHO/ UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program, Safe child stool disposal includes disposing a stool in a Flush or pour-flush toilet/latrine (to a piped sewer system, septic tank, pit latrine), Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine or a Pit latrine with slab. Objective The study aimed to assess safe child stool disposal practice and associated factors among mothers with children aged under-two years in Gambia. Methods This study was based on a large community-based cross-sectional survey, conducted from 21 November 2019 to 30 March 2020 in Gambia. The survey employed a two-staged stratified cluster sampling technique to recruit study participants. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression models were used to summarize descriptive data and identify factors associated with safe waste disposal, respectively. A p-value of less than 0.05 and 95% confidence interval were used to determine statistical significance. Results The prevalence of safe stool disposal among mothers with children aged under-two years were 56.3% (95% CI: 54.6%, 58.1%). Mothers aged 25–34 (AOR = 0.78 (95%CI: 0.62, 0.98)), the highest wealth quintile (AOR = 0.43 (95%CI: 0.33, 0.56)), being exposed to media (AOR = 1.37 (95%CI: 1.07, 1.76)), increasing age of children (AOR = 1.06 (1.05, 1.07)), Being employed (AOR = 1.31 (1.11, 1.55)) and Geographic region were significantly associated with safe child disposal practice. Conclusion The prevalence of safe child stool disposal was low in Gambia. Age of the mother, age of the child, region, wealth index, media exposure and occupational status of the mother were significantly associated with safe child stool disposal. Public health intervention strategies designed to promote safe child stools disposal need to conduct thorough community assessments to identify community-specific facilitators, needs and barriers. Additionally, public health experts and policy makers should take into consideration the geographical and wealth inequalities when designing programs aimed to improve safe child stool disposal practice.
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Ueno, Takunori, Hideo Suzuki, Mitsuaki Hirose, Takashi Shida, Kazuto Ikezawa, Hirofumi Matsui, Yuji Mizokami, and Akinori Yanaka. "Influence of Living Environment during Childhood on Helicobacter pylori Infection in Japanese Young Adults." Digestion 101, no. 6 (September 24, 2019): 779–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000502574.
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<b><i>Introduction:</i></b> <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> infection is usually established during childhood, for which certain responsible environmental factors have been identified. However, the details of the infection routes remain unclear. <b><i>Objective:</i></b> To determine the relation between <i>H. pylori</i> infection statuses and living environment of Japanese young adult. <b><i>Methods:</i></b> The subjects were 449 healthy young adult medical students of Tsukuba University (299 men and 150 women, mean age: 22.8 years). The <i>H. pylori</i> infection statuses were investigated using the rapid urease test or urine antibody. Questionnaires regarding sanitary conditions including usage of pit toilet or well water and experience of living with one’s grandparents during childhood were surveyed. Each item was compared between the <i>H. pylori</i>-positive and -negative groups. <b><i>Results:</i></b> Among all participants, 33 (7.3%) were <i>H. pylori</i>-positive. The usage rates of pit toilets were 12.1 and 3.1% for the <i>H. pylori</i>-positive and -negative groups respectively (<i>p</i> = 0.03; OR 4.35, 95% CI 1.33–14.22). The usage rates of well water were 24.2 and 13.7% for the <i>H. pylori</i>-positive and -negative groups respectively (<i>p</i> = 0.07; OR 2.12, 95% CI 0.91–4.98). The proportion of participants with a history of living with their grandparents was significantly greater in the <i>H. pylori</i>-positive group (46.7%) than in the -negative group (20.9%; <i>p</i> = 0.03; OR 3.28, 95% CI 1.13–9.54). Only a history of living with one’s grandparents during childhood showed statistical significance in the multivariate regression analysis (<i>p</i> = 0.04; OR 3.20, 95% CI 1.08–9.49). <b><i>Conclusions:</i></b> These results suggest that <i>H. pylori</i> infection is more strongly related to living with one’s grandparents than living in a hygienic environment.
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Ross, Ian, Giulia Greco, Zaida Adriano, Rassul Nala, Joe Brown, Charles Opondo, and Oliver Cumming. "Impact of a sanitation intervention on quality of life and mental well-being in low-income urban neighbourhoods of Maputo, Mozambique: an observational study." BMJ Open 12, no. 10 (October 2022): e062517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-062517.
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ObjectivesToilet users often report valuing outcomes such as privacy and safety more highly than reduced disease, but effects of urban sanitation interventions on such outcomes have never been assessed quantitatively. In this study, we evaluate the impact of a shared sanitation intervention on quality of life (QoL) and mental well-being.DesignWe surveyed individuals living in intervention and control clusters of a recent non-randomised controlled trial, and used generalised linear mixed regression models to make an observational comparison of outcomes between arms.SettingLow-income unsewered areas of Maputo City, Mozambique.ParticipantsWe interviewed 424 participants, 222 from the prior trial’s intervention group and 202 from the control group.InterventionsThe control group used low-quality pit latrines. The intervention group received high-quality shared toilets, with users contributing 10%–15% of capital cost.OutcomesOur primary outcome was the Sanitation-related QoL (SanQoL) index, which applies respondent-derived weights to combine perceptions of sanitation-related disgust, privacy, safety, health and shame. Secondary outcomes were the WHO-5 mental well-being index and a sanitation Visual Analogue Scale.ResultsThe intervention group experienced a 1.6 SD gain in SanQoL compared with the control group. This adjusted SanQoL gain was 0.34 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.38) on a 0–1 scale with control mean 0.49. Effect sizes were largest for safety and privacy attributes. Intervention respondents also experienced a 0.2 SD gain in mental well-being. The adjusted gain was 6.2 (95% CI 0.3 to 12.2) on a 0–100 scale with control mean 54.4.ConclusionsQoL outcomes are highly valued by toilet users and can be improved by sanitation interventions. Such outcomes should be measured in future sanitation trials, to help identify interventions which most improve people’s lives. Since SanQoL weights are derived from respondent valuation, our primary result can be used in economic evaluation.
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Ubhayawardana, Nushka, Ishani Gammana Liyanage, H. M. J. C. B. Herath, Uthpala Amarasekera, Tilanka Dissanayake, Sujan de Silva, Nayana Fernando, and Sriyani Ekanayake. "Direct Microscopy of Stool Samples for Determining the Prevalence of Soil-Transmitted Helminthic Infections among Primary School Children in Kaduwela MOH Area of Sri Lanka following Floods in 2016." Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2018 (June 10, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/4929805.
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A descriptive cross-sectional school based study was carried out to investigate the prevalence of soil-transmitted intestinal helminths and the associated factors among school children in Kaduwela Medical Officer of Health (MOH) area in the Colombo district, which was affected by floods in 2016. The study was conducted in 9 selected schools in Kaduwela MOH area from September 2016 to March 2017. Permission was obtained from the relevant authorities. Grade 1 students were enrolled in the study after obtaining informed written consent from their parents/guardian. Interviewer based questionnaire was administered to gather demographic data and other relevant information. Stool samples were collected and examined by direct wet saline smear. Study population comprised 53.4% male students. None of stool samples were positive for soil-transmitted helminths but 17.4% of students complained of nocturnal itching and parents of 23% of them had seen worms passing out from their children’s anus at night. Fourteen stool samples were found to be positive for cyst of Entamoeba coli. Majority of parents (69%) stated that their children always wash their hands with soap and water before meals, whereas 26% stated that their children practice this sometimes. Majority of students (88%) washed their hands after going to the toilet. Almost all students (86%) used water sealed toilets and very few used pit latrines (14%). In this study, 67% of students had received anti-helminthic drugs after the floods. These findings suggest that zero prevalence of helminthic infections could be due to anti-helminthic prophylaxis and good health practices. Further studies should be done in this area with a large sample size to investigate the true prevalence of helminthic infections. Students and parents should be educated on Enterobius vermicularis infection. The source of water supply should be tested for fecal contamination.
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O'Reilly, Kathleen, Elizabeth Louis, Evan Thomas, and Antara Sinha. "Combining sensor monitoring and ethnography to evaluate household latrine usage in rural India." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5, no. 3 (July 1, 2015): 426–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.155.
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This paper advances research on methods used to evaluate sanitation usage and behavior. The research used quantitative and qualitative methods to contribute to new understanding of sanitation practices and meanings in rural India. We estimated latrine usage behavior through ethnographic interviews and sensor monitoring, specifically the latest generation of infrared toilet sensors, Portland State University Passive Latrine Use Monitors (PLUMs). Two hundred and fifty-eight rural households in West Bengal (WB) and Himachal Pradesh, India, participated in the study by allowing PLUMs to be installed in their houses for a minimum of 6 days. Six hundred interviews were taken in these households, and in others, where sensors had not been installed. Ethnographic and observational methods were used to capture the different defecation habits and their meanings in the two study sites. Those data framed the analysis of the PLUM raw data for each location. PLUMs provided reliable, quantitative verification. Interviews elicited unique information and proved essential to understanding and maximizing the PLUM data set. The combined methodological approach produced key findings that latrines in rural WB were used only for defecation, and that low cost, pit latrines were being used sustainably in both study areas.
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Jenkins, M. W., O. Cumming, B. Scott, and S. Cairncross. "Beyond ‘improved’ towards ‘safe and sustainable’ urban sanitation: assessing the design, management and functionality of sanitation in poor communities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4, no. 1 (December 13, 2013): 131–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.180.
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This study assessed sanitation access in rapidly expanding informal settlements in Dar es Salaam (Dar) against eight proposed indicators of hygienic safety, sustainability and functionality, and in relation to the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) ‘improved’ sanitation definition. Information was collected on toilet facility designs, management and functionality through a structured interview and observations at 662 randomly selected residential properties across 35 unplanned, low-income sub-wards of Dar. Trends in access and associations with sharing, occupancy, latrine replacement, income, education and location factors were considered through statistical analyses. Surveyed sub-wards were open-defecation free. While 56% of households used a facility that met the MDG improved technology definition, only 8% had a functional facility that could be considered as hygienically safe and sustainable sanitation. Safe, sustainable, functioning sanitation access was 2.6 times greater among the richest quintile than the two poorest quintiles. Very poor sanitation services among Dar's urban poor arise from widespread lack of access to hygienically safe pit emptying services, unhygienic designs and functionality problems (affecting 67, 55 and 29%, respectively). As new goals and targets beyond 2015 are discussed, these findings may have important implications for defining what constitutes ‘improved’ sanitation for poor populations living in unplanned informal settlements.
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Rao, Sudhakar M., M. Sekhar, and P. Raghuveer Rao. "Impact of pit-toilet leachate on groundwater chemistry and role of vadose zone in removal of nitrate and E. coli pollutants in Kolar District, Karnataka, India." Environmental Earth Sciences 68, no. 4 (July 6, 2012): 927–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1794-9.
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Nazli, Tamanna. "Socio-Demographic Profile of Schedule Tribes of Five Integrated Tribal Development Agency Spots at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh in India." International Journal of Preventive, Curative & Community Medicine 07, no. 02 (June 30, 2021): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.24321/2454.325x.202108.
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Background: Tribal population is the second largest in India next to Africa, constituting 8.6% of total India population. Tribal population have unique physical, socio-economic and cultural environment but most deprived from health care facilities and vulnerable to malnutrition and diseases. Objective: To study the living condition of tribal people which includes socio-economic, demographic and health status profile along with providing health care facilities to tribes. Methods: Five Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) spots which belongs to Chenchu tribe of Kurnool district Andhra Pradesh were adopted. Data was collected through house-to-house survey and in Mobile medical camps in a pre-tested questionnaire provided by CCRUM. Results: A total of 3174 patients were screened among them 584 person of 130 families were selected for data collection. Majority (93.07%) were Hindu in the age group 21-30 years (31.6%), with male preponderance. Education status was fair (42.63%) population were illiterate. The basis amenities were good, (93.84%) use piped drinking water, all had open drainage system, (91.53%) use LPG, (89.23%) household surveys have pucca house, and (77.69%) use pit toilet. More than half of them (54.79%) were married, (70.16%) adopted permanent sterilization for family planning, 107 females registered when pregnant, majority delivered at hospital (53.44%), mostly (93.91%) visited family welfare center, 117(90%) household don’t have government health facility other than PHC or MCH. Conclusion: Low-income status, less literacy rate, and unhygienic sanitary conditions were common among Chenchu tribe of Andhra Pradesh. Majority of them (25.87%) suffered from Musculoskeletal diseases reported to OPD of mobile medical camps.
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Nazli, Tamanna. "Socio-Demographic Profile of Schedule Tribes of Five Integrated Tribal Development Agency Spots at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh in India." International Journal of Preventive, Curative & Community Medicine 07, no. 02 (June 30, 2021): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.24321/2454.325x.202108.
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Background: Tribal population is the second largest in India next to Africa, constituting 8.6% of total India population. Tribal population have unique physical, socio-economic and cultural environment but most deprived from health care facilities and vulnerable to malnutrition and diseases. Objective: To study the living condition of tribal people which includes socio-economic, demographic and health status profile along with providing health care facilities to tribes. Methods: Five Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) spots which belongs to Chenchu tribe of Kurnool district Andhra Pradesh were adopted. Data was collected through house-to-house survey and in Mobile medical camps in a pre-tested questionnaire provided by CCRUM. Results: A total of 3174 patients were screened among them 584 person of 130 families were selected for data collection. Majority (93.07%) were Hindu in the age group 21-30 years (31.6%), with male preponderance. Education status was fair (42.63%) population were illiterate. The basis amenities were good, (93.84%) use piped drinking water, all had open drainage system, (91.53%) use LPG, (89.23%) household surveys have pucca house, and (77.69%) use pit toilet. More than half of them (54.79%) were married, (70.16%) adopted permanent sterilization for family planning, 107 females registered when pregnant, majority delivered at hospital (53.44%), mostly (93.91%) visited family welfare center, 117(90%) household don’t have government health facility other than PHC or MCH. Conclusion: Low-income status, less literacy rate, and unhygienic sanitary conditions were common among Chenchu tribe of Andhra Pradesh. Majority of them (25.87%) suffered from Musculoskeletal diseases reported to OPD of mobile medical camps.
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Ovutor, Owhoeli, Imafidor Helen, and Grace Awi-waadu. "Assessment of Physico-chemical Parameters of Soils in Fallowing Farmlands and Pit Toilet Environments as it Affects the Abundance of Geohelminthes in Emohua Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria." Annual Research & Review in Biology 14, no. 3 (January 10, 2017): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2017/31546.
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Borka Balas, Reka, Lorena Elena Meliț, and Cristina Oana Mărginean. "Worldwide Prevalence and Risk Factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection in Children." Children 9, no. 9 (September 6, 2022): 1359. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children9091359.
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Helicobacter pylori is usually acquired during childhood. The reports from the last two decades pointed out a decrease in H. pylori prevalence across geographical areas worldwide compared to previously reported data. Most of the studies performed in America found an overall H. pylori infection prevalence of approximately 50%. The most important risk factors in America include being male, poor adherence or difficult access to treatment, and the lack of in-home water service. Despite the descending trend in prevalence worldwide, the overall prevalence in Africa remains very high (70%). Nevertheless, the prevalence of H. pylori in children without gastrointestinal who underwent screening was reported to be only 14.2%. The main risk factors in Africa are having a traditional pit or no toilet, poverty, birth order, source of drinking water, or being a farmer. Asia seems to have the widest variations in terms of H. pylori prevalence. Several risk factors were reported in Asia to be associated with this infection, such as lower income and educational level, house crowding, rural residence, ethnicity, the use of tanks as water supplies, alcohol drinking, active smoking, eating spicy food or raw uncooked vegetables, poor living conditions and sanitation. The overall prevalence of H. pylori infection in European children is almost 25%. Portugal has the highest prevalence of all European countries at 66.2% in children 13 years of age. The risk factors in European individuals consist of living in rural areas, eating unwashed fruits and vegetables, not washing hands after school, low parental education and unemployment, and short education duration. Further studies are required to identify the precise mechanisms involved in the discrepancies of H. pylori prevalence worldwide.
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Howell, Diane M., Karen Wysocki, and Michael J. Steiner. "Toilet Training." Pediatrics In Review 31, no. 6 (June 1, 2010): 262–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/pir.31.6.262.
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