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Journal articles on the topic 'Pictorial depth'

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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Battu, Balaraju, Astrid M. L. Kappers, and Jan J. Koenderink. "Ambiguity in Pictorial Depth." Perception 36, no. 9 (September 2007): 1290–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p5591.

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Pictorial space is the 3-D impression that one obtains when looking ‘into’ a 2-D picture. One is aware of 3-D ‘opaque’ objects. ‘Pictorial reliefs’ are the surfaces of such pictorial objects in ‘pictorial space’. Photographs (or any pictures) do in no way fully specify physical scenes. Rather, any photograph is compatible with an infinite number of possible scenes that may be called ‘metameric scenes’. If pictorial relief is one of these metameric scenes, the response may be considered ‘veridical’. The conventional usage is more restrictive and is indeed inconsistent. Thus the observer has much freedom in arriving at such a ‘veridical’ response. To address this ambiguity, we determined the pictorial reliefs for eight observers, six pictures, and two psychophysical methods. We used ‘methods of cross-sections’ to operationalise pictorial reliefs. We find that linear regression of the depths of relief at corresponding locations in the picture for different observers often lead to very low (even insignificant) R2s. Thus the responses are idiosyncratic to a large degree. Perhaps surprisingly, we also observed that multiple regression of depth and picture coordinates at corresponding locations often lead to very high R2s. Often R2s increased from insignificant up to almost 1. Apparently, to a large extent ‘depth’ is irrelevant as a psychophysical variable, in the sense that it does not uniquely account for the relation of the response to the pictorial structure. This clearly runs counter to the bulk of the literature on pictorial ‘depth perception’. The invariant core of interindividual perception proves to be of an ‘affine’ rather than a Euclidean nature; that is to say, ‘pictorial space’ is not simply the picture plane augmented with a depth dimension.

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2

Kapoula, Zoï, Marie-Sarah Adenis, Thanh-Thuan Lê, Qing Yang, and Gabi Lipede. "Pictorial depth increases body sway." Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 5, no. 2 (May 2011): 186–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022087.

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3

Gillan, Douglas J. "Constancy of Height and Speed in Three-Dimensional Information Displays." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 61, no. 1 (September 2017): 1562–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601754.

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Pictorial cues to depth create a three-dimensional appearance in two-dimensional displays. With sufficient pictorial depth cues, a given physical size appears to be larger at a greater perceived distance (or the perceived size is constant at different perceived depths, despite changes in the retinal image – size constancy). Two experiments investigated the effects of perceived depth on the relation between the actual height of an object and the perceived height (Experiment 1) and the relation between the actual speed of the object the perceived speed (Experiment 2). Consistent with Emmert’s Law (Perceived Size = Retinal Image Size x Perceived Depth), perceived depth influenced both perceived height and perceived speed. These findings suggest that displays that use pictorial cues to depth could easily result in misperception of the height or speed of objects in the display.

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4

Reinhardt-Rutland, Anthony H. "Perceiving the Orientation in Depth of Real Surfaces: Background Pattern Affects Motion and Pictorial Information." Perception 24, no. 4 (April 1995): 405–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p240405.

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Motion information contributes weakly to veridical depth perception of real stimuli. To test whether background pattern might enhance veridicality, observers judged the orientations in depth of pictorially matched trapezoidal and rectangular surfaces, with and without a rectangular grid of vertical stripes in a frontal plane behind surfaces; viewing was monocular with lateral head motions of 15 cm extent. The grid did not enhance veridicality; instead, surfaces actually or pictorially slanted to the frontal plane were judged more slanted with the grid present. In a second experiment, observers were static or moved through 30 cm; the grid had little effect during stasis, but again elicited judgments of greater slant during motion, despite broadly veridical responses without the grid. Results from actual slant are interpreted in terms of motion contrast and suggest that motion information may be important in conveying differences in orientation. Results from pictorial slant suggest that the influence of pictorial information increases as its complexity increases.

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5

Gunderson, Virginia M., Albert Yonas, Patricia L. Sargent, and Kimberly S. Grant-Webster. "Infant Macaque Monkeys Respond to Pictorial Depth." Psychological Science 4, no. 2 (March 1993): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00467.x.

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The studies described here are the first to demonstrate that a nonhuman primate species is capable of responding to pictorial depth information during infancy. In two experiments, pigtailed macaque ( Macaca nemestrina) infants were tested for responsivity to the pictorial depth cues of texture gradient/linear perspective and relative size. The procedures were adapted from human studies and are based on the proclivity of infants to reach more frequently to closer objects than to objects that are farther away. The stimulus displays included two equidistant objects that, when viewed monocularly, appear separated in space because of an illusion created by pictorial depth cues. When presented with these displays, animals reached significantly more often to the apparently closer objects under monocular conditions than under binocular conditions. These findings suggest that infant macaques are sensitive to pictorial depth information, the implication being that this ability has ancient phylogenetic origins and is not learned from exposure to the conventions of Western art.

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6

ICHIHARA, Shigeru. "Contrast as a pictorial depth cue." Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Intelligent Informatics 20, no. 3 (2008): 296–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3156/jsoft.20.3_296.

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7

Parks, Theodore E., and Lumei Hui. "Pictorial depth and the Poggendorff illusion." Perception & Psychophysics 46, no. 5 (September 1989): 465–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03210861.

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8

van Doorn, Andrea, Jan Koenderink, and Johan Wagemans. "Rank Order Scaling of Pictorial Depth." i-Perception 2, no. 7 (January 2011): 724–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/i0432aap.

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9

Wagemans, Johan, Andrea J. van Doorn, and Jan J. Koenderink. "Pictorial Depth Probed through Relative Sizes." i-Perception 2, no. 9 (January 2011): 992–1013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/i0474.

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10

Turetzky, Philip. "Pictorial depth: intensity and aesthetic surface." Axiomathes 15, no. 1 (March 2005): 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10516-004-4905-8.

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11

Zimmerman, G. Lee, Gordon E. Legge, and Patrick Cavanagh. "Pictorial depth cues: a new slant." Journal of the Optical Society of America A 12, no. 1 (January 1, 1995): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/josaa.12.000017.

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12

Vishwanath, D., and F. Domini. "Pictorial depth is not statistically optimal." Journal of Vision 13, no. 9 (July 25, 2013): 613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/13.9.613.

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13

Lee, Jaeho, Seungwoo Yoo, Changick Kim, and Bhaskaran Vasudev. "Estimating Scene-Oriented Pseudo Depth With Pictorial Depth Cues." IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting 59, no. 2 (June 2013): 238–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tbc.2013.2240131.

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14

O'Shea, Robert P., Donovan G. Govan, and Robert Sekuler. "Blur and Contrast as Pictorial Depth Cues." Perception 26, no. 5 (May 1997): 599–612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p260599.

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Studies have shown that blur can act as a pictorial cue to depth perception. But blurring a stimulus reduces its contrast, and studies have also shown that contrast can act as a pictorial cue to depth perception. To determine whether blur and contrast have separate influences on depth perception, each variable was independently manipulated in two experiments. Observers reported depth alternations in a simple reversible figure. Both contrast and blur were found to influence depth perception, but blur had its greatest effect at moderate contrasts. When blurred and sharp stimuli were equated on either Michelson or RMS contrast, blur continued to affect depth perception. Hence blur can act as a depth cue independently of contrast. It is speculated that blur is effective as a pictorial cue because of its usual association with other depth cues, particularly in pictures and photographs.

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15

Koenderink, Jan J., Andrea J. van Doorn, and Johan Wagemans. "Geometry of Pictorial Relief." Annual Review of Vision Science 4, no. 1 (September 15, 2018): 451–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-vision-091517-034250.

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Pictorial relief is a quality of visual awareness that happens when one looks into (as opposed to at) a picture. It has no physical counterpart of a geometrical nature. It takes account of cues, mentally identified in the tonal gradients of the physical picture—pigments distributed over a planar substrate. Among generally recognized qualities of relief are color, pattern, texture, shape, and depth. This review focuses on geometrical properties, the spatial variation of depth. To be aware of an extended quality like relief implies a “depth” dimension, a nonphysical spatial entity that may smoothly vary in a surface-like manner. The conceptual understanding is in terms of formal geometry. The review centers on pertinent facts and formal models. The facts are necessarily so-called brute facts (i.e., they cannot be explained scientifically). This review is a foray into the speculative and experimental phenomenology of the visual field.

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16

Reid, Sheri L., and Marcia L. Spetch. "Perception of pictorial depth cues by pigeons." Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 5, no. 4 (December 1998): 698–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03208848.

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17

Koenderink, Jan J., Andrea J. Van Doorn, and Astrid M. L. Kappers. "Pictorial surface attitude and local depth comparisons." Perception & Psychophysics 58, no. 2 (March 1996): 163–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03211873.

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18

Timney, Brian, and Kathy Keil. "Horses are Sensitive to Pictorial Depth Cues." Perception 25, no. 9 (September 1996): 1121–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p251121.

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19

Pepperell, Robert, and Anja Ruschkowski. "Double Vision as a Pictorial Depth Cue." Art & Perception 1, no. 1-2 (2013): 49–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134913-00002001.

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‘Double images’ are a little-noticed feature of human binocular vision caused by non-convergence of the eyes outside of the point of fixation. Double vision, or psychological diplopia, is closely linked to the perception of depth in natural vision as its perceived properties vary depending on proximity of the stimulus to the viewer. Very little attention, however, has been paid to double images in art or in scientific studies of pictorial depth. Double images have rarely been depicted and do not appear among the list of commonly cited monocular depth cues. In this study we discuss some attempts by artists to capture the doubled appearance of objects in pictures, and some of the relevant scientific work on double vision. We then present the results of a study designed to test whether the inclusion of double images in two-dimensional pictures can enhance the illusion of three-dimensional space. Our results suggest that double images can significantly enhance depth perception in pictures when combined with other depth cues such as blur. We conclude that double images could be added to the list of depth cues available to those wanting to create a greater sense of depth in pictures.

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20

Reinhardt-Rutland, Anthony H. "Depth Judgments of Triangular Surfaces during Moving Monocular Viewing." Perception 25, no. 1 (January 1996): 27–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p250027.

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When an observer judges the orientation in depth of a trapezoidal surface, the pictorial information of the surface is often more influential than motion information. Motion information might be more effective if pictorial information is simplified: this prompts the present study. Surfaces were triangular and pictorial information resided only in the visual lengths of the surfaces. In experiment 1, monocular observers viewed during head motions of 0 to 30 cm extent. Static judgments were somewhat dependent on visual length and tended to be frontal. Contrary to predictions, moving judgments were similarly affected: only 30 cm motion elicited near-veridical perception, as in previous studies with trapezoidal surfaces, although visual length had a residual effect. Experiment 2 involved investigation of whether visual length requires prior exposure to triangular surfaces to be effective; this was found not to be the case, which argues that observers rely on internal models of triangular surfaces. Depth perception appears to balance rapidity of processing against accuracy, in a way suggesting that ‘direct’ approaches are incomplete. Finally, it is argued that depth-from-motion simulations—influential in assertions that motion information is fully effective—depend on pictorial information.

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21

Marai, Leo. "Pictorial Depth Perception of Papua New Guinean Students." South Pacific Journal of Psychology 4 (1991): 11–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0257543400001589.

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Twenty male and five female undergraduates were assessed in a study designed to test for three dimensional pictorial perception in a Papua New Guinea sample. A version of Hudson's (1960) and Deregowski's (1968) test stimuli was used; the stimuli were slightly modified to make them culturally appropriate. The major result of the study was a finding of consistent sex differences in pictorial depth perception. Males tended to perceive three dimensionally while females tended to perceive two dimensionally.

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22

Scerri, Josianne, and Amy Bonnici. "Navigating the Storm to Recovery through the Pictorial Representations of Persons in the Recovery Phase from Unipolar Depression." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 20 (October 18, 2022): 13426. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013426.

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Depression is a highly complex mental illness that presents challenges, such as difficulties for persons with depression to communicate their experiences. This is compounded further by a paucity of in-depth and pictorial accounts on their experiences of the recovery process. The combination of pictorial representations and interviews with persons who are recovering from depression, may assist them in communicating these lived experiences. Five participants recovering from unipolar depression and who were in the late stages of recovery were recruited through purposive sampling. Data were collected through the conduction of art sessions, where participants pictorially represented their experience of living with depression and their road to recovery. Semi-structured interviews were then used to explore their artwork. The transcripts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Two superordinate themes emerged from participants’ interviews, namely: ‘A New Me in Me’ that incorporating changes in their identity, physical, emotional, and social experiences, and ‘Life as an amalgamation of colour’ describing their search for meaning and the importance of spirituality, hope, gaining control and positivity in the recovery process. The use of pictorial representations combined with interviews can add depth to participant narratives, that serve to enhance the therapeutic alliance between the patient–professional dyad.

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23

Wade, Nicholas J. "On Stereoscopic Art." i-Perception 12, no. 3 (May 2021): 204166952110071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/20416695211007146.

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Pictorial art is typically viewed with two eyes, but it is not binocular in the sense that it requires two eyes to appreciate the art. Two-dimensional representational art works allude to depth that they do not contain, and a variety of stratagems is enlisted to convey the impression that surfaces on the picture plane are at different distances from the viewer. With the invention of the stereoscope by Wheatstone in the 1830s, it was possible to produce two pictures with defined horizontal disparities between them to create a novel impression of depth. Stereoscopy and photography were made public at about the same time and their marriage was soon cemented; most stereoscopic art is now photographic. Wheatstone sought to examine stereoscopic depth without monocular pictorial cues. He was unable to do this, but it was achieved a century later by Julesz with random-dot stereograms The early history of non-photographic stereoscopic art is described as well as reference to some contemporary works. Novel stereograms employing a wider variety of carrier patterns than random dots are presented as anaglyphs; they show modulations of pictorial surface depths as well as inclusions within a binocular picture.

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24

DeLucia, Patricia R. "Pictorial and motion-based information for depth perception." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17, no. 3 (1991): 738–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.17.3.738.

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25

Makino, Yoshinari, and Masafumi Yano. "Pictorial cues constrain depth in da Vinci stereopsis." Vision Research 46, no. 1-2 (January 2006): 91–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2005.09.024.

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26

Benbassat, Danny, Abigail Konopasky, and Ting Dong. "Ranking Pictorial Cues in Simulated Landing Flares." Aviation Psychology and Applied Human Factors 11, no. 1 (March 2021): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2192-0923/a000205.

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Abstract. Two-dimensional pictorial cues provide depth perception information that help pilots initiate the landing flare 10–20 ft from the ground. Although prior studies established the importance of three specific cues, they failed to rank-order their importance. This exploratory paper presents two studies, with different methodologies, that examine the effect of these pictorial cues on depth perception. In both studies, participants experienced simulated scenarios and attempted to initiate the landing flare 10–20 ft above ground level. Study 1 included 121, and Study 2 included 141, naïve participants with no prior flight experience. Combined, the findings suggest that flight instructors, training literature, and airport architects should emphasize the runway above all other pictorial cues.

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Reinhardt-Rutland, Anthony H. "Perceiving Surface Orientation: Pictorial Information Based on Rectangularity Can Be Overriden during Observer Motion." Perception 22, no. 3 (March 1993): 335–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p220335.

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Although the observer's motion can elicit perception of relative depth, it is less successful in doing so when competing pictorial information is available. However, the evidence for this may be affected by limited extents of motion and by equidistance tendencies. Results obtained when monocular observers judged the orientation-in-depth of trapezoidal and of rectangular surfaces, during lateral head motion of extents 0 cm to 30 cm, are described. When the motion extent was less than 30 cm, trapezoidal surfaces were misperceived because they were interpreted as rectangular; this pictorial information was overriden only when the motion extent was 30 cm. The results may reflect the sequential nature of motion information and the redundancy of information in normal viewing: pictorial information may take precedence when motion is limited, but motion information can be indefinitely augmented. Comments are directed to (i) the use of Ames ‘distorted rooms’ in this area of research, and (ii) the ‘ecological’ interpretation of pictorial information.

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Wagemans, Johan, Jan Koenderink, and Andrea van Doorn. "Pleasures of Ambiguity: the Case of Piranesi’s Carceri." Art & Perception 1, no. 1-2 (2013): 121–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134913-00002003.

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Are pictorial spaces evoked by intentionally ambiguous pictures internally coherent? If so, then we expect these to be idiosyncratic. We addressed this issue empirically. Three sheets from the second edition of Piranesi’s Carceri d’Inventione were selected for the experiment. These were compared with a conventional landscape drawing (after a Capriccio by Guardi) as a base line. The pictorial spaces were probed by way of pairwise depth-order judgments. In each image about fifty landmarks were selected, thus yielding over a thousand binary depth-order judgments per image. From such a full set of pairwise comparisons one obtains a linear depth order. This linear order again yields postdictions for the individual pairwise judgments. Actual judgments differ from these postdictions, thereby yielding a convenient handle on the coherence of the pictorial space. Since the Piranesi Carceri are generally considered to be ‘difficult’, ‘ambiguous’ or ‘labyrinthine’, whereas a conventional landscape as the Guardi is designed for its well-defined depth structure, it is expected that they will give rise to very distinct degrees of coherence. This is indeed what we find. We studied the variation of coherence over observers and images in detail. The pictorial locations that are heavily involved in incoherent responses were identified, and the reason for their ambiguous nature traced in the structure of the depth cues provided by the artist (Piranesi). We speculate that the Carceri manage to strike just the right level of ambiguity (between total chaos and obvious structure) so as to render them visually attractive.

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Ujike, Hiroyasu, Katsunori Okajima, and Shinya Saida. "Human Information. Additive interaction among pictorial depth information for motion-in-depth perception." Journal of the Institute of Image Information and Television Engineers 55, no. 11 (2001): 1491–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.3169/itej.55.1491.

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30

Shirama, Aya, and Toshiko Mochizuki. "Pictorial depth perception in central and peripheral visual fields." Japanese journal of psychology 78, no. 1 (2007): 51–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.78.51.

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31

Cook, Norman D., Asami Yutsudo, Naoki Fujimoto, and Mayu Murata. "On the Visual Cues Contributing to Pictorial Depth Perception." Empirical Studies of the Arts 26, no. 1 (January 2008): 69–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/em.26.1.f.

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32

Rößing, Christoph, Johannes Hanika, and Hendrik Lensch. "Real-Time Disparity Map-Based Pictorial Depth Cue Enhancement." Computer Graphics Forum 31, no. 2pt1 (May 2012): 275–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8659.2012.03006.x.

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Urrahman, Dhiya, Fatwa Sari Tetra Dewi, and Fuad Hamsyah. "Villagers are not affraid to die : qualitative study of community cohesion on pictorial warning on cigarette packaging with Grounded Theory approach in Yogyakarta." Berita Kedokteran Masyarakat 32, no. 8 (March 29, 2018): 263. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/bkm.8699.

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“Villagers are not afraid to die”: a qualitative study of community cohesion on pictorial warning on cigarette packaging with grounded theory approach in YogyakartaPurposeThe purpose of this study was to explore community's coping with a pictorial health warning on cigarette packaging. MethodsA qualitative study was conducted using grounded theory design. The study was conducted in the rural area of Sambirejo, Prambanan sub-district, Sleman, Yogyakarta. Data were collected by in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGD). Subjects were selected purposively with a maximum variation technique. ResultsThe perceptions, beliefs, coping, adaptation period, and smoking behavior remained mostly unchanged after seeing pictorial warnings on cigarette packaging. ConclusionsCoping was influenced by perceptions, beliefs, and the period of adaptation to pictorial health warnings. The period of adaptation changed some feelings and coping prior to the pictorial health warning, while pictorial health warning on cigarette packs appeared to make non-smokers increasingly want to smoke.

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Koenderink, Jan J., Andrea J. van Doorn, and Astrid M. L. Kappers. "On So-Called Paradoxical Monocular Stereoscopy." Perception 23, no. 5 (May 1994): 583–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p230583.

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Human observers are apparently well able to judge properties of ‘three-dimensional objects’ on the basis of flat pictures such as photographs of physical objects. They obtain this ‘pictorial relief’ without much conscious effort and with little interference from the (flat) picture surface. Methods for ‘magnifying’ pictorial relief from single pictures include viewing instructions as well as a variety of monocular and binocular ‘viewboxes’. Such devices are reputed to yield highly increased pictorial depth, though no methodologies for the objective verification of such claims exist. A binocular viewbox has been reconstructed and pictorial relief under monocular, ‘synoptic’, and natural binocular viewing is described. The results corroborate and go beyond early introspective reports and turn out to pose intriguing problems for modern research.

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Hibbard, Paul B., Rebecca L. Hornsey, and Jordi M. Asher. "Binocular Information Improves the Reliability and Consistency of Pictorial Relief." Vision 7, no. 1 (December 22, 2022): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vision7010001.

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Binocular disparity is an important cue to three-dimensional shape. We assessed the contribution of this cue to the reliability and consistency of depth in stereoscopic photographs of natural scenes. Observers viewed photographs of cluttered scenes while adjusting a gauge figure to indicate the apparent three-dimensional orientation of the surfaces of objects. The gauge figure was positioned on the surfaces of objects at multiple points in the scene, and settings were made under monocular and binocular, stereoscopic viewing. Settings were used to create a depth relief map, indicating the apparent three-dimensional structure of the scene. We found that binocular cues increased the magnitude of apparent depth, the reliability of settings across repeated measures, and the consistency of perceived depth across participants. These results show that binocular cues make an important contribution to the precise and accurate perception of depth in natural scenes that contain multiple pictorial cues.

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36

Farran, E. K., A. Whitaker, and N. Patel. "The effect of pictorial depth information on projected size judgments." Perception & Psychophysics 71, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 207–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/app.71.1.207.

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37

KITAGAWA, Keisuke, Junichi NISHIO, and Hideaki TAKAHASHI. "CONSIDERATION OF PICTORIAL CUE FOR DEPTH PERCEPTION IN THE ROOM." Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 73, no. 627 (2008): 987–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.73.987.

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Busby, Alan, and Kenneth J. Ciuffreda. "The effect of apparent depth in pictorial images on accommodation." Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 25, no. 4 (July 2005): 320–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-1313.2005.00305.x.

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39

Papathomas, T. V. "Do pictorial cues enhance illusory depth and motion in reverspectives?" Journal of Vision 1, no. 3 (March 15, 2010): 379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/1.3.379.

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40

Durand, Séverine, Stephen Grossberg, and Birgitta Dresp. "Depth perception from pairs of overlapping cues in pictorial displays." Spatial Vision 15, no. 3 (2002): 255–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685680260174038.

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41

Schetnikov, Andrey. "Architectural Perspective in Italian paintings of the 14th century." ΣΧΟΛΗ. Ancient Philosophy and the Classical Tradition 14, no. 1 (2020): 339–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1995-4328-2020-14-1-339-365.

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This paper discusses the system of the pictorial depth representation, typical for Giotto and other Italian artists of 14th century. Differing from the linear perspective, this system has a number of peculiar features, and its own consistent logic for the formation of pictorial space. The paper is especially focused on the contradictions of such a system, which lead to the appearance of impossible figures, and the ways in which the artists solved these difficulties.

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42

Pazuchanics, Skye Lee, and Douglas J. Gillan. "Displaying Depth in Computer Systems: Lessons from Two-Dimensional Works of Art." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 49, no. 17 (September 2005): 1583–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120504901718.

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Virtual depth displays depend on static, monocular cues. Models of integrating monocular cues may be continuous (additive) or discontinuous. Previous research using simple displays and a small number of cues supported continuous cue integration. The present research is designed to expand the understanding of how the visual system integrates information from multiple pictorial cues by investigating combinations of one to ten pictorial cues in visually-rich, two-dimensional displays (paintings and photographs). Participants estimated depth in target paintings and photographs relative to a standard two dimensional display. Certain results suggest that the visual system integrates cues in a largely additive way, but after a number of cues are present there may be an additional boost in perceived depth resulting in a best-fittingdiscontinuous model of cue combination. However, this discontinuous effect may be due to designdecisions made by the painters rather than exclusively to the perceptual processes of the viewers. Analyses of these design decisions provide lessons for the design of two-dimensional displays.

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Ciuffreda, Kenneth J., and Kimberly Engber. "Is One Eye Better Than Two When Viewing Pictorial Art?" Leonardo 35, no. 1 (February 2002): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/002409402753689290.

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During viewing of most objects in one's everyday environment, the binocular and monocular relative depth cues interact in a harmonious, concordant and reinforcing manner to provide perceptual stability. However, when one views pictorial art, these binocular and monocular cues are discordant, and thus a perceptual “cue conflict” arises. This acts to reduce the relative apparent perceived distance of objects in a painting, thus producing overall perceptual depth “flattening.” The theory and physiology underlying this phenomenon are discussed.

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Yildiz, Gizem Y., Bailey G. Evans, and Philippe A. Chouinard. "The Effects of Adding Pictorial Depth Cues to the Poggendorff Illusion." Vision 6, no. 3 (July 18, 2022): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vision6030044.

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We tested if the misapplication of perceptual constancy mechanisms might explain the perceived misalignment of the oblique lines in the Poggendorff illusion. Specifically, whether these mechanisms might treat the rectangle in the middle portion of the Poggendorff stimulus as an occluder in front of one long line appearing on either side, causing an apparent decrease in the rectangle’s width and an apparent increase in the misalignment of the oblique lines. The study aimed to examine these possibilities by examining the effects of adding pictorial depth cues. In experiments 1 and 2, we presented a central rectangle composed of either large or small bricks to determine if this manipulation would change the perceived alignment of the oblique lines and the perceived width of the central rectangle, respectively. The experiments demonstrated no changes that would support a misapplication of perceptual constancy in driving the illusion, despite some evidence of perceptual size rescaling of the central rectangle. In experiment 3, we presented Poggendorff stimuli in front and at the back of a corridor background rich in texture and linear perspective depth cues to determine if adding these cues would affect the Poggendorff illusion. The central rectangle was physically large and small when presented in front and at the back of the corridor, respectively. The strength of the Poggendorff illusion varied as a function of the physical size of the central rectangle, and, contrary to our predictions, the addition of pictorial depth cues in both the central rectangle and the background decreased rather than increased the strength of the illusion. The implications of these results with regards to different theories are discussed. It could be the case that the illusion depends on both low-level and cognitive mechanisms and that deleterious effects occur on the former when the latter ascribes more certainty to the oblique lines being the same line receding into the distance.

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Enns, James T., and Stanley Coren. "The box alignment illusion: An orientation illusion induced by pictorial depth." Perception & Psychophysics 57, no. 8 (November 1995): 1163–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03208372.

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Raddatz, Kimberly, John Uhlarik, and Kevin Jordan. "Perceived Size in Virtual Environments: The Role of Pictorial Depth Cues." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 45, no. 18 (October 2001): 1404–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120104501819.

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He, Li, Guijin Wang, Qingmin Liao, and Jing-Hao Xue. "Latent variable pictorial structure for human pose estimation on depth images." Neurocomputing 203 (August 2016): 52–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2016.04.009.

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Tai, Nan-Ching. "Space Perception in Real and Pictorial Spaces: Investigation of Size-Related and Tone-Related Pictorial Depth Cues through Computer Simulations." Computer-Aided Design and Applications 9, no. 2 (January 2012): 235–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3722/cadaps.2012.235-251.

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Raddatz, Kimberly R., Abigail Werth, and Tuan Q. Tran. "The Influence of Emotional State and Pictorial Cues on Perceptual Judgments." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 51, no. 22 (October 2007): 1496–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120705102206.

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Perspective displays (e.g., CDTI) are commonly used as decision aids in environments characterized by periods of high emotional arousal (e.g., terrain enhanced primary flight displays). However, little attention has been devoted to understanding how emotional state, independently or in conjunction with other perceptual factors (e.g., pictorial depth cues), can impact perceptual judgments. Preliminary research suggests that induced emotional state (positive or negative) adversely impacts size comparisons in perspective displays (Tran & Raddatz, 2006). This study further investigated how size comparisons are affected by emotional state and pictorial depth cues while attenuating the limitations of the Tran & Raddatz (2006) study. Results confirmed that observers do make slower judgments under induced emotional state. However, observers under negative emotional state showed higher sensitivity (d') and required more evidence to respond that a size difference exists (response bias) than observers under positive emotional state. Implications for display design and human performance are discussed.

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Nefs, Harold T., Jan J. Koenderink, and Astrid M. L. Kappers. "The Influence of Illumination Direction on the Pictorial Reliefs of Lambertian Surfaces." Perception 34, no. 3 (March 2005): 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p5179.

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In order to assess the influence of illumination direction on shape constancy, we studied the pictorial relief of computer images of globular 3-D objects. We used two globally convex objects, one with a furrow and one with a dimple. Observers adjusted local surface attitude probes at 200–250 different locations in the image such that they seemed to lie on the pictorial surface. We manipulated the viewing direction and the illumination direction in a 2times2 orthogonal design. Viewing directions were chosen such that the image contained only a few, or no, contour singularities. Changes in the illumination direction were found to induce systematic changes in the settings for both viewing directions. Effects were especially pronounced for images that had no contour singularities. The results showed that a change in the illumination direction can change the local shape of the pictorial relief in addition to the bas-relief ambiguities of scaling and shearing in depth. We found that concavities in the pictorial relief are associated with the darker areas in the image. The deviation from shape constancy cannot be explained by bas-relief ambiguity since the required transformation between the shapes is nonlinear.

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