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Journal articles on the topic 'Physical modelling synthesis'

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Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Djoharian, Pirouz. "Material Design in Physical Modelling Sound Synthesis." Journal of New Music Research 30, no. 3 (September 1, 2001): 227–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/jnmr.30.3.227.7470.

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2

PEARSON, MARK. "TAO: a physical modelling system and related issues." Organised Sound 1, no. 1 (April 1996): 43–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355771896000167.

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This paper describes TAO, a system for sound synthesis by physical modelling based on a new technique called cellular sound synthesis (CSS). The system provides a general mechanism for constructing an infinite variety of virtual instruments, and does so by providing a virtual acoustic material, elastic in nature, whose physical characteristics can be fine-tuned to produce different timbres. A wide variety of sounds such as plucked, hit, bowed and scraped sounds can be produced, all having natural physical and spacial qualities. Some of the musical and philosophical issues considered to be most important during the design and development of the system are touched upon, and the main features of the system are explained with reference to practical examples. Advantages and disadvantages of the synthesis technique and the prototype system are discussed, together with suggestions for future improvements.
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3

KRONLAND-MARTINET, R., Ph GUILLEMAIN, and S. YSTAD. "Modelling of natural sounds by time–frequency and wavelet representations." Organised Sound 2, no. 3 (November 1997): 179–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355771898009030.

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Sound modelling is an important part of the analysis–synthesis process since it combines sound processing and algorithmic synthesis within the same formalism. Its aim is to make sound simulators by synthesis methods based on signal models or physical models, the parameters of which are directly extracted from the analysis of natural sounds. In this article the successive steps for making such systems are described. These are numerical synthesis and sound generation methods, analysis of natural sounds, particularly time–frequency and time–scale (wavelet) representations, extraction of pertinent parameters, and the determination of the correspondence between these parameters and those corresponding to the synthesis models. Additive synthesis, nonlinear synthesis, and waveguide synthesis are discussed.
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4

Abd Ghafar, Nurhanis Sofiah, Santhi Ulakanathan, Mahendran Samykano, Kumaran Kadirgama, Hussein A. Mohammed, and Wai Keng Ngui. "Template Synthesis of Ni Nanowires: Characterization and Modelling." Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 77, no. 2 (November 14, 2020): 76–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.77.2.7690.

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Template-assisted electrochemical deposition is a straight forward approach for the synthesis of 1D nanostructures (e.g., nanowire, nanorod, and nanobelt) with controllable morphology. This approach is suitable for mass production as it works at ambient pressure and temperature with the properties of synthesized 1D nanostructures being influenced by synthesis conditions during the electrochemical deposition process. This work aims to investigate the influence of stabilizing agent concentration and heating temperature towards the physical behavior of Nickel (Ni) nanowires synthesized via a template-assisted electrochemical deposition approach. In this research, the electrolyte bath was prepared in three different concentrations of the stabilizing agent (6 g/L, 40 g/L and 70 g/L), and the deposition bath temperature used was 30°C, 70°C, and 110°C respectively. The elemental composition was determined using Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis to investigate the percentage of pure Ni element in the synthesized nanowires. The diameter, surface texture, and growth length of the synthesized Ni nanowires were characterized using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM). X-ray diffractions (XRD) was used for crystal size and crystal orientation analysis. Additionally, the mechanical properties of Ni nanowires were extracted via molecular dynamic simulation. Growth length of Ni nanowires found to be significantly improved as the heating temperature increased, but it decreased when stabilizer agent concentration is high. The diffraction patterns for all synthesis conditions exhibited the synthesis Ni nanowires are polycrystalline as the crystalline planes with Miller indices of 111, 200, and 220. All the investigated nanowires showed ductile failure behavior, a typical behavior at larger length scales of Ni.
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5

Abeska, Yesim Yilmaz, and Levent Cavas. "Artificial neural network modelling of green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by honey." Neural Network World 32, no. 1 (2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.14311/nnw.2022.32.001.

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Nanomaterials draw attention because of their unique physical, chemical and biological properties in areas such as catalysis, electronic, optics, medicine, solar energy conversion and water treatment. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles has many superiorities compared to physical and chemical methods such as lowcost, nontoxicity, eco-sensitive. In this paper, experimental conditions related togreen synthesis of silver nanoparticles by honey were modelled using artificial neural network (ANN). While agitation time, agitation rate, pH, temperature, honey concentration, AgNO3 concentration were selected as input parameters, production of silver nanoparticles was used as an output parameter. According to the results, optimum hidden neuron number was found as 40 with Levenberg–Marquardt back-propagation algorithm. In this conditions, the percentages of training, validationand testing were 75, 20 and 5, respectively. After creating neural network separated input data set was applied and then experimental and ANN predicted data were compared. In conclusion, ANN can be an alternative modelling and robust approach that could help researchers in this field to estimate production of silver nanoparticles.
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6

Marvi, Z., S. Xu, G. Foroutan, K. Ostrikov, and I. Levchenko. "Plasma-deposited hydrogenated amorphous silicon films: multiscale modelling reveals key processes." RSC Advances 7, no. 31 (2017): 19189–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ra00478h.

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Physical and chemical mechanisms and role of plasma in the synthesis of hydrogenated amorphous silicon were studied numerically to reveal the key growth processes and, hence, to ensure a higher level of control over the film structure and properties.
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7

Szrek, Jarosław, Artur Muraszkowski, and Przemysław Sperzyński. "Type Synthesis, Modelling and Analysis of the Manipulator for Wheel-Legged Robot." Acta Mechanica et Automatica 10, no. 2 (June 1, 2016): 87–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ama-2016-0014.

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Abstract The aim of this article is to present the concept of wheel-legged mobile manipulator, which is a combination of mobile platform with specially selected suspension system and a manipulator. First, a literature review was performed and own solution proposed. The kinematic structure of manipulator, selected simulation results, physical model and the concept of the control system has been presented. Geometry synthesis was used to design basic dimension. Structural synthesis was performed according to the intermediate chain method. Simulations were performed using the multibody dynamics simulation software. New approach in the field of the mobile manipulators was presented as a result.
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8

Chatziioannou, Vasileios, Sebastian Schmutzhard, Montserrat Pàmies-Vilà, and Alex Hofmann. "Investigating Clarinet Articulation Using a Physical Model and an Artificial Blowing Machine." Acta Acustica united with Acustica 105, no. 4 (July 1, 2019): 682–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3813/aaa.919348.

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A time-domain physical model is presented that is capable of simulating a variety of articulation techniques in single-reed woodwind instruments and suitable for real-time sound synthesis. Due to the nonlinear nature of the excitation mechanism, an energy-based approach is adopted for the construction of the numerical scheme in order to ensure algorithm stability. To validate the model, measurements are carried out using an artificial blowing machine. The construction of the machine, including a sensor-equipped reed and mouthpiece as well as an automated artificial tongue and lip, is described in detail. By adjusting the motion of the tongue, the blowing machine can generate audio signals corresponding to portato and staccato articulation. These signals are resynthesised following an inverse modelling approach based on the presented physical model, during which model parameters are estimated. All estimated parameters lie in a physically feasible range and may be used for sound synthesis and sound analysis applications.
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9

Novitsky, Nikolay. "Mathematical modeling of hydraulic chains as cyber-physical objects." E3S Web of Conferences 216 (2020): 01091. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202021601091.

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The article attempts to substantiate a new direction of scientific research of pipeline systems (PLS) of the energy sector as cyber-physical objects. The relevance of this direction is determined by the practical formation of new properties of PLSs in the process of their renovation, intellectualization and digitalization, along with the absence of a general theory of classification of the goals pursued, emerging problems and solution methods. It is proposed to base such studies on the theory of hydraulic circuits, the subject of which is the general methods of mathematical modelling, calculation and optimization, applicable in principle for any PLS (heat, water, oil and gas supply, etc.). The concepts of controlled and cybernetic hydraulic circuit are introduced as a new object of study of this theory. The content of new classes of problems of research and modelling of hydraulic circuits as cybernetic is revealed. The characteristics of the available results in the field of methods of analysis and synthesis of PLSs as cyber-physical objects are given. Mathematical models and methods of analysis of the consequences of regime control in conditions of stochastic of external influences and uncertainty of the internal state are presented. A set of indicators for the integral assessment of the controllability of the PLS is proposed, reflecting the main aspects of management: admissibility, reliability and efficiency. Integral indices of PLS identifiability and methods of their calculation are proposed. The interrelation of these indicators, which can be used to develop methods of analysis, synthesis, norms and standards of controllability and identifiability, as the main cybernetic properties of PLS, is disclosed.
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10

d’Anterroches, Loïc, and Rafiqul Gani. "Group contribution based process flowsheet synthesis, design and modelling." Fluid Phase Equilibria 228-229 (February 2005): 141–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fluid.2004.08.018.

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11

Mohammadzadeh, Naser, Morteza Saheb Zamani, and Mehdi Sedighi. "Quantum circuit physical design methodology with emphasis on physical synthesis." Quantum Information Processing 13, no. 2 (November 8, 2013): 445–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11128-013-0661-2.

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12

Paiva, Guilherme Orelli, Frédéric Ablitzer, François Gautier, and José Maria Campos dos Santos. "Collisions in double string plucked instruments: Physical modelling and sound synthesis of the viola caipira." Journal of Sound and Vibration 443 (March 2019): 178–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2018.11.012.

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13

Jorge, Miguel, Scott M. Auerbach, and Peter A. Monson. "Modelling the thermal stability of precursor nanoparticles in zeolite synthesis." Molecular Physics 104, no. 22-24 (November 20, 2006): 3513–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00268970601014864.

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14

Lahtinen, Tanja, Elina Wegelius, Juha Linnanto, and Kari Rissanen. "Small Hydrocarbon Cyclophanes: Synthesis, X-ray Analysis and Molecular Modelling." European Journal of Organic Chemistry 2002, no. 17 (September 2002): 2935–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1099-0690(200209)2002:17<2935::aid-ejoc2935>3.0.co;2-y.

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15

Quintero, Carlos M., Gautier Félix, Iurii Suleimanov, José Sánchez Costa, Gábor Molnár, Lionel Salmon, William Nicolazzi, and Azzedine Bousseksou. "Hybrid spin-crossover nanostructures." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 5 (November 25, 2014): 2230–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.5.232.

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This review reports on the recent progress in the synthesis, modelling and application of hybrid spin-crossover materials, including core–shell nanoparticles and multilayer thin films or nanopatterns. These systems combine, often in synergy, different physical properties (optical, magnetic, mechanical and electrical) of their constituents with the switching properties of spin-crossover complexes, providing access to materials with unprecedented capabilities.
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16

Bizon, Katarzyna, Krzysztof Skrzypek-Markiewicz, and Gaetano Continillo. "Enhancement of the Direct Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether (DME) from Synthesis Gas by Macro- and Microstructuring of the Catalytic Bed." Catalysts 10, no. 8 (August 1, 2020): 852. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/catal10080852.

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This work reports on a modelling study of the influence of the distribution of metallic and acidic active centers within a catalytic fixed-bed reactor for the direct synthesis of dimethyl ether (DME), conducted to demonstrate the potential of reactor-level and pellet-level structuring of catalytic active centers in process integration and intensification. To account for the pellet structure, the analysis was performed with the aid of a heterogeneous model considering both interphase and intrapellet mass transport resistances. The study evaluated, in terms of DME and methanol yield and selectivity, the performance of a tubular reactor loaded with a physical mixture of monofunctional catalyst pellets or structured bifunctional catalyst pellets with different arrangements of the catalytic centers. It was confirmed that bifunctional catalysts overperform significantly a physical mixture of monofunctional particles. Moreover, it was shown that the internal structure of a bifunctional catalyst pellet is an important feature that deserves to be exploited deeper, in view of further intensification of the DME synthesis process to be achieved with a better reactor design.
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17

Kerschbaum, Franz, and Walter Nowotny. "Variable Red Giants." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, S285 (September 2011): 111–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921312000397.

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AbstractThe longest-known class of pulsating variable stars, namely pulsating red giants, is also the one that involves the most complex physical processes. Pulsation, mass loss, nuclear synthesis, mixing, atmospheric and circumstellar chemistry and dust formation all interrelate with one another and make both the observational studies and the modelling efforts quite challenging. The paper outlines some of the current key questions, and recommends observational strategies.
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18

Koralewski, Grzegorz. "Modelling of the system “driver - automation - autonomous vehicle - road”." Open Engineering 10, no. 1 (March 10, 2020): 175–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eng-2020-0016.

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AbstractThe work presents a simulation model of a “driver–automation–autonomous vehicles–road” system which is the basis for synthesis of automatic gear shift control system. The mathematical description makes use of physical quantities which characterise driving torque transformation from the combustion engine to the car driven wheels. The basic components of the model are algorithms for the driver’s action logic in controlling motion velocity, logic of gear shift control functioning regarding direction and moment of switching, for determining right-hand side of differential equations and for motion quality indicators. The model is realised in a form of an application software package, comprising sub-programmes for input data, for computerised motion simulation of cars with mechanical and hydro-mechanical – automatically controlled – transmission systems and for models of characteristic car routes.
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19

Quinton, William, Aaron Berg, Michael Braverman, Olivia Carpino, Laura Chasmer, Ryan Connon, James Craig, et al. "A synthesis of three decades of hydrological research at Scotty Creek, NWT, Canada." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 23, no. 4 (April 24, 2019): 2015–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-2015-2019.

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Abstract. Scotty Creek, Northwest Territories (NWT), Canada, has been the focus of hydrological research for nearly three decades. Over this period, field and modelling studies have generated new insights into the thermal and physical mechanisms governing the flux and storage of water in the wetland-dominated regions of discontinuous permafrost that characterises much of the Canadian and circumpolar subarctic. Research at Scotty Creek has coincided with a period of unprecedented climate warming, permafrost thaw, and resulting land cover transformations including the expansion of wetland areas and loss of forests. This paper (1) synthesises field and modelling studies at Scotty Creek, (2) highlights the key insights of these studies on the major water flux and storage processes operating within and between the major land cover types, and (3) provides insights into the rate and pattern of the permafrost-thaw-induced land cover change and how such changes will affect the hydrology and water resources of the study region.
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20

Britikov, Nikita. "NUMERICAL MODELLING OF SNOW DEPOSITS AND SNOW TRANSPORT ON LONG-SPAN ROOFS FOR STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW." International Journal for Computational Civil and Structural Engineering 18, no. 4 (December 28, 2022): 23–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.22337/2587-9618-2022-18-4-23-38.

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This paper presents the methodologies for numerical modelling of snow deposits and snow transport on long-span roofs for steady and unsteady flow. The calculation of snow loads on long-span roofs is a complex problem, solving which often involves deviating from the building code recommendations. Experiments in wind tunnels, although widely used, do not allow reproducing the full-scale effects of all snow accumulation processes. At the same time, the continuous improvement of mathematical models, numerical methods, software and computer technologies makes the development and implementation of numerical modelling technologies in real construction practice and regulatory documents inevitable. In this paper it is shown that the use of the well-known erosion-deposition model, supported by field observations and experimental data, allows reproducing reasonably accurate snow distributions on long-span roofs. The importance of the “synthesis” between physical and mathematical modelling and the application of the building codes is emphasized, as only the joint use of approaches can comprehensively describe modelling of snow accumulation and snow transport and provide better solutions to a wider range of related problems.
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21

Babu, B. Ravindra, Lise Keinicke, Michael Petersen, Claus Nielsen, and Jesper Wengel. "2′-Spiro ribo- and arabinonucleosides: synthesis, molecular modelling and incorporation into oligodeoxynucleotides." Org. Biomol. Chem. 1, no. 20 (2003): 3514–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b306354b.

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22

Pluta, Marek Janusz, Daniel Tokarczyk, and Jerzy Wiciak. "Application of a Musical Robot for Adjusting Guitar String Re-Excitation Parameters in Sound Synthesis." Applied Sciences 12, no. 3 (February 5, 2022): 1659. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12031659.

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Sound synthesis methods based on physical modelling of acoustic instruments depend on data that require measurements and recordings. If a musical instrument is operated by a human, a difficulty in filtering out variability is introduced due to a lack of repeatability in excitation parameters, or in varying physical contact between a musician and an instrument, resulting in the damping of vibrating elements. Musical robots can solve this problem. Their repeatability and controllability allows studying even subtle phenomena. This paper presents an application of a robot in studying the re-excitation of a string in an acoustic guitar. The obtained results are used to improve a simple synthesis model of a vibrating string, based on the finite difference method. The improved model reproduced the observed phenomena, such as the alteration of the signal spectrum, damping, and ringing, all of which can be perceived by a human, and add up to the final sound of an instrument. Moreover, as it was demonstrated by using two different string plucking mechanisms, musical robots can be redesigned to study other sound production phenomena and, thus, to further improve the behaviours of and sounds produced by models applied in sound synthesis.
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23

Chen, Man, Cai Y. Ma, Tariq Mahmud, Jawwad A. Darr, and Xue Z. Wang. "Modelling and simulation of continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis process for nano-materials manufacture." Journal of Supercritical Fluids 59 (November 2011): 131–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2011.07.002.

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24

Jaeschke, Sven Ole, Ingo vom Sondern, and Thisbe K. Lindhorst. "Synthesis of regioisomeric maltose-based Man/Glc glycoclusters to control glycoligand presentation in 3D space." Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry 19, no. 32 (2021): 7013–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1ob01150b.

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Regioisomeric maltose-based heterobivalent glycoclusters were designed to tease out the effect of glycoligand presentation in carbohydrate recognition employing bacterial adhesion. The measured effects were rationalized by molecular modelling.
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25

Melashvili, Zaqaria, Teimuraz Namicheishvili, Aleqsandre Tutberidze, Zurab Aslamazashvili, Mikheil Chikhradze, and Garegin Zakharov. "Modelling of Fluidity during Hot Compaction of Ti-B System Synthesized Mass." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 906, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 012009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/906/1/012009.

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Abstract Developing the scientific basis for making new materials with pre-planned, physical and mechanical properties by SHS (self-propagating high temperature synthesis)-compaction is a fundamental problem of modern metallurgy, which can be solved by imaginative modeling of the structural-phase state of materials. Among the many methods of obtaining metal-ceramic tiles, the ease of process management, cheapness, ecological cleanliness and the possibility of obtaining high-quality products are significantly distinguished by the innovative SHS electrrical rolling process developed at the F. Tavadze Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science, which, by maintaining the equilibrium velocities of the rolling and combustion fronts, ensures hot deformation of the hot viscous plastic mass in the deformation core under conditions of continuous compensation of heat losses Namicheishvili, 2016 [1] and Aslamazashvili, 2017 [2].
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26

Perkins, Greg. "Mathematical modelling of in situ combustion and gasification." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 232, no. 1 (August 2, 2017): 56–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957650917721595.

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The total worldwide resources of oil sands, heavy oil, oil shale and coal far exceed those of conventional light oil. In situ combustion and gasification are techniques that can potentially recover the energy from these unconventional hydrocarbon resources. In situ combustion can be used to produce oil, especially viscous and immobile crudes, by heating the oil and reducing the viscosity of the hydrocarbon liquids allowing them to flow to production wells. In situ gasification can be used to convert deep carbonaceous materials into synthesis gas which can be used at surface for power generation and petrochemical applications. While both in situ combustion for oil recovery and in situ gasification of coal have been developed and demonstrated over many decades, the commercial applications of these techniques have been limited to date. There are many physical processes occurring during in situ combustion, including multi-phase flow, heat and mass transfer, chemical reactions in porous media and geomechanics. A key tool in analysing and optimising the technologies involves using numerical models to simulate the processes. This paper presents a brief review of mathematical modelling of in situ combustion and gasification with an emphasis on developing a generalised framework and describing some of the key challenges and opportunities.
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27

Peters, G. P., S. J. Davis, and R. M. Andrew. "A synthesis of carbon in international trade." Biogeosciences Discussions 9, no. 3 (March 29, 2012): 3949–4023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-9-3949-2012.

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Abstract. In a globalised world, the transfer of carbon between regions, either physically or embodied in production, represents a substantial fraction of global carbon emissions. The resulting emission transfers are important for balancing regional carbon budgets and for understanding the drivers of regional emissions. In this paper we synthesise current understanding in two parts: (1) embodied CO2 emissions from the production of goods and services produced in one country but consumed in others, (2) physical carbon flows in fossil fuels, petroleum-derived products, harvested wood products, crops, and livestock. We describe the key differences between studies and provide a consistent set of estimates using the same definitions, modelling framework, and consistent data. We find the largest trade flows of carbon in international trade in 2004 were fossil fuels (2673 MtC, 37% of global emissions), CO2 embodied in traded goods and services (1661 MtC, 22% of global emissions), livestock (651 MtC, 20% of total livestock carbon), crops (522 MtC, 31% of total harvested crop carbon), petroleum-based products (183 MtC, 50% of their total production), and harvested wood products (149 MtC, 40% of total roundwood extraction). We find that for embodied CO2 emissions estimates from independent studies are robust. We found that differences between individual studies is not representative of the uncertainty in consumption-based estimates as different studies use different production-based emission estimates as input and different definitions of allocating emissions to international trade. After adjusting for these issues, results across independent studies converge to give less uncertainty than previously assumed. For physical carbon flows there are relatively few studies to be synthesised, but differences between existing studies are due to the method of allocating to international trade with some studies using "apparent consumption" as opposed to "final consumption" in more comprehensive approaches. While results across studies are robust to be used in further applications, more research is needed to understand the differences between methods and to harmonise definitions for particular applications.
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Souza, Ana Paula, Filipe A. Almeida Paz, Ricardo O. Freire, Luís D. Carlos, Oscar L. Malta, S. Alves,, and Gilberto F. de Sá. "Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Modelling of a New Tetramer Complex of Europium." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 111, no. 31 (August 2007): 9228–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp070336w.

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29

Vanlaer, Sofie, Wim M. De Borggraeve, Arnout Voet, Constant Gielens, Marc De Maeyer, and Frans Compernolle. "Spirocyclic Pyridoazepine Analogues of Galanthamine: Synthesis, Modelling Studies and Evaluation as Inhibitors of Acetylcholinesterase." European Journal of Organic Chemistry 2008, no. 15 (May 2008): 2571–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejoc.200800062.

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30

Mohammadzadeh, Naser, Morteza Saheb Zamani, and Mehdi Sedighi. "Auxiliary qubit selection: a physical synthesis technique for quantum circuits." Quantum Information Processing 10, no. 2 (June 10, 2010): 139–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11128-010-0183-0.

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31

Nayebzadeh, Hamed, Abbas Rohani, Aliakbar Sistani, Ali Hassanpour, and Jabbar Gardy. "Modelling and Optimisation of the Sol-Gel Conditions for Synthesis of Semi-Hexagonal Titania-Based Nano-Catalyst for Esterification Reaction." Catalysts 12, no. 2 (February 20, 2022): 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/catal12020239.

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Design and fabrication of a catalyst with the highest activity can be achieved by optimising the synthesis conditions. In this study, the sol-gel synthesis conditions of citric acid concentration, gelling temperature, complex time, and calcination temperature were studied for the preparation of a novel semi-hexagonal calcium/titania-zirconia nano-catalyst used in the esterification reaction. After synthesis of around 24 samples at various conditions, their activity was tested in the esterification reaction and the results were analysed by multi-layer perceptron (MLP) and support vector machine (SVM) models. Both models predicted the actual data with high coefficients of determination, and indicated that the calcination temperature has the most influence on the activity of the prepared semi-hexagonal calcium/titania-zirconia nano-catalyst for the esterification reaction. Moreover, the genetic algorithm (GA) was utilised for optimising the preparation conditions based on the SVM model, due to its higher generalisation capability for prediction. The prepared nano-catalysts under the optimum conditions of 1.42 acid ratio, gelling temperature of 72 °C, complex time of 2.65 h, and calcination temperature of 487 °C showed good crystalline structure and metal–metal and metal–oxygen cation bonding. Finally, the fabricated catalyst had a high surface area (276.5 m2/g) with 3.5 nm pore diameter and almost uniform particle size (80–110 nm) distribution, leading to a high conversion of 97.6% in the esterification reaction, with good catalytic stability up to five times.
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32

Masson, O., E. Dooryhée, and A. N. Fitch. "Instrument line-profile synthesis in high-resolution synchrotron powder diffraction." Journal of Applied Crystallography 36, no. 2 (March 15, 2003): 286–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889803001031.

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An accurate method for synthesizing the instrumental line profile of high-resolution synchrotron powder diffraction instruments is presented. It is shown that the instrumental profile can be modelled by the convolution of four physical aberration functions: the equatorial intensity distribution, the monochromator and analyser transfer functions, and the axial divergence aberration function. Moreover, each equatorial aberration is related to an angle-independent function by a scale transform factor. The principles of the instrument line-profile calculation are general. They are applied in the case of the angle-dispersive powder X-ray diffraction beamline BM16 at the ESRF. The effects of each optical element on the overall instrument profile are discussed and the importance of the quality of the different optical elements of the instrument is emphasized. Finally, it is shown that the high resolution combined with the precise modelling of the instrument profile shape give access to a particle size as large as 3 µm.
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33

Peters, G. P., S. J. Davis, and R. Andrew. "A synthesis of carbon in international trade." Biogeosciences 9, no. 8 (August 23, 2012): 3247–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-3247-2012.

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Abstract. In a globalised world, the transfer of carbon between regions, either physically or embodied in production, represents a substantial fraction of global carbon emissions. The resulting emission transfers are important for balancing regional carbon budgets and for understanding the drivers of emissions. In this paper we synthesise current understanding in two parts: (1) CO2 emissions embodied in goods and services that are produced in one country but consumed in others, and (2) carbon physically present in fossil fuels, petroleum-derived products, harvested wood products, crops, and livestock products. We describe the key differences between studies and provide a consistent set of estimates using the same definitions, modelling framework, and consistent data. We find the largest trade flows of carbon in international trade in 2004 were fossil fuels (2673 MtC, 37 % of global emissions), CO2 embodied in traded goods and services (1661 MtC, 22 % of global emissions), crops (522 MtC, 31 % of total harvested crop carbon), petroleum-based products (183 MtC, 50 % of their total production), harvested wood products (149 MtC, 40 % of total roundwood extraction), and livestock products (28 MtC, 22 % of total livestock carbon). We find that for embodied CO2 emissions, estimates from independent studies are robust, and that differences between individual studies are not a reflection of the uncertainty in consumption-based estimates, but rather these differences result from the use of different production-based emissions input data and different definitions for allocating emissions to international trade. After adjusting for these issues, results across independent studies converge to give less uncertainty than previously assumed. For physical carbon flows there are relatively few studies to be synthesised, but differences between existing studies are due to the method of allocating to international trade, with some studies using "apparent consumption" as opposed to "final consumption". While results across studies are sufficiently robust to be used in further applications, more research is needed to understand differences and to harmonise definitions for particular applications.
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34

Vorobiev, Grigory A., Andrey V. Chebotarev, and Irina P. Panova. "The new scientific and methodological model of creating a digital health passport for monitoring physical and mental state and physical preparedness of comprehensive school students." Perspectives of Science and Education 54, no. 6 (December 31, 2021): 521–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.32744/pse.2021.6.35.

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School nowadays is focused on students’ health as a prerequisite for a successful performance. The health status is a multifaceted concept which is gauged by various indicators. Determining the health status of children takes a lot of time resources on the part of educational staff engaged in systemizing and analysing the data and making practical recommendations for optimising students’ health. Boosting the quality of health monitoring can be achieved via modern IT systems by creating a digital health passport for school students. This research is based on the methods of theoretical analysis, synthesis, data generalisation, analytical modelling of the content and organisational process of health monitoring via modern information technology. An attempt was made to create a scientific and methodological model for collating and evaluating data on school children’s physical health, mental health and physical preparedness. The data are presented in the form of a digital health passport. The data were used as a basis for the computer programme The Health Passport which allows the user to obtain information on the general health status and differentiated aspects of health, such as physical or mental health and physical preparedness. The programme can also give individualised practical recommendations by analysing the test results; store statistically relevant information on individual and group performance; conduct comparative analysis of individual and group performance of comprehensive school students on the methodological basis of mathematical statistics.
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Koryahin, V. M., O. S. Blavt, and S. V. Ponomaryov. "Innovative Intestification of Testing of Strength Endurance in Physical Education of Students With Chronic Diseases." Teorìâ ta Metodika Fìzičnogo Vihovannâ 19, no. 3 (September 25, 2019): 116–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2019.3.02.

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The study objective is to substantiate and implement modern information-communication technologies (ICT) means for improving the testing of strength endurance of hands and upper body of students with chronic diseases in physical education. Materials and methods. To solve the research tasks used the methods of comparing and contrasting are used and analysis, synthesis, abstraction, formalization and technical modelling. Results. The result of a scientific search aimed at integrating ICT into test control of strength endurance of students with chronic diseases is a device of capacitive sensor testing. The designed capacitive touch tester is based on a combination of modern nanotechnology and microprocessor systems, including smart phone’s, tablets, etc. It is a constructive solution for electronic measuring systems of spatial position of objects based on capacitive sensor devices. Conclusions. The effectiveness of using the designed device in testing students’ of strength endurance of hands and upper body is achieved through the ease of use and compactness of the device, student-friendly testing procedure and the efficiency and reliability of control.
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Qi, Jin, Jie Hu, and Ying-Hong Peng. "An integrated principle solution synthesis method in multi-disciplinary mechatronic product conceptual design." Concurrent Engineering 26, no. 4 (September 21, 2018): 341–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1063293x18799488.

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Synthesizing suitable principle solutions together to form the design solution is a universal method in conceptual design. For the modern mechatronic product, the conceptual design is often multi-disciplinary, which would be extremely time consuming and labour-intensive for designers to synthesize multi-disciplinary principle solutions together. Taking advantage of functional knowledge and structural knowledge of principle solution, this article proposes an integrated principle solution synthesis method which not only achieves the automated synthesis of multi-disciplinary principle solutions but also solves the undesired physical conflicts among principle solutions to be synthesized. In integrated principle solution synthesis, a synthesis agent is developed to chain the functional flows of principle solutions to form the combinatorial principle solution set, and synthesis agent selects the combinatorial principle solution with highest availability value as the recommended combinatorial principle solution. Then extensic theory is employed to deal with the partial design conflicts hidden in recommended combinatorial principle solution by extending and transforming the conflict functional structures. A case study on the emergency cutting off device design is given to prove the industrial applicability of integrated principle solution synthesis, which indicates that compared with traditional synthesis method, integrated principle solution synthesis can not only get multi-disciplinary design result of emergency cutting off device but also further resolve the design conflict (i.e. vibration impact) to optimize the functional structure of emergency cutting off device.
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Wang, Chen, Zheng Li, Siyuan Zhao, Lingchao Xia, Meng Zhu, Minfang Han, and Meng Ni. "Modelling of an integrated protonic ceramic electrolyzer cell (PCEC) for methanol synthesis." Journal of Power Sources 559 (March 2023): 232667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.232667.

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38

Perry, R. Ian, Peter C. F. Hurley, Peter C. Smith, J. Anthony Koslow, and Robert O. Fournier. "Modelling the Initiation of Spring Phytoplankton Blooms: a Synthesis of Physical and Biological Interannual Variability off Southwest Nova Scotia, 1983–85." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46, S1 (December 19, 1989): s183—s199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f89-288.

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Chlorophyll and nitrate data from monthly surveys off southwest Nova Scotia indicate the spring phytoplankton bloom began near the end of March of each year, occurring early (late) in 1984 (1983). The highest chlorophyll biomass(all months) was found in 1985. Using survey data, the Sverdrup hypothesis for the initiation of the bloom was tested by comparing the critical depth, Zcr, for net phytoplankton production to the observed mixed-layer depth, Zmix. Survey median Zcr/Zmix were consistently less than 1 until May, suggesting that observed blooms were initiated by events outside the specific survey periods. Results of a mixed-layer model incorporating surface heating, differential advection and turbulent dissipation by wind and tide showed reasonable agreement with observed mixed depths, and patterns of the mean (modelled) mixed-layer light intensity are significantly correlated with observed chlorophyll biomass. In 1983 and 1984, mean light intensities first exceeded the critical value for a bloom to occur in late March. In 1985, transient periods of stratification in mid-February and early March produced intensities greater than the critical value. These events, together with higher nitrate concentrations and lower Zooplankton biomass, appear to be responsible for the high chlorophyll biomass observed in 1985.
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39

Coronado, Irene, Aitor Arandia, Matti Reinikainen, Reetta Karinen, Riikka L. Puurunen, and Juha Lehtonen. "Kinetic Modelling of the Aqueous-Phase Reforming of Fischer-Tropsch Water over Ceria-Zirconia Supported Nickel-Copper Catalyst." Catalysts 9, no. 11 (November 8, 2019): 936. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/catal9110936.

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In the Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis, a mixture of CO and H2 is converted into hydrocarbons and water with diluted organics. This water fraction with oxygenated hydrocarbons can be processed through aqueous-phase reforming (APR) to produce H2. Therefore, the APR of FT water may decrease the environmental impact of organic waters and improve the efficiency of the FT process. This work aimed at developing a kinetic model for the APR of FT water. APR experiments were conducted with real FT water in a continuous packed-bed reactor at different operating conditions of temperature (210–240 °C), pressure (3.2–4.5 MPa) and weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) (40–200 h−1) over a nickel-copper catalyst supported on ceria-zirconia. The kinetic model considered C1-C4 alcohols as reactants, H2, CO, CO2 and CH4 as the gaseous products, and acetic acid as the only liquid product. The kinetic model included seven reactions, the reaction rates of which were expressed with power law equations. The kinetic parameters were estimated with variances and confidence intervals that explain the accuracy of the model to estimate the outlet liquid composition resulting from the APR of FT water. The kinetic model developed in this work may facilitate the development of APR to be integrated in a FT synthesis process.
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40

Dunne, Peter W., Alexis S. Munn, Chris L. Starkey, Tom A. Huddle, and Ed H. Lester. "Continuous-flow hydrothermal synthesis for the production of inorganic nanomaterials." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 373, no. 2057 (December 28, 2015): 20150015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0015.

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As nanotechnology becomes increasingly important and ubiquitous, new and scalable synthetic approaches are needed to meet the growing demand for industrially viable routes to nanomaterial production. Continuous-flow hydrothermal synthesis or supercritical water hydrothermal synthesis (scWHS) is emerging as a versatile solution to this problem. The process was initially developed to take advantage of the tunable chemical and physical properties of superheated water to produce metal oxide nanoparticles by rapid nucleation and precipitation. The development of new mixing regimes and reactor designs has been facilitated by the modelling of reactor systems. These new reactor designs further exploit the properties of supercritical water to promote faster and more uniform mixing of reagent streams. The synthetic approach has been expanded beyond the metal oxide systems for which it was conceived, and now encompasses metal sulfides, metal phosphates, metal nanoparticles and metal–organic frameworks. In many of these cases, some degree of size and shape control can be achieved through careful consideration of both chemistry and reactor design. This review briefly considers the development of scWHS reactor technology, before highlighting some of our recent work in expanding the scope of this synthetic method to include a wide range of materials.
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41

Mohammadzadeh, Naser, Tayebeh Bahreini, and Hossein Badri. "Optimal ILP-Based Approach for Gate Location Assignment and Scheduling in Quantum Circuits." Modelling and Simulation in Engineering 2014 (2014): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/571374.

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Physical design and synthesis are two key processes of quantum circuit design methodology. The physical design process itself decomposes into scheduling, mapping, routing, and placement. In this paper, a mathematical model is proposed for mapping, routing, and scheduling in ion-trap technology in order to minimize latency of the circuit. The proposed model which is a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model gives the optimal locations for gates and the best sequence of operations in terms of latency. Experimental results show that our scheme outperforms the other schemes for the attempted benchmarks.
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42

Gunawardhana, M. L. P., J. Brinchmann, P. M. Weilbacher, P. Norberg, A. Monreal-Ibero, T. Nanayakkara, M. den Brok, L. Boogaard, and W. Kollatschny. "Stellar populations and physical properties of starbursts in the antennae galaxy from self-consistent modelling of MUSE spectra." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 497, no. 3 (August 6, 2020): 3860–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa2158.

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ABSTRACT We have modelled the stellar and nebular continua and emission-line intensity ratios of massive stellar populations in the Antennae galaxy using high resolution and self-consistent libraries of model H ii regions around central clusters of ageing stars. The model libraries are constructed using the stellar population synthesis code, starburst99, and photoionization model, and cloudy. The Geneva and PARSEC stellar evolutionary models are plugged into starburst99 to allow comparison between the two models. Using a spectrum-fitting methodology that allows the spectral features in the stellar and nebular continua [e.g. Wolf–Rayet (WR) features, Paschen jump], and emission-line diagnostics to constrain the models, we apply the libraries to the high-resolution Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer spectra of the starbursting regions in the Antennae galaxy. Through this approach, we were able to model the continuum emission from WR stars and extract stellar and gas metallicities, ages, electron temperatures, and densities of starbursts by exploiting the full spectrum. From the application to the Antennae galaxy, we find that (1) the starbursts in the Antennae galaxy are characterized by stellar and gas metallicities of around solar, (2) the star-forming gas in starbursts in the Western loop of NGC 4038 appears to be more enriched, albeit slightly, than the rest of galaxy, (3) the youngest starbursts are found across the overlap region and over parts of the western-loop, though in comparison, the regions in the western-loop appear to be at a slightly later stage in star formation than the overlap region, and (4) the results obtained from fitting the Geneva and Parsec models are largely consistent.
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43

Archer, Stephen D., Francis J. Gilbert, J. Icarus Allen, Jerry Blackford, and Philip D. Nightingale. "Modelling of the seasonal patterns of dimethylsulphide production and fate during 1989 at a site in the North Sea." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61, no. 5 (May 1, 2004): 765–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f04-028.

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This modelling study aimed to extend our understanding of the biogeochemistry of the climatically active gas dimethylsulphide (DMS) in marine surface waters to an annual cycle. Processes involved in the production and fate of DMS and its precursor β-dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), a product of phytoplankton synthesis, were incorporated into a complex, coupled one-dimensional physical ecosystem model (European Regional Seas Ecosystem Model (ERSEM) and the General Ocean Turbulence Model (GOTM)) to create a model of DMS biogeochemistry at a seasonally stratified site in the North Sea for 1989. The model was validated against nutrient concentrations, biological standing stocks, biological production, DMS and DMSP concentrations, and DMS sea to air flux determined throughout 1989 during the North Sea Project. The validation results demonstrated that complex ecosystem models, combined with a comprehensive network of processes that control the production and fate of DMSP and DMS, could accurately mimic DMS biogeochemistry. The model provides insights into the impact of seasonally changing physical forcing on the relative contribution of individual processes to DMS production and sea to air flux.
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44

Hennicker, L., N. D. Kee, T. Shenar, J. Bodensteiner, M. Abdul-Masih, I. El Mellah, H. Sana, and J. O. Sundqvist. "BOSS-3D: A Binary Object Spectral Synthesis Code in 3D." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 16, S366 (November 2020): 138–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s174392132200062x.

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AbstractTo decode the information stored within a spectrum, detailed modelling of the physical state is required together with accurate radiative transfer solution schemes. In the analysis of stellar spectra, the numerical model often needs to account for high velocity outflows, multi-dimensional structures, and the effects of binary companions. Focusing now on binary systems, we present the BOSS-3D spectral synthesis code, which is capable of calculating synthetic line profiles for a variety of binary systems. Assuming the state of the circumstellar material to be known, the standard pz-geometry is extended by defining individual coordinate systems for each object. By embedding these coordinate systems within the observer’s frame, BOSS-3D automatically accounts for outflows or discs within both involved systems, and includes all Doppler shifts. Moreover, the code accounts for different length-scales, and thus could also be used to analyse transit-spectra of planetary atmospheres. As a first application of BOSS-3D, we model the phase-dependent line profiles for the enigmatic binary (or multiple) system LB-1.
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45

Bucher, Ch U. A. "A modal synthesis method employing physical coordinates, free component modes, and residual flexibilities." Computers & Structures 22, no. 4 (January 1986): 559–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0045-7949(86)90005-2.

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46

Heemels, W. P. M. H., B. De Schutter, J. Lunze, and M. Lazar. "Stability analysis and controller synthesis for hybrid dynamical systems." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368, no. 1930 (November 13, 2010): 4937–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0187.

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Wherever continuous and discrete dynamics interact, hybrid systems arise. This is especially the case in many technological systems in which logic decision-making and embedded control actions are combined with continuous physical processes. Also for many mechanical, biological, electrical and economical systems the use of hybrid models is essential to adequately describe their behaviour. To capture the evolution of these systems, mathematical models are needed that combine in one way or another the dynamics of the continuous parts of the system with the dynamics of the logic and discrete parts. These mathematical models come in all kinds of variations, but basically consist of some form of differential or difference equations on the one hand and automata or other discrete-event models on the other hand. The collection of analysis and synthesis techniques based on these models forms the research area of hybrid systems theory, which plays an important role in the multi-disciplinary design of many technological systems that surround us. This paper presents an overview from the perspective of the control community on modelling, analysis and control design for hybrid dynamical systems and surveys the major research lines in this appealing and lively research area.
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47

Hennicker, L., N. D. Kee, T. Shenar, J. Bodensteiner, M. Abdul-Masih, I. El Mellah, H. Sana, and J. O. Sundqvist. "Binary-object spectral-synthesis in 3D (BOSS-3D)." Astronomy & Astrophysics 660 (April 2022): A17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202141831.

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Context. To quantitatively decode the information stored within an observed spectrum, detailed modelling of the physical state and accurate radiative transfer solution schemes are required. The accuracy of the model is then typically evaluated by comparing the calculated and observed spectra. In the analysis of stellar spectra, the numerical model often needs to account for binary companions and 3D structures in the stellar envelopes. The enigmatic binary (or multiple) system LB-1 constitutes a perfect example of such a complex multi-D problem. Thus far, the LB-1 system has been indirectly investigated by 1D stellar-atmosphere codes and by spectral disentangling techniques, yielding differing conclusions about the nature of the system (e.g., a B-star and black-hole binary with an accretion disc around the black hole or a stripped-star and Be-star binary system have been proposed). Aims. To improve our understanding of the LB-1 system, we directly modelled the phase-dependent Hα line profiles of this system. To this end, we developed and present a multi-purpose binary-object spectral-synthesis code in 3D (BOSS-3D). Methods. BOSS-3D calculates synthetic line profiles for a given state of the circumstellar material. The standard pz-geometry commonly used for single stars is extended by defining individual coordinate systems for each involved object and by accounting for the appropriate coordinate transformations. The code is then applied to the LB-1 system, considering two main hypotheses, a binary containing a stripped star and Be star, or a B star and a black hole with a disc. Results. Comparing these two scenarios, neither model can reproduce the detailed phase-dependent shape of the Hα line profiles. A satisfactory match with the observations, however, is obtained by invoking a disc around the primary object in addition to the Be-star disc or the black-hole accretion disc. Conclusions. The developed code can be used to model synthetic line profiles for a wide variety of binary systems, ranging from transit spectra of planetary atmospheres, to post-asymptotic giant branch binaries including circumstellar and circumbinary discs and massive-star binaries with stellar winds and disc systems. For the LB-1 system, our modelling provides strong evidence that each object in the system contains a disc-like structure.
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48

García-Oliva, Cecilia, Almudena Perona, Ángel Rumbero, Pilar Hoyos, and María J. Hernáiz. "Enzymatic Synthesis and Molecular Modelling Studies of Rhamnose Esters Using Lipase from Pseudomonas stutzeri." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 4 (February 17, 2022): 2239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23042239.

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Rhamnolipids are becoming an important class of glycolipid biosurfactants. Herein, we describe for the first time the enzymatic synthesis of rhamnose fatty acid esters by the transesterification of rhamnose with fatty acid vinyl esters, using lipase from Pseudomonas stutzeri as a biocatalyst. The use of this lipase allows excellent catalytic activity in the synthesis of 4-O-acylrhamnose (99% conversion and full regioselectivity) after 3 h of reaction using tetrahydrofuran (THF) as the reaction media and an excess of vinyl laurate as the acyl donor. The role of reaction conditions, such as temperature, the substrates molar ratio, organic reaction medium and acyl donor chain-length, was studied. Optimum conditions were found using 35 °C, a molar ratio of 1:3 (rhamnose:acyldonor), solvents with a low logP value, and fatty acids with chain lengths from C4 to C18 as acyl donors. In hydrophilic solvents such as THF and acetone, conversions of up to 99–92% were achieved after 3 h of reaction. In a more sustainable solvent such as 2-methyl-THF (2-MeTHF), high conversions were also obtained (86%). Short and medium chain acyl donors (C4–C10) allowed maximum conversions after 3 h, and long chain acyl donors (C12–C18) required longer reactions (5 h) to get 99% conversions. Furthermore, scaled up reactions are feasible without losing catalytic action and regioselectivity. In order to explain enzyme regioselectivity and its ability to accommodate ester chains of different lengths, homology modelling, docking studies and molecular dynamic simulations were performed to explain the behaviour observed.
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49

Long, Charles A., G. P. Zhang, Thomas F. George, and Claudine F. Long. "Physical theory, origin of flight, and a synthesis proposed for birds." Journal of Theoretical Biology 224, no. 1 (September 2003): 9–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5193(03)00116-4.

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Singh, Rana Pratap, Gaurav Kumar Gupta, and Manas Paliwal. "Synthesis, Consolidation and Modelling Study of AA2014-TiB2 Composite Prepared by Powder Metallurgy (P/M) Method." Materials Science Forum 928 (August 2018): 45–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.928.45.

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This Aluminum alloy matrix composite reinforced with TiB2 particulates with different volume % of TiB2 (5, 10 and 15) has been successfully synthesized by P/M route. The composite powders were consolidated by cold uniaxial compaction pressure followed by sintering at 590 ̊C in nitrogen atmosphere. The effect of reinforcement on the densification was studied and reported in terms of the relative density, densification parameter, tensile rupture strength and Vickers hardness of the composite. The above physical and mechanical properties increase with compaction pressure irrespective of TiB2 content. Scheil cooling and equilibrium calculations were performed using FactSage for qualitative understanding of the microstructural evolution during sintering. The experimental results showed that samples with 5 volume % TiB2 exhibits optimum densities after sintering and correspondingly highest hardness.
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