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1

Di Giorgio, Luciana, Pablo Rodrigo Salgado, Alain Dufresne, and Adriana Noemí Mauri. "Nanocelluloses from phormium (Phormium tenax) fibers." Cellulose 27, no. 9 (March 30, 2020): 4975–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03120-x.

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2

Smissen, R. D., and P. B. Heenan. "A taxonomic appraisal of the Chatham Islands flax (Phormium tenax) using morphological and DNA fingerprint data." Australian Systematic Botany 23, no. 5 (2010): 371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sb10023.

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A range of leaf forms of Phormium tenax J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. can be observed in the wild on the Chatham Island archipelago. At one extreme are plants with more or less upright leaves, similar to those observed in New Zealand P. tenax, and at the other extreme there are plants with floppy leaves. The upright-leaved form is found more or less throughout the archipelago, whereas the floppy-leaved form is concentrated in the southern part of Chatham Island, Pitt Island, and on the other southern islands (e.g. South East and Mangere islands). Analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and simple-sequence-repeat (SSR) variation, and comparison with a diverse sampling of New Zealand Phormium suggested that both Chatham Islands forms are indigenous and part of a common gene pool. We found no evidence of hybridism with Phormium introduced from New Zealand. Floppy-leaved forms are therefore linked to typical upright leaved P. tenax through upright-leaved plants with bent tips, and do not require taxonomic recognition. AFLP and SSR data both support the view that a plant collected from Ranui Cove, Auckland Island, is descended from Chatham Islands material, and was most likely introduced there by Ngāti Mutunga and Moriori settlers during the 19th century.
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3

Fortunati, E., D. Puglia, C. Santulli, F. Sarasini, and J. M. Kenny. "Biodegradation of Phormium tenax/poly(lactic acid) composites." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 125, S2 (May 1, 2012): E562—E572. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.36839.

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4

Fortunati, E., D. Puglia, M. Monti, L. Peponi, C. Santulli, J. M. Kenny, and L. Torre. "Extraction of Cellulose Nanocrystals from Phormium tenax Fibres." Journal of Polymers and the Environment 21, no. 2 (November 23, 2012): 319–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10924-012-0543-1.

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5

De Rosa, Igor Maria, Josè Maria Kenny, Debora Puglia, Carlo Santulli, and Fabrizio Sarasini. "Tensile behavior of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) fibers." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 29, no. 23 (July 6, 2010): 3450–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0731684410372264.

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6

Newman, Roger H., Evamaria C. Clauss, James E. P. Carpenter, and Armin Thumm. "Epoxy composites reinforced with deacetylated Phormium tenax leaf fibres." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 38, no. 10 (October 2007): 2164–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.06.007.

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7

Palanisamy, Sivasubramanian, Kalimuthu Mayandi, Murugesan Palaniappan, Azeez Alavudeen, Nagarajan Rajini, Felipe Vannucchi de Camargo, and Carlo Santulli. "Mechanical Properties of Phormium Tenax Reinforced Natural Rubber Composites." Fibers 9, no. 2 (February 1, 2021): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fib9020011.

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The introduction of natural fibers as a filler in a natural rubber (NR) matrix can be of relevance for their eco-friendly and sustainable nature as the substitute for carbon-based fillers. In this work, short Phormium tenax fibers were introduced in random orientation into a NR matrix in different lengths (6, 10, and 14 mm) and various amounts (10, 20, and 30%, taking 100 as the NR weight). The composite was fabricated using a two-roll mill according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D3184-11 standard. Several properties were determined, namely tensile and tear characteristics, hardness, and abrasion resistance. The results suggest that the shortest fiber length used, 6 mm, offered the best combination between loss of mechanical (tensile and tear) properties and hardness and the most acceptable resistance to abrasion, with the properties increasing with the amount of fibers present in NR. As a consequence, it is indicated that a higher amount of fibers could be possibly introduced, especially to achieve harder composites, though this would require a more controlled mixing process not excessively reducing tensile elongation at break.
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8

Andersen, M. T., R. E. Beever, A. C. Gilman, L. W. Liefting, E. Balmori, D. L. Beck, P. W. Sutherland, G. T. Bryan, R. C. Gardner, and R. L. S. Forster. "Detection of phormium yellow leaf phytoplasma in New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) using nested PCRs." Plant Pathology 47, no. 2 (April 1998): 188–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3059.1998.00209.x.

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9

Carr, D. J., N. M. Cruthers, R. M. Laing, and B. E. Niven. "Fibers from Three Cultivars of New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax)." Textile Research Journal 75, no. 2 (February 2005): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004051750507500201.

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10

Le Guen, Marie J., and Roger H. Newman. "Pulped Phormium tenax leaf fibres as reinforcement for epoxy composites." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 38, no. 10 (October 2007): 2109–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.07.001.

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11

SIMS, I., and R. NEWMAN. "Structural studies of acidic xylans exuded from leaves of the monocotyledonous plants Phormium tenax and Phormium cookianum." Carbohydrate Polymers 63, no. 3 (March 3, 2006): 379–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.09.021.

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12

De Rosa, I. M., A. Iannoni, J. M. Kenny, D. Puglia, C. Santulli, F. Sarasini, and A. Terenzi. "Poly(lactic acid)/Phormium tenax composites: Morphology and thermo-mechanical behavior." Polymer Composites 32, no. 9 (August 4, 2011): 1362–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pc.21159.

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13

Weston, Roderick James, Gerald J. Smith, Suzanne M. Scheele, and Stephen H. Williams. "Accelerated hydrothermal degradation of fibres of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax)." Journal of Cultural Heritage 13, no. 4 (October 2012): 413–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2011.11.006.

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14

Serdani, M., S. Rooney-Latham, K. M. Wallis, and C. L. Blomquist. "First Report of Colletotrichum phormii Causing Anthracnose on New Zealand Flax in the United States." Plant Disease 97, no. 8 (August 2013): 1115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-12-12-1155-pdn.

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Phormium colensoi Hook.f. (syn. P. cookianum), New Zealand flax, (family Xanthorrhoeaceae) is popular in ornamental landscapes in the United States because of its sturdy blade-like foliage available in diverse colors. In February 2012, the Oregon State University Plant Clinic received three potted plants of P. colensoi ‘Black Adder’ from a commercial nursery in Santa Cruz County, California. The margins and midribs of several leaves had brown lesions that were variable in size, and fusiform to ellipsoidal in shape. Embedded in the lesions were black acervuli without setae that exuded salmon-colored spore masses under moist conditions. Conidia were hyaline, cylindrical to fusiform, straight to slightly curved, and 22.4 to 35.2 × 4.0 to 6.4 (average 24.7 × 4.9) μm. Based on morphology, the fungus was confirmed by USDA-APHIS National Identification Services to be Colletotrichum phormii (Henn.) D.F. Farr & Rossman (2). In March 2012, the California Department of Food and Agriculture Plant Pest Diagnostic Lab received additional samples from the same nursery lot (25% disease incidence) from which a similar fungus was recovered. rDNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region from the California isolate (GenBank KC122681), amplified using primers ITS1 and ITS4 (2), were 100% identical to multiple species of Colletotrichum, including C. phormii by a BLAST query (JQ948446 through JQ948453). ITS sequence similarity alone is not sufficient to address Colletotrichum taxonomy and must be used in combination with host range and morphology (1). Pathogenicity of C. phormii (isolate CDFA986) was tested on three ‘Black Adder’ plants, which were inoculated with 6-mm agar plugs from a 14-day-old culture grown on half strength potato dextrose agar (PDA). Leaves were wound-inoculated along the midrib using colonized plugs (4). Five leaves per plant were inoculated with C. phormii plugs and five leaves per plant were treated with uncolonized PDA agar plugs as controls. Plants were sprayed with water and incubated in plastic bags at 22°C with a 12-h photoperiod. After 48 h, the bags and caps were removed and plants were kept under the same conditions. Two weeks later, water-soaked lesions had developed on the inoculated leaves. Lesions expanded along the midrib and became fusiform in shape after 21 to 28 days. C. phormii was isolated from lesion margins of all the inoculated leaves, but not from control leaves. This experiment was repeated once with similar results. Another Colletotrichum species, C. gloeosporiodes, also occurs on Phormium spp., but differs from C. phormii in morphology and symptom expression. Subsequent nursery and landscape surveys showed that anthracnose caused by C. phormii occurs on several P. colensoi cultivars as well as on P. tenax in five California counties including Santa Cruz, Yolo, Sacramento, San Luis Obispo, and Solano. C. phormii is also reported to infect P. colensoi and P. tenax in New Zealand, Europe, the United Kingdom, Australia, and South Africa (2,3). To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. phormii causing anthracnose on Phormium in North America. This disease could impact the American nursery trade and New Zealand flax production due to crop loss and increased production costs for pest management. References: (1) J. Crouch et al. Mycologia 101:648, 2009. (2) D. F. Farr et al. Mycol. Res. 110:1395, 2006. (3). H. Golzar and C. Wang. Australas. Plant Pathol. 5:110, 2010. (4) L. E. Yakabe et al. Plant Dis. 93:883, 2009.
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15

Newman, Roger H., Stephen E. K. Tauwhare, Sue Scheele, and Rangi Te Kanawa. "Leaf-fiber lignins of Phormium varieties compared bysolid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy." Holzforschung 59, no. 2 (February 1, 2005): 147–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hf.2005.022.

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Abstract Solid-state NMR spectroscopy was used to determine total lignin and to distinguish between the syringyl and guaiacyl components of Phormium leaves. Fibers obtained from the upper (shiny) and lower (dull) surfaces of a P. tenax leaf showed guaiacyl lignin contents of 1.5% and 5.4% by weight, respectively. Guaiacyl lignin is known to have poor photostability, so the analyses supported a traditional view of the upper-surface fibers as the more suitable for textiles. All other analyses involved mixtures of fibers from both upper and lower surfaces. They showed no detectable differences in guaiacyl content between leaves within a ramet, or between ramets in a P. tenax bush, with a mean value of 2.2% for 20 leaves. There were no detectable differences in guaiacyl content between bushes of the variety Taeore grown at different sites, with a mean value of 2.7% for 6 sites. There were detectable differences in guaiacyl content between 15 named varieties grown at a single site, with values as low as 2.3% and as high as 4.5%. Lowest guaiacyl contents were found in varieties traditionally used for textiles. The highest guaiacyl lignin contents, 6.0% and 5.8%, were found in P. cookianum and in a plant grown from stock obtained at Norfolk Island. Syringyl lignin contents were relatively uniform between varieties, with a mean value of 6.7%.
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16

Wehi, Priscilla M., and Bruce D. Clarkson. "Biological flora of New Zealand 10.Phormium tenax, harakeke, New Zealand flax." New Zealand Journal of Botany 45, no. 4 (December 2007): 521–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288250709509737.

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17

Jayaraman, Krishnan, and Rex Halliwell. "Harakeke (phormium tenax) fibre–waste plastics blend composites processed by screwless extrusion." Composites Part B: Engineering 40, no. 7 (October 2009): 645–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2009.04.010.

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18

Atijegbe, S. R., S. Mansfield, M. Rost?s, S. Worner, and C. Ferguson. "Growth rate survival and preference of porina (Wiseana spp) to selected grasses." New Zealand Plant Protection 69 (January 8, 2016): 326. http://dx.doi.org/10.30843/nzpp.2016.69.5936.

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Porina (Wiseana spp) has become a major pasture pest in New Zealand over the past century in response to natural forest and grasslands being converted into pastures for livestock Limited information is available on the growth and survival of porina larvae on native host species Field collected porina larvae were fed on 5 selected native plants (Festuca actae Aciphylla squarrosa Poa cita Chionochloa rubra and Phormium tenax) one exotic (Lolium multiflorum cv Manawa) and mixed species over 5 months and the fitness response of porina to each of these grasses was measured The most rapid growth of larvae was observed on L multiflorum while the slowest was on P tenax A squarrosa and P cita The largest weight gain was on L multiflorum There was a significant difference in larval growth between L multiflorum and P tenax (P0019) Percentage mortality was lowest on L multiflorum (125) with the larvae surviving for 177 days The highest mortality of 75 was recorded on P cita which also had the lowest survival of 77 days This study provided useful information on the development of porina on native hosts which provide a habitat for its expansion on to pasture
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19

Lowe, Bronwyn J., Debra J. Carr, Rua E. McCallum, Tom Myers, Roka Ngarimu-Cameron, and Brian E. Niven. "Understanding the variability of vegetable fibres: a case study of harakeke (Phormium tenax)." Textile Research Journal 80, no. 20 (August 20, 2010): 2158–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040517510373635.

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20

Andersen, M. T., J. Longmore, L. W. Liefting, G. A. Wood, P. W. Sutherland, D. L. Beck, and R. L. S. Forster. "Phormium Yellow Leaf Phytoplasma Is Associated with Strawberry Lethal Yellows Disease in New Zealand." Plant Disease 82, no. 6 (June 1998): 606–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis.1998.82.6.606.

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A yellows disease of strawberry plants was identified in propagation beds in New Zealand. Affected plants were flatter to the ground, showed purpling of older leaves, reduced leaf size, yellowing of younger leaves, and sometimes plant death. A phytoplasma was observed in the phloem of affected plants. The 16S rRNA gene of the phytoplasma was amplified by polymerase chain reaction from symptomatic plants and from one asymptomatic plant, but not from 36 other asymptomatic plants. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene showed that the phytoplasma is closely related or identical to the phytoplasma associated with the yellow leaf disease of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax).
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21

Cruthers, Natasha M., Debra J. Carr, Raechel M. Laing, and Brian E. Niven. "Structural Differences among Fibers from Six Cultivars of Harakeke (Phormium tenax, New Zealand flax)." Textile Research Journal 76, no. 8 (August 2006): 601–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040517506065603.

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22

King, Marcus. "Phormium tenax(Agavaceae) leaf anatomy effects on fibre extraction by the Maori haro method." New Zealand Journal of Botany 41, no. 3 (September 2003): 571–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0028825x.2003.9512870.

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23

Fariñas, M. D., and T. E. G. Álvarez-Arenas. "Ultrasonic assessment of the elastic functional design of component tissues of Phormium tenax leaves." Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 39 (November 2014): 304–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2014.07.018.

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24

Puglia, Debora, Marco Monti, Carlo Santulli, Fabrizio Sarasini, Igor Maria De Rosa, and Josè Maria Kenny. "Effect of alkali and silane treatments on mechanical and thermal behavior of Phormium tenax fibers." Fibers and Polymers 14, no. 3 (March 2013): 423–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12221-013-0423-x.

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25

Newman, Roger H., Armin Thumm, E. C. Clauss, and M. J. L. Guen. "Improving Hygrothermal Performance in Epoxy-Biofibre Composites." Advanced Materials Research 29-30 (November 2007): 287–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.29-30.287.

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Confocal microscopy and water diffusivity measurements were used to characterise the development of defects in biofibre-reinforced composite materials. Biofibres swelled more than the matrix when the specimen was immersed in water, but the associated distortion of the matrix rarely caused defects. The biofibres shrank faster than the matrix when the specimen was dried in air, causing debonding at the fibre-matrix interfaces and microcracks within the fibres. We started with coarse technical fibres from the leaves of harakeke (Phormium tenax), treated a portion with 1% NaOH, and pulped a portion at 170 °C. Water diffusivities for the corresponding composites increased over the first 3 wet-dry cycles, particularly for the composite made with untreated fibre, but were too small to be of concern for the composite made from pulped fibre.
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26

Daniels, Vincent. "Factors Affecting the Deterioration of the Cellulosic Fibres in Black-Dyed New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax)." Studies in Conservation 44, no. 2 (1999): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1506719.

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27

Daniels, Vincent. "Factors affecting the deterioration of the cellulosic fibres in black-dyed New Zealand flax (phormium tenax)." Studies in Conservation 44, no. 2 (January 1999): 73–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/sic.1999.44.2.73.

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28

Sarasini, F., D. Puglia, E. Fortunati, J. M. Kenny, and C. Santulli. "Effect of Fiber Surface Treatments on Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Poly(Lactic Acid)/Phormium Tenax Composites." Journal of Polymers and the Environment 21, no. 3 (June 7, 2013): 881–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10924-013-0594-y.

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Siddiqui, Humair A., Kim L. Pickering, and Michael R. Mucalo. "Study of biomorphic calcium deficient hydroxyapatite fibres derived from a natural Harakeke (Phormium tenax) leaf fibre template." Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 16, no. 1 (December 2, 2020): 016015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/abbc64.

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30

Champion, P. D., T. K. James, and E. C. Carney. "Safety of triclopyr triethylamine to native wetland species." New Zealand Plant Protection 61 (August 1, 2008): 378–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.30843/nzpp.2008.61.6887.

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Current management options for wetland weed control are limited The triethylamine (TEA) salt formulation of the herbicide triclopyr effectively controls several broadleaf aquatic and wetland weed species and is relatively selective to many wetland species To evaluate the tolerance of vegetation associated with weed species a range of indigenous wetland species including the widespread Dacrycarpus dacrydioides Apodasmia similis Carex virgata Eleocharis acuta Isachne globosa Juncus pallidus Triglochin striata Phormium tenax and Mazus radicans and the nationally endangered Carex cirrhosa Amphibromus fluitans Crassula helmsii and Selliera rotundifolia were sourced from wildcollected or cultivated material and then grown on Triclopyr TEA was applied to wetting at rates between 025 and 5 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides I globosa and A fluitans appeared to have recovered fully from early damage from the 05 rate by the conclusion of the trial Apodasmia similis C virgata C cirrhosa E acuta and J pallidus were damaged but not completely killed at this rate whereas the remaining five species were killed at all herbicide rates applied
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31

Johnston, Peter R., and Duckchul Park. "New species of Marthamyces and Ramomarthamyces gen. nov. from New Zealand and the Cook Islands." Mycotaxon 134, no. 3 (October 2, 2019): 489–516. http://dx.doi.org/10.5248/134.489.

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A leaf-spotting fungus common on Phormium tenax in New Zealand is described here as Marthamyces harakeke sp. nov. The phylogenetic analysis prepared for the description of this new species showed Marthamyces to be polyphyletic. To resolve this, three Marthamyces species from Australia and New Zealand, M. barbatus, M. dracophylli, and M. gilvus, are recombined in the new genus Ramomarthamyces. Morphologically the Ramomarthamyces species differ from Marthamyces in having paraphyses distinctly branched, rather than propoloid. A fungus common on recently fallen leaves of Metrosideros spp. in New Zealand has been previously referred to as Marthamyces emarginatus, but is recognised here as a new species, Marthamyces metrosideri. In addition, two new Marthamyces species, M. maccormackii on Metrosideros collina, and M. renga on Metrosideros collina, Vaccinium cereum, and Weinmannia samoensis, are described from the Cook Islands, and a new Ramomarthamyces species, R. tuku on Juncus sp., is described from New Zealand. Finally, Naemacyclus culmigenus is recombined in Marthamyces .
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De Rosa, Igor Maria, Carlo Santulli, and Fabrizio Sarasini. "Mechanical and thermal characterization of epoxy composites reinforced with random and quasi-unidirectional untreated Phormium tenax leaf fibers." Materials & Design (1980-2015) 31, no. 5 (May 2010): 2397–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2009.11.059.

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Litherland, AJ, DL Deighton, and DM Leathwick. "An evaluation of anthelmintic properties, assessed using faecal nematode egg counts, of New Zealand native flax (Phormium tenax)." New Zealand Veterinary Journal 56, no. 6 (December 2008): 339–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2008.36857.

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34

Alzeer, Mohammad, and Kenneth MacKenzie. "Synthesis and mechanical properties of novel composites of inorganic polymers (geopolymers) with unidirectional natural flax fibres (phormium tenax)." Applied Clay Science 75-76 (May 2013): 148–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.03.010.

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35

Ehau-Taumaunu, H., S. D. G. Marshall, C. M. Ferguson, M. Mark-Shadbolt, R. M. MacDiarmid, and M. O'Callaghan. "A sweet potato story the likelihood of porina feeding on kumara." New Zealand Plant Protection 69 (January 8, 2016): 324. http://dx.doi.org/10.30843/nzpp.2016.69.5932.

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The caterpillar stage of the endemic Wiseana spp complex commonly known as porina are foliage feeders Research indicates that porina will feed on harakeke (Phormium tenax) red tussock (Chionochloa rubra) and hard tussock (Festuca novae zealandiae) In 1952 Miller reported that porina were abundant in kumara plantations and caused damage to the plants The accuracy of this observation is uncertain due to taxonomic changes and the ambiguous nature of Millers identification Feeding bioassays were undertaken to determine if porina caterpillars would feed on the leaves stems or tuber of the Owairaka kumara plant (Ipomoea batatas) using white clover foliage (Trifolium repens) as a control Over a 6week Porina provided with tuber had a weight increase of >01 g within the first two weeks which was a 122 gain (compared to clover) The leaves and stems supported less weight gain over the two week period (92 and 85 compared to clover respectively) These results suggest that porina can feed on kumara plants but further field testing will be required to support this claim
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36

Fortunati, E., F. Luzi, D. Puglia, F. Dominici, C. Santulli, J. M. Kenny, and L. Torre. "Investigation of thermo-mechanical, chemical and degradative properties of PLA-limonene films reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals extracted from Phormium tenax leaves." European Polymer Journal 56 (July 2014): 77–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2014.03.030.

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37

Becerra, Judith X., and David G. Lloyd. "Competition-Dependent Abscission of Self-Pollinated Flowers of Phormium tenax (Agavaceae): A Second Action of Self-Incompatibility at the Whole Flower Level?" Evolution 46, no. 2 (April 1992): 458. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409864.

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38

Piwpuan, Narumol, Xu Zhai, and Hans Brix. "Nitrogen nutrition of Cyperus laevigatus and Phormium tenax: Effects of ammonium versus nitrate on growth, nitrate reductase activity and N uptake kinetics." Aquatic Botany 106 (April 2013): 42–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2013.01.002.

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39

Rouinsard, Alexandre, Latifa Hamama, Laurence Hibrand-Saint Oyant, and Agnès Grapin. "Effects of the in vitro behavior of micropropagated plants on the stability of variegation in Yucca gloriosa, Phormium tenax, and Cordyline australis cultivars." Scientia Horticulturae 287 (September 2021): 110115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2021.110115.

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40

Bogdziewicz, Michał, Jakub Szymkowiak, Rafael Calama, Elizabeth E. Crone, Josep M. Espelta, Peter Lesica, Shealyn Marino, et al. "Does masting scale with plant size? High reproductive variability and low synchrony in small and unproductive individuals." Annals of Botany 126, no. 5 (June 24, 2020): 971–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcaa118.

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Abstract Background and Aims In a range of plant species, the distribution of individual mean fecundity is skewed and dominated by a few highly fecund individuals. Larger plants produce greater seed crops, but the exact nature of the relationship between size and reproductive patterns is poorly understood. This is especially clear in plants that reproduce by exhibiting synchronized quasi-periodic variation in fruit production, a process called masting. Methods We investigated covariation of plant size and fecundity with individual-plant-level masting patterns and seed predation in 12 mast-seeding species: Pinus pinea, Astragalus scaphoides, Sorbus aucuparia, Quercus ilex, Q. humilis, Q. rubra, Q. alba, Q. montana, Chionochloa pallens, C. macra, Celmisia lyallii and Phormium tenax. Key Results Fecundity was non-linearly related to masting patterns. Small and unproductive plants frequently failed to produce any seeds, which elevated their annual variation and decreased synchrony. Above a low fecundity threshold, plants had similar variability and synchrony, regardless of their size and productivity. Conclusions Our study shows that within-species variation in masting patterns is correlated with variation in fecundity, which in turn is related to plant size. Low synchrony of low-fertility plants shows that the failure years were idiosyncratic to each small plant, which in turn implies that the small plants fail to reproduce because of plant-specific factors (e.g. internal resource limits). Thus, the behaviour of these sub-producers is apparently the result of trade-offs in resource allocation and environmental limits with which the small plants cannot cope. Plant size and especially fecundity and propensity for mast failure years play a major role in determining the variability and synchrony of reproduction in plants.
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41

CLARK, RYAN D., RENAUD MATHIEU, and PHILIP J. SEDDON. "Selection for protection from insolation results in the visual isolation of Yellow-eyed Penguin Megadyptes antipodes nests." Bird Conservation International 25, no. 2 (October 8, 2014): 192–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270914000082.

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SummaryThe concealed and widely dispersed nests of the rare and endangered Yellow-eyed Penguin Megadyptes antipodes, or “hoiho”, have been considered to reflect an essential requirement for the visual isolation of nest sites from conspecifics. However, this may be a consequence of selection for habitat features that provide protection from insolation, thereby minimising the risk of heat stress. To help improve the understanding of hoiho nesting requirements and the effectiveness of habitat restoration, we aimed to determine whether visual isolation from conspecifics or protection from insolation is the primary driver of hoiho nest site selection. We compared the mean maximum distance of visibility and the mean percentage insolation cover of active nests with randomly sampled unused sites in flax Phormium tenax and Hebe elliptica coastal scrub at Boulder Beach, and in coastal forest at Hinahina Cove, New Zealand, 2006–2007. Results of univariate tests and the evaluation of logistic regression models suggested that the amount of insolation cover was more important than visibility for hoiho nest site selection, particularly in flax and scrub. In addition, Spearman's correlations indicated that decreasing insolation cover significantly increased the visibility of nests in the forest habitat, and had a similar effect on inter-nest distance in flax. We infer that hoiho nest site selection and distribution are influenced primarily by the location and density of micro-habitat features (particularly within 1 m of the ground) that provide optimal protection from insolation, possibly along with other important features such as a firm backing structure. Strong selection for these features results in the typical but non-essential visual isolation of nest sites from conspecifics. Restoration of nesting habitats with a relatively high density and diversity of vegetation and solid structures within 1 m of the ground may eventually provide an optimal availability and quality of suitable nest sites.
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42

"Phytoplasma australiense. [Distribution map]." Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, no. 1) (August 1, 2001). http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/dmpd/20066500844.

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Abstract A new distribution map is provided for Phytoplasma australiense [Candidatus] R.E. Davis et al. Bacteria: Phytoplasmas Hosts: Grapevine (Vitis spp.), pawpaw (Carica papaya) and Phormium tenax. Information is given on the geographical distribution in OCEANIA, Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, New Zealand.
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43

Minter, D. W. "Slimacomyces monosporus. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria]." IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria, no. 171 (August 1, 2007). http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/dfb/20073083189.

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Abstract Descriptions are given of Slimacomyces monosporus including its geographical distribution (Canada (British Columbia), Campbell Island, China (Sichuan), Japan, New Zealand, Cuba, Czech Republic, Germany, UK and Netherlands), hosts (Araucaria sp., Juniperus communis, Juniperus sp., Phormium tenax, Picea sitchensis, Pinus contorta, P. mugo, P. nigra, P. resinosa, P. sosnowskyi, P. strobus, P. sylvestris, Pinus sp. and Rhododendron sp.), other associated organisms (Anthostomella pedemontana, Cyclaneusma minus, Kriegeriella mirabilis, Pseudocercospora deightonii and Sympodiella acicola), diagnostic features, biology and conservation status.
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Bai, Zhen-yu, Tong Wang, Yin-huan Wu, Ke Wang, Qian-yu Liang, Yuan-zhi Pan, Bei-bei Jiang, et al. "Whole-transcriptome sequence analysis of differentially expressed genes in Phormium tenax under drought stress." Scientific Reports 7, no. 1 (January 30, 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep41700.

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45

"Static and dynamic fracture properties of the leaf of New Zealand flax Phormium tenax (Phormiaceae: Monocotyledones)." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 263, no. 1370 (May 22, 1996): 521–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1996.0079.

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The leaf of New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax , has been tested in tension to determine some of its fracture properties. The mechanical and fracture properties of the leaf are almost totally dictated by its high content of stiff, strong fibres, which are orientated parallel along the leaf. The shock waves generated when the fibres in the leaf break in tension have been found to interact with the fracture process, because fracture events always occur in phase with the waves. The forces and displacements generated by the waves are large enough to be significant during fracture. This may be why grazers such as sheep and geese snatch at grass rather than pull evenly as cows do: they are generating a shock wave which will aid fracture. The results also have implications for the fracture of unidirectional composites in general.
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Hayova, V. P. "Gloniopsis praelonga. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria]." IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria, no. 189 (July 1, 2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/dfb/20113378954.

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Abstract A description is given for Gloniopsis praelonga. Some information on its dispersal and transmission and conservation status is given, along with details of its geographical distribution (Kenya, Morocco, South Africa, Zambia, Canada (British Columbia), Mexico, USA (Alabama, California, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia), Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, China (Hubei), India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Pakistan, Taiwan, Azores, Australia (Australian Capital Territory, Queensland), New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Gibraltar, Germany, Greece, Irish Republic, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia (Leningradskaya oblast), Spain and UK), hosts (Acacia filiculoides, Acacia mearnsii, Acacia sp., Acer campestre, Acer pseudoplatanus, Acer sp., Alnus sp., Andromeda sp., Arbutus menziesii, Arbutus unedo, Arctostaphylos tracyi, Arctostaphylos sp., Aronia sp., Arundo donax, Atalantia sp., Azalia sp., Bambusa sp., Poaceae, Berchemia scandens, Berchemia sp., Betula pendula, Betula sp., Buddleja sp., Buxus sempervirens, Calicotome spinosa, Calluna vulgaris, Carya tomentosa, Carya sp., Castanea sativa, Castanea sp., Catalpa bignonioides, Catalpa sp., Ceanothus sp., Chamaerops sp., Cistus salviifolius, Cistus sp., Cladium jamaicense, Coccoloba ewifera, Combretum zeyheri, Combretum sp., Cornus sp., Corylus avellana, Corylus colurna, Corylus sp., Crataegus laevigata, Crataegus monogyna, Crataegus sp., Duvaua longifolia, Erica arborea, Ericaceae indet., Eucalyptus coccifera, E. globulus, Eucalyptus sp., Fagus sylvatica, Fagus sp., Francoa sonchifolia, Rhamnus frangula, Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus ornus, Fraxinus sp., Poaceae indet., Hedera helix, Hedera sp., Hippophae rhamnoides, Ilex aquifolium, Ilex sp., Jasminum sp., Juglans cinerea, Juniperus sp., Lavandula stoechas, Leucothoe axillaris, Ligustrum japonicum, Ligustrum vulgare, Ligustrum sp., Lithocarpus sp., Lonicera periclymenum, Lonicera sp., Malus sylvestris, Malus sp., Melia azedarach, Metrosideros robusta, Myrica gale, Myrtus communis, Ostrya sp., Prunus persica var. persica, Phormium tenax, Phragmites australis, Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinaster, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus sp., Pittosporum sp., Plantae indet., Populus alba, Populus sp., Prunus spinosa, Prunus sp., Malus domestica, Malus fusca, Quercus agrifolia, Q. alba, Q. ilex, Q. petraea, Q. robur, Quercus sp., Rhamnus sp., Rhododendron ponticum, Rhododendron sp., Robinia pseudoacacia, Robinia sp., Rosa arvensis, Rosa canina, Rosa sp., Rosaceae indet., Rubus fruticosus, Rubus idaeus, Rubus inermis, Rubus sp., Sabal palmetto, Salix caprea, Salix fragilis, Salix sp., Sambucus nigra, Sambucus sp., Sequoia sp., Serenoa repens, Smilax aspera, Sorbus sp., Spiraea canescens, Spiraea sp., Symphoricarpos albus, Trachycarpus fortunei, Ulex europaeus, Ulex sp., Ulmus procera, Ulmus sp., Vaccinium glabrum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Vaccinium sp., Verbascum sp., Viburnum lantana, Viburnum opulus, Viburnum sp., Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris, Vitis sp., Xanthorrhoea sp. and Xolisma ferruginea) and associated fungi (Actinocladium rhodosporum, Ascochyta deformis, Circinotrichum olivaceum, Clypeosphaeria mamillana, Dasyscypha cerina, Farlowiella carmichaeliana, Glonium lineare, Herpotrichiella sp., Hysterium angustatum, Keissleriella caudata, Lophiostoma ulicis, Metasphaeria longispora, Orbilia alnea, Phaeostalagmus cyclosporus, Lophiostoma compressum, Pleospora sp., Pseudospiropes obclavatus, Strossmayeria atriseda, Strossmayeria bakeriana, Sporothrix ghanensis, Taeniolina scripta, Valsa ceratophora and Zygosporium gibbum).
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