Journal articles on the topic 'Peer-to-peer accommodation system'

This paper presents findings relating to the territorial processes underlying the distribution and location of P2P accommodation in rural parts of Catalonia by establishing a system for classifying rural municipalities based on the volume and growth rate of the supply of this tourist accommodation, its share of the total supply of tourist accommodation, the pressure on the local population, and the function of this supply of accommodation in the regional tourism context. According to the findings, there are three distinct types of rural municipality: (a) Rural municipalities where the volume and growth of the supply of this accommodation are striking, these municipalities are located in the coastal hinterland and in high mountain areas, both of which enjoy high levels of tourism. This supply of accommodation plays a key role in the expansion of the areas of influence of well-established tourist destinations, (b) rural municipalities where this supply of accommodation presents an average volume and growth rate, located in inland areas of Catalonia and in high mountain regions with non-mass tourism development models specializing in rural tourism. This supply is helping boost tourism by expanding and diversifying the range of accommodation, and (c) rural municipalities where no tourist accommodation was available before the arrival of P2P accommodation. These are municipalities in inland areas with a strong agricultural presence, where P2P accommodation is paving the way for tourism.

AbstractCollaborative economy refers to social and economic sharing activities that make entities (customer and peer provider) in-service ecosystem can access services through technology or digital platform. This research aims to give a better understanding of activities and interaction between entities that can potentially elevate the existence of peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation in Indonesia. Although research regarding the collaborative economy has been accelerating, there has not been a formal conceptualization of interaction from a broadening perspective as a service ecosystem in the context of co-creation. Preliminary study becomes crucial and relevant with the raising of the collaborative economy, based on the consideration that no previous research is considered to be able to explain the dynamics of interaction by using a perspective of Service-Dominant Logic (S-D Logic). This study seeks to answer two research questions, what interactions occur outside consumers, peer providers, platform providers, and how co-creation might be created in the P2P service ecosystem. This conceptual paper draws on the interaction from the perspective of co-creation between entities and stakeholders as a lens by using the systematic-qualitative approach. In general, this study uses the Soft System Methodology (SSM) precisely defining an unstructured situation in the real world. This study tries to initiate the development of phases of co-creation between entities in the service ecosystem. The outcomes of this study enrich the body of knowledge of service science, especially on the way to apply the framework value co-creation. The development of a better service ecosystem across particular engagement remains critical.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential effects of the so-called sharing economy on growing city tourism as well as on urban property markets. Design/methodology/approach Official statistical data and a geo-information system (GIS) are used on a small scale in order to identify concentration processes among overnight visitors and the potential concomitant conflicts with other interest groups. Findings Currently, the effects of the sharing economy on housing markets and city tourism are barely measurable and are limited to a few central locations. However, a growing demand can be discerned in housing-like accommodation concepts which can be operated via booking platforms. As there is likely to be strong future growth in this area, continuous market observation (monitoring) is urgently advised. Research limitations/implications Official statistics only allow an analysis of overnight guests staying with larger accommodation providers. Booking platforms for holiday homes and other temporary accommodation options have such little interest in data transparency that the overall phenomenon of city tourism can be addressed only in part. Practical implications Associating various data within the GIS enables municipal administrators and urban planners to identify potential sources of conflict within the property markets in good time and effectively counteract these where possible. Social implications Increases in property prices directly attributable to growing city tourism may lead to the displacement of less financially secure members of the established population as well as businesses. Originality/value The sharing economy is a relatively new research topic which will become increasingly important in future. The identification of potential sources of conflict due to tourist accommodation has therefore not yet been comprehensively carried out on a small scale.

This paper presents a power control method for a hybrid electrical system, which enhances a conventional main AC grid by adding a DC sub-grid in parallel. In this system, each prosumer connects to the sub-grid via a couple of half-bridge inverters of a device called a power router. All of the power routers connected to the sub-grid are controlled such that they maintain the voltage of the sub-grid equally, which is an essential feature of peer-to-peer power accommodation without synchronization. This paper proposes an adaptive hysteresis current-control technique for controlling sub-grid-connected inverters that maintains the voltage of the sub-grid while accommodating a given power. The proposed control method also balances currents between positive and negative lines of the sub-grid simultaneously. The proposed control method is implemented on a high-speed FPGA-based digital controller and is evaluated on three prototypes of the power router. The experimental results show that the proposed method yields fast and stable responses and enables the power router to accommodate power with a high accuracy.

While governments around the world are embarking on the path to recovery from the COVID-19 crisis, sustainable tourism planning is crucial, in particular in the hospitality sector, which enhances the resilience of destinations. However, many destination management models overlook the role of urban zoning. Little is known about the impacts of land-use zoning on the hospitality and property industries, especially with the current disruption of short-term peer-to-peer accommodation like Airbnb. Euclidean zoning, also known as effects-based planning, has long been criticised in destination management for its exclusionary nature and lack of flexibility. With exclusionary zoning, property owners may only be able to use their land sub-optimally, and cities will be less efficient in responding to market changes in short-term and long-term accommodation demands, but planning intentions can be better controlled, and the property supply can be more stable. Taking Hong Kong as a noteworthy case, this study puts forward a conceptual framework that enables comparison of a novel zoning approach with the traditional zoning approach. This novel zoning approach encompasses both the short- and long-term rental sectors as a continuum of accommodation, ranging from hotels and serviced apartments to Airbnb and rental housing units under a unified regulatory and planning regime to enhance the switching options value. This novel zoning system can gear up the tourism sector with the rapid growth of the sharing economy and aligns with sustainable tourism to ensure long-term socioeconomic benefits to related stakeholders. We extract the data of Airbnb listings to construct the first Airbnb ADR Index (ADRI) by Repeat-sales method, and the results support our Switching Option Hypothesis.

Purpose This paper aims to focus on collaborative consumption, that is, the peer-to-peer (P2P) exchange of goods and services facilitated by online platforms. Anchored in the access paradigm, collaborative consumption (e.g. accommodation rental and ridesharing services) differs from commercial services offered by firms (e.g. business-to-customer [B2C] carsharing). The aim of this study is to examine the nuanced styles of collaborative consumption in relation to market-mediated access practices and socially mediated sharing practices. Design/methodology/approach Following the general research trend on mobility services, the context of long-distance ridesharing is chosen. Data collection was conducted using participant observation as peer service provider, 11 ethnographic interviews of consumers and a netnographic study of digital artifacts. Findings Using practice theory, ten ridesharing activities were identified. These activities and the nuances in the procedures, understandings and engagements in the ridesharing practice led to the distinction of three styles of collaborative consumption: communal collaborative consumption, which is when participants seek pro-social relationships in belonging to a community; consumerist collaborative consumption, performed by participants who seek status and convenience in the access lifestyle; and opportunistic collaborative consumption, when participants seek to achieve monetary gain or personal benefits from abusive activities. Originality/value By taking a phenomenological approach on collaborative consumption, this study adds to the understanding of the sharing economy as embedded in both a utilitarian/commercial economic system and a non-market/communal social system. The three styles of collaborative consumption propose a framework for future studies differentiating P2P exchanges from other practices (i.e. B2C access-based services and sharing).

PurposeFocusing on the supply side of peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation service sector, this study identifies the emerging types of micro-enterprise operators in the growing Chinese market, and investigate their respective operational risks and coping strategies.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative study was adopted to explore the micro-enterprise in peer-to-peer accommodation in China. Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore the operators' behaviors in the service sector.FindingsBased on the types of property ownership and forms of interaction, four groups of operators were identified, i.e. hospitable sharers, remote sharers, roommates and butlers. This study uncovers their operational risk factors (safety, cost, legal and social, psychological) and respective coping strategies.Originality/valueMost prior studies on P2P accommodation sector are conducted from the demand side about customer behaviors. This study not only enhances the understanding of the hosts in the sharing economy by developing a novel typology of operators, but also provides insights into the operational behaviors on an individual operator perspective.

This paper examines various aspects of the results of the analysis on the inclusion of migrant children in the education system of the Republic of Serbia. The subject of study in this paper are migrants in transit, to whom Serbia is one of the countries on the route to thefinal destination. That is the reason why the education of these children in Serbia had a temporary character and did not had the integration into Serbian society as a final goal, as it was the situation during the migration from the post-Yugoslav territories to which Serbia was the final destination. Since the beginning of the migration crisis in 2015 to the end of 2018, about 720,000 migrants passed through Serbia. Over 20 percent of the migrants were children. The inclusion of migrant children in the education system of the Republic of Serbia was a great challenge for the education system as well as for the migrant children. Between 2013 and 2015, the education of these children was mostly in the form of non-formal education. Since 2015, migrant children have been continuously involved in the institutional education system - in primary and secondary schools, most often in the vicinity of centers for accommodation and reception of migrants. The inclusion in the education system had been done with the support of relevant governmental institutions, non-governmental organizations and international organizations. The large influx of migrant children, along with language, cultural and administrative barriers, and non-inclusion in the education process in the country of origin, were the challenges that required great efforts for their inclusion into the education system of Serbia. The most significant factor is the transit character of their stay in Serbia, which has made it difficult to learn languages and monitor teaching, as well as their integration into the new social environment. The transit factor has also influenced the continuity of teaching, which was very difficult for the children and the schools. Parallel with the inclusion of migrant children in the education system, the procedures for their enrollment in school and the manner of supporting their education were regulated. Through various international projects, teachers have been trained to work with migrant children and additional support has been provided to schools. Special attention has been given to adaptation and overcoming stress, intensive language learning, didactic material, methods and engaging in extracurricular activities with peer support.Schools developed plans to support new students, established teams for inclusive teaching, conducted a preliminary check of the level of education and acquired knowledge directed to determine which class the child would be enrolled in, according to the age. During the education of the children, schools had an adequate communication with parents or guardians. The required documentation was kept on the migrant children involved in the educational process. Because of their discontinuity in teaching, these children were not graded according to the standard system, but with descriptive grades. The student's booklets are given to them mainly because of psychological effect. The school, prior to official withdraw from the school, produced a report in Serbian and English for each child, which is handed over to parents or guardians as the evidence for the purpose of continuing the education in the country of their next or final destination. The outcomes of the education of migrant children in Serbia can also be considered through the effects of intercultural exchange and as contribution to integration into the destination country.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to conduct an empirical examination of the mediating influence of time management (TM) on relationship between adult attention deficit (AAD) and role stress (RS). Design/methodology/approach – In total, 117 actively employed business graduate students completed a self-report measure of RS and identified two close associates, one of which completed an observer version of the Brown Attention Deficit Scale while the other complete an observer version of a TM measure. Product moment correlations were used to test the hypotheses that AAD, TM and RS were associated. The Sobel test of mediation was used to test the hypothesis that TM mediated the relationship between AAD and RS. Findings – AAD, TM and RS are associated with each other and TM partially mediates the relationship between AAD and RS. Research limitations/implications – Research study is limited by a measure of AAD that may not fully represent all the key symptom clusters and an indirect workplace sample. Further investigation of AAD symptoms, including potentially positive manifestations like entre/intrapreneurial cognition and behavior, is required to stabilize the content, structure and measurement of the construct. Practical implications – Organizations wishing to ensure timely completion of tasks and limit disruptive RS need to be aware of the influence of AAD. The provision of TM training, productivity management tools and an organized work space free of distractions is suggested for disordered employees. Various forms of organizational coaching including a peer coaching system may help disordered employees better manage both their time and their role. The effective design and management of teams represents a significant opportunity for effectively distributing the potential benefits of the disorder while managing deficits like poor TM and increased RS. Organizational development interventions that focus on TM and role (re)negotiation are suggested. Employee assistance programs that raise awareness and provide access to assessment are an important part of multimodal management of the disorder. Social implications – Increasing social, economic and legal pressures to provide reasonable accommodation for functional but disordered employees and take appropriate advantage of employee diversity underscores the general social value of this research. Originality/value – This research study is the first empirical examination of the mediating influence of TM on the relationship between AAD and RS. The results are of value to researchers, organizational development specialists, human resource management specialists, managers and employees who are seeking effective multimodal management of the disorder in the workplace.

Purpose To better understand what inhibits people from participating in collaborative consumption, this paper aims to develop research models of users and non-users to examine the relationship between perceived risks and intentions to use peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation. Moreover, differences of risk perceptions and behavioral intentions between P2P accommodation users and non-users were identified. Design/methodology/approach The method of convenience sampling was used to collect data. Excluding the invalid questionnaires, 520 were kept for further analysis. In this paper, SPSS and partial least squares (PLS) were used to analyze the data. Findings The findings highlighted the important role of perceived risks in determining tourists’ intentions to use P2P accommodation. The results showed that non-users have higher perceived risks in regards to all four risk dimensions (psychological risk, physical risk, performance risk and social risk), and they also have significantly lower behavioral intentions to use P2P accommodation than the users. For users, only the psychological risk has significant negative effects on behavioral intentions, while for non-users, both psychological and physical risks are important inhibitors. Originality/value This paper contributes to a better understanding of the antecedents that influence consumers’ participation in collaborative consumption in the P2P accommodation domain. Second, it extends the literature on perceived risk by discussing users and non-users in this market. Finally, this research provides insights into the P2P accommodation market in China, which enables online travel platforms to develop targeted marketing strategies.

The University of Namibia (UNAM) is the only national university in Namibia that was established in 1992. It offers diploma and degree courses. The Bachelor of Nursing Science (Clinical) (Honours) was introduced in 2008 after the Diploma in Comprehensive Nursing Science was phased out. This degree is offered over the period of four years full-time. Students are allocated to the clinical practice throughout the training to acquire the relevant nursing skills. At the time of research the course was offered at two campuses only namely Windhoek and Oshakati. The total number of students who were admitted in 2010 was 83, but at the time of the research when they were in their fourth year, there were only 59. The difference of 24 was the students who could not make it to the fourth year and finish in the prescribed time frame. The lecturers were concerned with the poor performance of the students, the increased number of students with some modules behind, and the overcrowding of some classes. The purpose of the study was to identify, explore and describe the factors that hinder the academic performance of the nursing students at the UNAM Oshakati campus. The study was conducted among nursing students who registered for the Bachelor of Nursing Science (Clinical) (Honours) in 2010. The study was qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and contextual in nature using non-probability purposive sampling. The findings revealed that the academic performance of student nurses at the University of Namibia Oshakati campus is influenced by both internal and external factors. However, external factors are many compared to internal factors. External related factors comprise of teaching and learning, insufficient resources, lack of university accommodation, curriculum related and socio-economic factors. Teaching and learning related factors include use of one teaching strategy, language barriers, inadequate support and labeling of students by lecturers. On the other hand, insufficient resources are unavailability of the bookshop on campus, insufficient prescribed textbooks, poor internet facility, lack of space and less equipped library. Curriculum related factors include overloaded examination time table, huge scope of test, study day system and module pre-requisites, while socio-economic factors are problems in relationships, peer influence, financial problems and pregnancy while studying. Internal factors comprise of students’ attitude and lack of self-discipline among some students. Those factors result in increased number of students with some modules behind, overcrowding of some classes, increased student-lecturer ratio and some students not completing their studies within the prescribed time frame.

Service Networks (SNs) are open systems accommodating the co-production of new knowledge and services through organic peer-to-peer interactions. Key to broad success of SNs in practice is their ability to foster and ensure a high performance. By performance we mean the joint effort of tremendous interdisciplinary collaboration, cooperation and coordination among the network participants. However, due to the heterogeneous background of such participants (i.e., business, technical, etc.), operational gaps are likely to appear in the end-to-end service provisioning process. Especially when there are performance anomalies, the SNs lack of traceability to find out the root cause, due to the confusions in the multi-disciplinary communication of SNs participants. To deal with such a problem, we propose a novel method of diagnosing SNs performance on the basis of a systems thinking mindset. By using our diagnostics, the SNs essence and performance are identified and modeled in both static and dynamic manners. The SNs performance can be tuned and optimized with improved traceability to the involved service operations.

This participatory action study involved interviews with 80 Sierra Leonean university students. Participants reported stress caused by personal challenges (financial, access to transportation, peer pressure, lack of emotional support), university resources (lack of accommodation, water, toilets, learning materials, technology), and issues with instructors (sexual harassment, bribery). Also, the students described their coping strategies, including ‘staying quiet’, seeking external support, turning toward God, engaging in recreation, and ‘encouraging myself’. Implications for social work interventions on the micro level, organizational level, and policy level are discussed in order to take a holistic, systems approach to promoting quality tertiary education in developing countries.

Social voting is becoming the new reason behind social recommendation these days. It helps in providing accurate recommendations with the help of factors like social trust etc. Here we propose Matrix factorization (MF) and nearest neighbor-based recommender systems accommodating the factors of user activities and also compared them with the peer reviewers, to provide a accurate recommendation. Through experiments we realized that the affiliation factors are very much needed for improving the accuracy of the recommender systems. This information helps us to overcome the cold start problem of the recommendation system and also y the analysis this information was much useful to cold users than to heavy users. In our experiments simple neighborhood model outperform the computerized matrix factorization models in the hot voting and non hot voting recommendation. We also proposed a hybrid recommender system producing a top-k recommendation inculcating different single approaches.

Sustainability promotes a feasible strategy to achieve a continuous development of the economy, society, and environment. This study aims to analyze the growing efforts on researches made by academic communities in exploring the sharing economy as a potential approach to promote sustainable development. A bibliometric approach with VOSviewer and COOC analysis was applied. A total number of 975 published articles were analyzed in this study. As a result, it was found that few studies have shed light on collaborative and sustainable consumption, climate change, and bioeconomy in the sharing economy by country, such as renewable resources and business models, circular economy in China, and life cycle assessment, particularly taking evidence from the urban mobility services in China. It was also revealed that there is a new indiscipline research trend in the field of sustainable development such as sustainable business models, game theory, blue economy, peer-to-peer accommodation, smart grids, and electric vehicles. Other trend concentrates on technological advancements and policies to promote sustainable development in the sharing economy.

The transition to sustainable food systems is one of the main challenges facing national and international action plans. It is estimated that food services and lodging accommodation activities are under pressure in terms of resource consumption and waste generation, and several tools are required to monitor their ecological transition. The present research adopts a semi-systematic and critical review of the current trends in the food service and lodging accommodation industries on a global scale and investigates the real current environmental indicators adopted internationally that can help to assess ecological transition. This research tries to answer the subsequent questions: (i) how has the ecological transition in the food service industry been monitored? and (ii) how has the ecological transition in the lodging accommodation industry been monitored? Our study reviews 66 peer-reviewed articles and conference proceedings included in Web of Science between 2015 and 2021. The results were analyzed according to content analysis and co-word analysis. Additionally, we provide a multidimensional measurement dashboard of empirical and theoretical indicators and distinguish between air, water, energy, waste, health, and economic scopes. In light of the co-word analysis, five research clusters were identified in the literature: “food cluster”, “water cluster”, “consumers cluster”, “corporate cluster”, and “energy cluster”. Overall, it emerges that food, water, and energy are the most impacted natural resources in tourism, and users and managers are the stakeholders who must be involved in active monitoring.

The move to integrated schooling for students with disabilities, begun in the 1960s, initially focused on meeting ‘special needs’ within the mainstream, without consideration of overall system change. Recent policy documents promote respect for diversity but integration remains weighted towards ‘accommodating’ minority needs within an increasingly strained old discourse of normality that serves the interests of the dominant majority and informs school policy and practice in Ireland. An exploratory research project called ‘Hidden Voices’ aimed to register for the first time how young Irish people with disabilities read their experience of mainstream second level schooling. This paper presents findings on two interrelated aspects of their experience – mobility and peer relations. It will emerge that constructs of normality that inform schools’ built environment profoundly distort the school experience, social and academic, of students with disabilities. A new paradigm of normality is called for.

Purpose This paper aims to investigate customers’ experiences with Airbnb by text-mining customer reviews posted on the platform and comparing the extracted topics from online reviews between Airbnb and the traditional hotel industry using topic modeling. Design/methodology/approach This research uses text-mining approaches, including content analysis and topic modeling (latent Dirichlet allocation method), to examine 1,026,988 Airbnb guest reviews of 50,933 listings in seven cities in the USA. Findings The content analysis shows that negative reviews are more authentic and credible than positive reviews on Airbnb and that the occurrence of social words is positively related to positive emotion in reviews, but negatively related to negative emotion in reviews. A comparison of reviews on Airbnb and hotel reviews shows unique topics on Airbnb, namely, “late check-in”, “patio and deck view”, “food in kitchen”, “help from host”, “door lock/key”, “sleep/bed condition” and “host response”. Research limitations/implications The topic modeling result suggests that Airbnb guests want to get to know and connect with the local community; thus, help from hosts on ways they can authentically experience the local community would be beneficial. In addition, the results suggest that customers emphasize their interaction with hosts; thus, to improve customer satisfaction, Airbnb hosts should interact with guests and respond to guests’ inquiries quickly. Practical implications Hotel managers should design marketing programs that fulfill customers’ desire for authentic and local experiences. The results also suggest that peer-to-peer accommodation platforms should improve online review systems to facilitate authentic reviews and help guests have a smooth check-in process. Originality/value This study is one of the first to examine consumer reviews in detail in the sharing economy and compare topics from consumer reviews between Airbnb and hotels.

Objective. This study reviews modifiable risk factors associated with fatal and nonfatal injury from low-speed vehicle runover (LSVRO) incidents involving children aged 0–15 years.Data Sources. Electronic searches for child pedestrian and driveway injuries from the peer-reviewed literature and transport-related websites from 1955 to 2012.Study Selection. 41 studies met the study inclusion criteria.Data Extraction. A systematic narrative summary was conducted that included study design, methodology, risk factors, and other study variables.Results. The most commonly reported risk factors for LSVRO incidents included age under 5 years, male gender, and reversing vehicles. The majority of reported incidents involved residential driveways, but several studies identified other traffic and nontraffic locations. Low socioeconomic status and rental accommodation were also associated with LSVRO injury. Vehicles were most commonly driven by a family member, predominantly a parent.Conclusion. There are a number of modifiable vehicular, environmental, and behavioural factors associated with LSVRO injuries in young children that have been identified in the literature to date. Strategies relating to vehicle design (devices for increased rearward visibility and crash avoidance systems), housing design (physical separation of driveway and play areas), and behaviour (driver behaviour, supervision of young children) are discussed.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to present a holistic review of journal articles on value cocreation in the tourism and hospitality field. By distinguishing similarities and differences in the contexts of China and other regions, the authors identify targeted research directions. Design/methodology/approach This study collected 438 English articles and 31 Chinese articles on value cocreation in tourism and hospitality published in the Web of Science, Scopus and China National Knowledge Infrastructure online databases. After analyzing the study location of all articles in the sample, the authors identified 79 English-language articles that adopted China as the context of the study. The first data set included non-China-focused publications and the second data set included China-focused publications. A comparative bibliometric methodology was conducted. Findings The results indicate similarities and differences between the two data sets in terms of research methods, topics and future research directions. Seven major concepts were identified in the first data set: hospitality value cocreation; the value generation process; key stakeholders; outcome variables; the application of service-dominant logic; peer-to-peer accommodation and destination management. Four research focuses were identified in the second data set: the application of customer-dominant logic; the value generation process; resource integration and the cocreation experience. Research limitations/implications This research contributes to the understanding of tourism and hospitality cocreation systems through literature analysis and encourages future research on the nexus of the Chinese and global contexts. This systematic investigation extends the concept of value cocreation by integrating its implementation process and value categories and further evaluates the consequences and benefits of value cocreation, which helps clarify how winners and losers can adjust their strategies accordingly. Originality/value The originality of this paper lies in the adopted comparative bibliometric analysis which comprehensively reviewed and compared the characteristics of value cocreation research across two contexts. In addition, the study dialectically assesses Chinese tourism cocreation phenomena and their impacts from a global perspective.

Payment industry is largely aligned in their desire to create embedded payment systems ready for the modern digital age. The trend to embed payments into a software platform is often regarded as first step towards a broader trend of embedded finance based on digital representation of fiat currencies. Since it became clear to our research team that there are no technologies and protocols that are protected against attacks of quantum computing, and that enable automatic embedded payments, online or offline with no fear of counterfeit, P2P or device-to-device to be made in real time without intermediaries, in any denomination, even continuous payments per time or service, while preserving the privacy of all parties, without enabling illicit activities, we decided to utilize the Generic Innovation Engine [1] that is based on the Artificial Intelligence Assistance Innovation acceleration methodologies and tools in order to boost the progress of innovation of the necessary solutions. These methodologies accelerate innovation across the board. It proposes a framework for natural and artificial intelligence collaboration in pursuit of an innovative (R&D) objective The outcome of deploying these Artificial Innovation Assistant (AIA) methodologies was tens of patents that yield solutions, that a few of them are described in this paper. We argue that a promising avenue for automated embedded payment systems to fulfil people’s desire for privacy when conducting payments, and national security agencies demand for quantum-safe security, could be based on DeFi and digital currencies platforms that does not suffer from flaws of DLT-based solutions, while introducing real advantages, in all aspects, including being quantum-resilient, enabling users to decide with whom, if at all, to share information, identity, transactions details, etc., all without trade-offs, complying with AML measures, and accommodating the potential for high transaction volumes. It is not legacy bank accounts, and it is not peer-dependent, nor a self-organizing network.

Abstract People with long-standing physical disabilities are living longer than at any time in history, owing to advancements in medical science, rehabilitation, and social systems. Approximately 12–15 million people in the U.S. are aging with long-standing disabilities that were acquired before age 40 years. This population is forecast to grow, resulting in a subset within the aging community. More research is needed to increase understanding of successful aging with disabilities, the pathways of aging with disability, and unique characteristics of the aging process. The purpose was to define and clarify the conceptual meaning of aging with disability, identify its attributes, antecedents, and consequences, and explore the significance and implications of the concept in nursing. Rodgers’ evolutionary method of concept analysis was used. Three databases, CINAHL, PubMed, and PsycINFO were used to retrieve literature. Inclusion criteria were publication year from 2001 to 2019, peer-reviewed academic journals, and English-language. Exclusion criteria included other than physical disability such as developmental, learning, or intellectual disability, focus on the aging process of people without disability, the main topic on the perspectives of caregivers or health care providers. Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria. The analysis identified three antecedents (e.g., contributing barriers), three attributes (e.g., premature aging), and three consequences (e.g., accommodation needs). An understanding of the antecedents, attributes, and consequences of aging with disabilities will enhance quality of care including effective prevention and communication. Findings will guide researchers in developing a framework or theory to increase understanding of aging in individuals who acquired disability early in life.

ObjectivesIndividuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) are over-represented within the justice system and have significant employment challenges. The primary aim of this scoping review was to ascertain available employment resources for FASD individuals particularly those involved in the justice system. Secondary aims were to determine available evidence-based interventions for the justice workforce and employment providers.MethodsEligibility criteria: That the resource was (a) published between 1990 and 2021, (b) in English, (c) available electronically in full text, (d) focused on strategies for improving employment outcomes of individuals with FASD and (f) developed for those aged over 15.Sources of evidence:Electronic searches of the following databases were conducted: EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Grey literature was collected via the databases ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, OpenGrey, GreyNet International and Grey Matters.Charting methods:Using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews reporting guidelines, a five-stage methodological framework was employed. A quality appraisal of identified resources was conducted. Data were summarised qualitatively using a content analysis method that allowed for analysis of specific terms/themes/concepts/resource elements that resources covered, as well as a quantitative analysis of their frequency.ResultsAn initial search identified 850 articles, 512 of which were obtained through online database searches, 321 through Google Scholar searches and 17 through google searches. Sixteen resources were identified as meeting inclusion criteria, including four peer-reviewed papers and 12 grey literature resources. Six of the resources extracted were deemed ‘good’ or ‘strong’ quality, with the remainder—all grey literature resources—being ‘adequate’ or ‘limited’. None of the resources identified were empirically evaluated or could be implemented synergistically. Content analysis revealed common themes addressing FASD-related employment challenges and required supports.ConclusionsThis review highlights the need for developing evidence-based employment-related resources for justice-involved people with FASD. Most of the 16 identified resources had a psychoeducational and advocacy component and described typical employment challenges with specific supports and accommodations to maximise workforce participation. However, none had been empirically evaluated, underscoring the importance of future research in this area to better inform more responsive and evidence-based employment-related programmes.Trial registration numberdoi:10.17605/OSF.IO/J5VMB.

To date, discrete event stochastic simulations of large scale biological reaction systems are extremely compute-intensive and time-consuming. Besides, it has been widely accepted that spatial factor plays a critical role in the dynamics of most biological reaction systems. The NSM (the Next Sub-Volume Method), a spatial variation of the Gillespie’s stochastic simulation algorithm (SSA), has been proposed for spatially stochastic simulation of those systems. While being able to explore high degree of parallelism in systems, NSM is inherently sequential, which still suffers from the problem of low simulation speed. Fine-grained parallel execution is an elegant way to speed up sequential simulations. Thus, based on the discrete event simulation framework JAMES II, we design and implement a PDES (Parallel Discrete Event Simulation) TW (time warp) simulator to enable the fine-grained parallel execution of spatial stochastic simulations of biological reaction systems using the ANSM (the Abstract NSM), a parallel variation of the NSM. The simulation results of classical Lotka-Volterra biological reaction system show that our time warp simulator obtains remarkable parallel speed-up against sequential execution of the NSM.I.IntroductionThe goal of Systems biology is to obtain system-level investigations of the structure and behavior of biological reaction systems by integrating biology with system theory, mathematics and computer science [1][3], since the isolated knowledge of parts can not explain the dynamics of a whole system. As the complement of “wet-lab” experiments, stochastic simulation, being called the “dry-computational” experiment, plays a more and more important role in computing systems biology [2]. Among many methods explored in systems biology, discrete event stochastic simulation is of greatly importance [4][5][6], since a great number of researches have present that stochasticity or “noise” have a crucial effect on the dynamics of small population biological reaction systems [4][7]. Furthermore, recent research shows that the stochasticity is not only important in biological reaction systems with small population but also in some moderate/large population systems [7].To date, Gillespie’s SSA [8] is widely considered to be the most accurate way to capture the dynamics of biological reaction systems instead of traditional mathematical method [5][9]. However, SSA-based stochastic simulation is confronted with two main challenges: Firstly, this type of simulation is extremely time-consuming, since when the types of species and the number of reactions in the biological system are large, SSA requires a huge amount of steps to sample these reactions; Secondly, the assumption that the systems are spatially homogeneous or well-stirred is hardly met in most real biological systems and spatial factors play a key role in the behaviors of most real biological systems [19][20][21][22][23][24]. The next sub-volume method (NSM) [18], presents us an elegant way to access the special problem via domain partition. To our disappointment, sequential stochastic simulation with the NSM is still very time-consuming, and additionally introduced diffusion among neighbor sub-volumes makes things worse. Whereas, the NSM explores a very high degree of parallelism among sub-volumes, and parallelization has been widely accepted as the most meaningful way to tackle the performance bottleneck of sequential simulations [26][27]. Thus, adapting parallel discrete event simulation (PDES) techniques to discrete event stochastic simulation would be particularly promising. Although there are a few attempts have been conducted [29][30][31], research in this filed is still in its infancy and many issues are in need of further discussion. The next section of the paper presents the background and related work in this domain. In section III, we give the details of design and implementation of model interfaces of LP paradigm and the time warp simulator based on the discrete event simulation framework JAMES II; the benchmark model and experiment results are shown in Section IV; in the last section, we conclude the paper with some future work.II. Background and Related WorkA. Parallel Discrete Event Simulation (PDES)The notion Logical Process (LP) is introduced to PDES as the abstract of the physical process [26], where a system consisting of many physical processes is usually modeled by a set of LP. LP is regarded as the smallest unit that can be executed in PDES and each LP holds a sub-partition of the whole system’s state variables as its private ones. When a LP processes an event, it can only modify the state variables of its own. If one LP needs to modify one of its neighbors’ state variables, it has to schedule an event to the target neighbor. That is to say event message exchanging is the only way that LPs interact with each other. Because of the data dependences or interactions among LPs, synchronization protocols have to be introduced to PDES to guarantee the so-called local causality constraint (LCC) [26]. By now, there are a larger number of synchronization algorithms have been proposed, e.g. the null-message [26], the time warp (TW) [32], breath time warp (BTW) [33] and etc. According to whether can events of LPs be processed optimistically, they are generally divided into two types: conservative algorithms and optimistic algorithms. However, Dematté and Mazza have theoretically pointed out the disadvantages of pure conservative parallel simulation for biochemical reaction systems [31]. B. NSM and ANSM The NSM is a spatial variation of Gillespie’ SSA, which integrates the direct method (DM) [8] with the next reaction method (NRM) [25]. The NSM presents us a pretty good way to tackle the aspect of space in biological systems by partitioning a spatially inhomogeneous system into many much more smaller “homogeneous” ones, which can be simulated by SSA separately. However, the NSM is inherently combined with the sequential semantics, and all sub-volumes share one common data structure for events or messages. Thus, directly parallelization of the NSM may be confronted with the so-called boundary problem and high costs of synchronously accessing the common data structure [29]. In order to obtain higher efficiency of parallel simulation, parallelization of NSM has to firstly free the NSM from the sequential semantics and secondly partition the shared data structure into many “parallel” ones. One of these is the abstract next sub-volume method (ANSM) [30]. In the ANSM, each sub-volume is modeled by a logical process (LP) based on the LP paradigm of PDES, where each LP held its own event queue and state variables (see Fig. 1). In addition, the so-called retraction mechanism was introduced in the ANSM too (see algorithm 1). Besides, based on the ANSM, Wang etc. [30] have experimentally tested the performance of several PDES algorithms in the platform called YH-SUPE [27]. However, their platform is designed for general simulation applications, thus it would sacrifice some performance for being not able to take into account the characteristics of biological reaction systems. Using the similar ideas of the ANSM, Dematté and Mazza have designed and realized an optimistic simulator. However, they processed events in time-stepped manner, which would lose a specific degree of precisions compared with the discrete event manner, and it is very hard to transfer a time-stepped simulation to a discrete event one. In addition, Jeschke etc.[29] have designed and implemented a dynamic time-window simulator to execution the NSM in parallel on the grid computing environment, however, they paid main attention on the analysis of communication costs and determining a better size of the time-window.Fig. 1: the variations from SSA to NSM and from NSM to ANSMC. JAMES II JAMES II is an open source discrete event simulation experiment framework developed by the University of Rostock in Germany. It focuses on high flexibility and scalability [11][13]. Based on the plug-in scheme [12], each function of JAMES II is defined as a specific plug-in type, and all plug-in types and plug-ins are declared in XML-files [13]. Combined with the factory method pattern JAMES II innovatively split up the model and simulator, which makes JAMES II is very flexible to add and reuse both of models and simulators. In addition, JAMES II supports various types of modelling formalisms, e.g. cellular automata, discrete event system specification (DEVS), SpacePi, StochasticPi and etc.[14]. Besides, a well-defined simulator selection mechanism is designed and developed in JAMES II, which can not only automatically choose the proper simulators according to the modeling formalism but also pick out a specific simulator from a serious of simulators supporting the same modeling formalism according to the user settings [15].III. The Model Interface and SimulatorAs we have mentioned in section II (part C), model and simulator are split up into two separate parts. Thus, in this section, we introduce the designation and implementation of model interface of LP paradigm and more importantly the time warp simulator.A. The Mod Interface of LP ParadigmJAMES II provides abstract model interfaces for different modeling formalism, based on which Wang etc. have designed and implemented model interface of LP paradigm[16]. However, this interface is not scalable well for parallel and distributed simulation of larger scale systems. In our implementation, we accommodate the interface to the situation of parallel and distributed situations. Firstly, the neighbor LP’s reference is replaced by its name in LP’s neighbor queue, because it is improper even dangerous that a local LP hold the references of other LPs in remote memory space. In addition, (pseudo-)random number plays a crucial role to obtain valid and meaningful results in stochastic simulations. However, it is still a very challenge work to find a good random number generator (RNG) [34]. Thus, in order to focus on our problems, we introduce one of the uniform RNGs of JAMES II to this model interface, where each LP holds a private RNG so that random number streams of different LPs can be independent stochastically. B. The Time Warp SimulatorBased on the simulator interface provided by JAMES II, we design and implement the time warp simulator, which contains the (master-)simulator, (LP-)simulator. The simulator works strictly as master/worker(s) paradigm for fine-grained parallel and distributed stochastic simulations. Communication costs are crucial to the performance of a fine-grained parallel and distributed simulation. Based on the Java remote method invocation (RMI) mechanism, P2P (peer-to-peer) communication is implemented among all (master-and LP-)simulators, where a simulator holds all the proxies of targeted ones that work on remote workers. One of the advantages of this communication approach is that PDES codes can be transferred to various hardwire environment, such as Clusters, Grids and distributed computing environment, with only a little modification; The other is that RMI mechanism is easy to realized and independent to any other non-Java libraries. Since the straggler event problem, states have to be saved to rollback events that are pre-processed optimistically. Each time being modified, the state is cloned to a queue by Java clone mechanism. Problem of this copy state saving approach is that it would cause loads of memory space. However, the problem can be made up by a condign GVT calculating mechanism. GVT reduction scheme also has a significant impact on the performance of parallel simulators, since it marks the highest time boundary of events that can be committed so that memories of fossils (processed events and states) less than GVT can be reallocated. GVT calculating is a very knotty for the notorious simultaneous reporting problem and transient messages problem. According to our problem, another GVT algorithm, called Twice Notification (TN-GVT) (see algorithm 2), is contributed to this already rich repository instead of implementing one of GVT algorithms in reference [26] and [28].This algorithm looks like the synchronous algorithm described in reference [26] (pp. 114), however, they are essentially different from each other. This algorithm has never stopped the simulators from processing events when GVT reduction, while algorithm in reference [26] blocks all simulators for GVT calculating. As for the transient message problem, it can be neglect in our implementation, because RMI based remote communication approach is synchronized, that means a simulator will not go on its processing until the remote the massage get to its destination. And because of this, the high-costs message acknowledgement, prevalent over many classical asynchronous GVT algorithms, is not needed anymore too, which should be constructive to the whole performance of the time warp simulator.IV. Benchmark Model and Experiment ResultsA. The Lotka-Volterra Predator-prey SystemIn our experiment, the spatial version of Lotka-Volterra predator-prey system is introduced as the benchmark model (see Fig. 2). We choose the system for two considerations: 1) this system is a classical experimental model that has been used in many related researches [8][30][31], so it is credible and the simulation results are comparable; 2) it is simple but helpful enough to test the issues we are interested in. The space of predator-prey System is partitioned into a2D NXNgrid, whereNdenotes the edge size of the grid. Initially the population of the Grass, Preys and Predators are set to 1000 in each single sub-volume (LP). In Fig. 2,r1,r2,r3stand for the reaction constants of the reaction 1, 2 and 3 respectively. We usedGrass,dPreyanddPredatorto stand for the diffusion rate of Grass, Prey and Predator separately. Being similar to reference [8], we also take the assumption that the population of the grass remains stable, and thusdGrassis set to zero.R1:Grass + Prey ->2Prey(1)R2:Predator +Prey -> 2Predator(2)R3:Predator -> NULL(3)r1=0.01; r2=0.01; r3=10(4)dGrass=0.0;dPrey=2.5;dPredato=5.0(5)Fig. 2: predator-prey systemB. Experiment ResultsThe simulation runs have been executed on a Linux Cluster with 40 computing nodes. Each computing node is equipped with two 64bit 2.53 GHz Intel Xeon QuadCore Processors with 24GB RAM, and nodes are interconnected with Gigabit Ethernet connection. The operating system is Kylin Server 3.5, with kernel 2.6.18. Experiments have been conducted on the benchmark model of different size of mode to investigate the execution time and speedup of the time warp simulator. As shown in Fig. 3, the execution time of simulation on single processor with 8 cores is compared. The result shows that it will take more wall clock time to simulate much larger scale systems for the same simulation time. This testifies the fact that larger scale systems will leads to more events in the same time interval. More importantly, the blue line shows that the sequential simulation performance declines very fast when the mode scale becomes large. The bottleneck of sequential simulator is due to the costs of accessing a long event queue to choose the next events. Besides, from the comparison between group 1 and group 2 in this experiment, we could also conclude that high diffusion rate increased the simulation time greatly both in sequential and parallel simulations. This is because LP paradigm has to split diffusion into two processes (diffusion (in) and diffusion (out) event) for two interactive LPs involved in diffusion and high diffusion rate will lead to high proportional of diffusion to reaction. In the second step shown in Fig. 4, the relationship between the speedups from time warp of two different model sizes and the number of work cores involved are demonstrated. The speedup is calculated against the sequential execution of the spatial reaction-diffusion systems model with the same model size and parameters using NSM.Fig. 4 shows the comparison of speedup of time warp on a64X64grid and a100X100grid. In the case of a64X64grid, under the condition that only one node is used, the lowest speedup (a little bigger than 1) is achieved when two cores involved, and the highest speedup (about 6) is achieved when 8 cores involved. The influence of the number of cores used in parallel simulation is investigated. In most cases, large number of cores could bring in considerable improvements in the performance of parallel simulation. Also, compared with the two results in Fig. 4, the simulation of larger model achieves better speedup. Combined with time tests (Fig. 3), we find that sequential simulator’s performance declines sharply when the model scale becomes very large, which makes the time warp simulator get better speed-up correspondingly.Fig. 3: Execution time (wall clock time) of Seq. and time warp with respect to different model sizes (N=32, 64, 100, and 128) and model parameters based on single computing node with 8 cores. Results of the test are grouped by the diffusion rates (Group 1: Sequential 1 and Time Warp 1. dPrey=2.5, dPredator=5.0; Group 2: dPrey=0.25, dPredator=0.5, Sequential 2 and Time Warp 2).Fig. 4: Speedup of time warp with respect to the number of work cores and the model size (N=64 and 100). Work cores are chose from one computing node. Diffusion rates are dPrey=2.5, dPredator=5.0 and dGrass=0.0.V. Conclusion and Future WorkIn this paper, a time warp simulator based on the discrete event simulation framework JAMES II is designed and implemented for fine-grained parallel and distributed discrete event spatial stochastic simulation of biological reaction systems. Several challenges have been overcome, such as state saving, roll back and especially GVT reduction in parallel execution of simulations. The Lotka-Volterra Predator-Prey system is chosen as the benchmark model to test the performance of our time warp simulator and the best experiment results show that it can obtain about 6 times of speed-up against the sequential simulation. The domain this paper concerns with is in the infancy, many interesting issues are worthy of further investigated, e.g. there are many excellent PDES optimistic synchronization algorithms (e.g. the BTW) as well. Next step, we would like to fill some of them into JAMES II. In addition, Gillespie approximation methods (tau-leap[10] etc.) sacrifice some degree of precision for higher simulation speed, but still could not address the aspect of space of biological reaction systems. The combination of spatial element and approximation methods would be very interesting and promising; however, the parallel execution of tau-leap methods should have to overcome many obstacles on the road ahead.AcknowledgmentThis work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSF) Grant (No.60773019) and the Ph.D. Programs Foundation of Ministry of Education of China (No. 200899980004). The authors would like to show their great gratitude to Dr. Jan Himmelspach and Dr. Roland Ewald at the University of Rostock, Germany for their invaluable advice and kindly help with JAMES II.ReferencesH. Kitano, "Computational systems biology." Nature, vol. 420, no. 6912, pp. 206-210, November 2002.H. Kitano, "Systems biology: a brief overview." Science (New York, N.Y.), vol. 295, no. 5560, pp. 1662-1664, March 2002.A. Aderem, "Systems biology: Its practice and challenges," Cell, vol. 121, no. 4, pp. 511-513, May 2005. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2005.04.020.H. de Jong, "Modeling and simulation of genetic regulatory systems: A literature review," Journal of Computational Biology, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 67-103, January 2002.C. W. Gardiner, Handbook of Stochastic Methods: for Physics, Chemistry and the Natural Sciences (Springer Series in Synergetics), 3rd ed. Springer, April 2004.D. T. Gillespie, "Simulation methods in systems biology," in Formal Methods for Computational Systems Biology, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, M. Bernardo, P. Degano, and G. Zavattaro, Eds. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008, vol. 5016, ch. 5, pp. 125-167.Y. Tao, Y. Jia, and G. T. Dewey, "Stochastic fluctuations in gene expression far from equilibrium: Omega expansion and linear noise approximation," The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 122, no. 12, 2005.D. T. Gillespie, "Exact stochastic simulation of coupled chemical reactions," Journal of Physical Chemistry, vol. 81, no. 25, pp. 2340-2361, December 1977.D. T. Gillespie, "Stochastic simulation of chemical kinetics," Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 35-55, 2007.D. T. Gillespie, "Approximate accelerated stochastic simulation of chemically reacting systems," The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 115, no. 4, pp. 1716-1733, 2001.J. Himmelspach, R. Ewald, and A. M. Uhrmacher, "A flexible and scalable experimentation layer," in WSC '08: Proceedings of the 40th Conference on Winter Simulation. Winter Simulation Conference, 2008, pp. 827-835.J. Himmelspach and A. M. Uhrmacher, "Plug'n simulate," in 40th Annual Simulation Symposium (ANSS'07). Washington, DC, USA: IEEE, March 2007, pp. 137-143.R. Ewald, J. Himmelspach, M. Jeschke, S. Leye, and A. M. Uhrmacher, "Flexible experimentation in the modeling and simulation framework james ii-implications for computational systems biology," Brief Bioinform, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. bbp067-300, January 2010.A. Uhrmacher, J. Himmelspach, M. Jeschke, M. John, S. Leye, C. Maus, M. Röhl, and R. Ewald, "One modelling formalism & simulator is not enough! a perspective for computational biology based on james ii," in Formal Methods in Systems Biology, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, J. Fisher, Ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008, vol. 5054, ch. 9, pp. 123-138. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68413-8_9.R. Ewald, J. Himmelspach, and A. M. Uhrmacher, "An algorithm selection approach for simulation systems," pads, vol. 0, pp. 91-98, 2008.Bing Wang, Jan Himmelspach, Roland Ewald, Yiping Yao, and Adelinde M Uhrmacher. Experimental analysis of logical process simulation algorithms in james ii[C]// In M. D. Rossetti, R. R. Hill, B. Johansson, A. Dunkin, and R. G. Ingalls, editors, Proceedings of the Winter Simulation Conference, IEEE Computer Science, 2009. 1167-1179.Ewald, J. Rössel, J. Himmelspach, and A. M. Uhrmacher, "A plug-in-based architecture for random number generation in simulation systems," in WSC '08: Proceedings of the 40th Conference on Winter Simulation. Winter Simulation Conference, 2008, pp. 836-844.J. Elf and M. Ehrenberg, "Spontaneous separation of bi-stable biochemical systems into spatial domains of opposite phases." Systems biology, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 230-236, December 2004.K. Takahashi, S. Arjunan, and M. Tomita, "Space in systems biology of signaling pathways? Towards intracellular molecular crowding in silico," FEBS Letters, vol. 579, no. 8, pp. 1783-1788, March 2005.J. V. Rodriguez, J. A. Kaandorp, M. Dobrzynski, and J. G. Blom, "Spatial stochastic modelling of the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase (pts) pathway in escherichia coli," Bioinformatics, vol. 22, no. 15, pp. 1895-1901, August 2006.D. Ridgway, G. Broderick, and M. Ellison, "Accommodating space, time and randomness in network simulation," Current Opinion in Biotechnology, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 493-498, October 2006.J. V. Rodriguez, J. A. Kaandorp, M. Dobrzynski, and J. G. Blom, "Spatial stochastic modelling of the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase (pts) pathway in escherichia coli," Bioinformatics, vol. 22, no. 15, pp. 1895-1901, August 2006.W. G. Wilson, A. M. Deroos, and E. Mccauley, "Spatial instabilities within the diffusive lotka-volterra system: Individual-based simulation results," Theoretical Population Biology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 91-127, February 1993.K. Kruse and J. Elf. Kinetics in spatially extended systems. In Z. Szallasi, J. Stelling, and V. Periwal, editors, System Modeling in Cellular Biology. From Concepts to Nuts and Bolts, pages 177–198. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2006.M. A. Gibson and J. Bruck, "Efficient exact stochastic simulation of chemical systems with many species and many channels," The Journal of Physical Chemistry A, vol. 104, no. 9, pp. 1876-1889, March 2000.R. M. Fujimoto, Parallel and Distributed Simulation Systems (Wiley Series on Parallel and Distributed Computing). Wiley-Interscience, January 2000.Y. Yao and Y. Zhang, “Solution for analytic simulation based on parallel processing,” Journal of System Simulation, vol. 20, No.24, pp. 6617–6621, 2008.G. Chen and B. K. Szymanski, "Dsim: scaling time warp to 1,033 processors," in WSC '05: Proceedings of the 37th conference on Winter simulation. Winter Simulation Conference, 2005, pp. 346-355.M. Jeschke, A. Park, R. Ewald, R. Fujimoto, and A. M. Uhrmacher, "Parallel and distributed spatial simulation of chemical reactions," in 2008 22nd Workshop on Principles of Advanced and Distributed Simulation. Washington, DC, USA: IEEE, June 2008, pp. 51-59.B. Wang, Y. Yao, Y. Zhao, B. Hou, and S. Peng, "Experimental analysis of optimistic synchronization algorithms for parallel simulation of reaction-diffusion systems," High Performance Computational Systems Biology, International Workshop on, vol. 0, pp. 91-100, October 2009.L. Dematté and T. Mazza, "On parallel stochastic simulation of diffusive systems," in Computational Methods in Systems Biology, M. Heiner and A. M. Uhrmacher, Eds. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008, vol. 5307, ch. 16, pp. 191-210.D. R. Jefferson, "Virtual time," ACM Trans. Program. Lang. Syst., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 404-425, July 1985.J. S. Steinman, "Breathing time warp," SIGSIM Simul. Dig., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 109-118, July 1993. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/174134.158473 S. K. Park and K. W. Miller, "Random number generators: good ones are hard to find," Commun. ACM, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 1192-1201, October 1988.

Purpose This study aims to use Foucault’s theory of heterotopian space to interpret peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation experiences by considering the perceptions of Airbnb hosts and guests. Design/methodology/approach Data for this study were collected through the use of semi-structured interviews with Airbnb hosts and guests of different cultural backgrounds. Findings Informed by Foucault’s heterotopology, study findings identify and discuss the spatial dimensions at the micro-scale that distinguish P2P accommodation space from traditional hospitality spaces, arguing that P2P accommodation represents an interstitial space within the tourism system that triggers a reordering of resources, skills and meanings. Originality/value The paper introduces a cutting-edge perspective on how P2P accommodation spatiality may be viewed or approached in a meaningfully different manner, particularly advancing knowledge on how prescribed roles and practices in hospitality are being redefined.

BACKGROUND: Visual dysfunctions are common in individuals following concussion/mild traumatic brain injury (C/mTBI). Many deficits have been uncovered in their oculomotor system, such as in the pupil and accommodation. OBJECTIVE: To describe the static and dynamic abnormalities in the pupillary and accommodative systems in those with C/mTBI. This includes both diagnostic and therapeutic aspects, with emphasis on objectively-based test findings, as well as their basic and clinical ramifications. METHODS: PubMed, Google Scholar, and Semantic Scholar databases were searched from 1980–2020, using key words of accommodation, pupil, vision therapy, vision rehabilitation, and objective testing, for peer-reviewed papers, as well as related textbooks in the area, in those with C/mTBI. RESULTS: For both systems, most static and dynamic response parameters were abnormal: they were typically reduced, slowed, delayed, and/or more variable. Most of the abnormal accommodative parameters could be significantly improved with vision therapy. CONCLUSIONS: For both systems, most response parameters were abnormal, which could explain their visual symptoms and related problems. For accommodation, the improvements following vision therapy suggest the presence of considerable visual system plasticity, even in older adults with chronic brain injury.

PurposeThis paper aims to identify key service attributes in peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation from online reviews and formulate service improvement strategies based on the unsatisfactory service encounters mined from the reviews.Design/methodology/approachThe methodology involves topic modelling using latent Dirichlet allocation, sentiment analysis and process analysis based on process chain network (PCN).FindingsThe text analytics results showed that negative P2P accommodation experiences are caused by the lack of hot water for shower, poor sleep quality and unpleasant check-in.Research limitations/implicationsThe PCN analysis shows that the surrogate interactions of the P2P accommodation platform with both the guest and the host impact consumer experiences. This highlights that the key to managing consumer experiences lies in the non-human resources such as information, rather than direct interactions between process entities.Practical implicationsThe information on the P2P accommodation platform should be in a more interactive format such as video and 360 degrees camera. Hosts should ensure a good condition of the physical products such as water heaters and beds before guests' arrival. Professional videography and handyperson services should be provided by the platform to help hosts deliver a preferred consumer experience. Flexible and strict check-in polices should also be introduced to smoothen the check-in process.Originality/valueThis study is built on multi-attribute utility theory. It is also one of the first to study P2P accommodation services from an operations management perspective. It demonstrates how text analytics serves as an additional supplement for service improvement.

Purpose Focused on peer-to-peer accommodation sharing, this paper aims to investigate the effect of perceived value on the two dimensions of satisfaction (transaction- and experience-based) and continuance intention involved in using a platform featuring triadic relationships. Design/methodology/approach Survey data were collected from 392 Airbnb users and analysed using the partial least squares approach to structural equation modelling. Findings All dimensions of perceived value had a significant effect on transaction-based satisfaction. Symbolic value did not have a significant effect on satisfaction. Transaction- and experience-based satisfaction had a significant effect on continuance intention. Research limitations/implications The findings highlight the differential effects of dimensions of perceived value for understanding customer satisfaction and continuance intention in the peer-to-peer accommodation context. The study focused on only one sector of the sharing economy, namely, the peer-to-peer accommodation sector. Originality/value The study offers fresh insights on the nexus between value perceptions and continuance intention in the context of peer-to-peer accommodation.

Abstract Background Smoking is endemic amongst people accessing homeless services, and they are disproportionately affected by smoking-related diseases. This paper reports on the results of a 3-month small scale intervention which explored the efficacy, challenges and opportunities of using electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) to support cessation of tobacco smoking with people accessing an Irish supported temporary accommodation (STA) homeless service. It considers the results of this intervention with reference to the balance of harms between the use of vaping to support smoking cessation and continued smoking. Methods Twenty-three participants were recruited. Demographic data, carbon monoxide (CO) measurements, homelessness status and smoking history were recorded. Participants were given an ENDS device and two 10-ml bottles containing e-liquid available in several flavours and at several strengths. Participants could pick up new bottles on a weekly basis. At weeks 1, 4, 8 and 12, the Fagerström Test and Mood and Physical Symptoms Scale (MPSS) were administered. Results Over 75% of the residents in the participating hostel were recruited (23/30). However, there was a substantial loss to follow-up (n = 14) as a result of data protection issues, the transient nature of the population of interest and non-compliance with the intervention. Self-reported reductions in cigarette consumption were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.001). However, reductions in carbon monoxide measurements were not statistically significant. Decreases in Fagerström Nicotine Dependence Test were statistically significant (p = 0.001), but decreases in MPSS “urge to smoke” and “strength of urges” composite scores were not. Reported side effects included coughing, runny nose, bleeding nose, slight sweating, dizziness, increased phlegm and a burning sensation at the back of the throat. Barriers to engagement were peer norms, vaping restrictions in accommodation and adverse life events. Positive effects reported included increased energy, less coughing, better breathing and financial benefits. An improvement in the domain “poor concentration” was also found to be statistically significant (p = 0.040). Conclusion ENDS-based interventions may be effective with this population. Future research should aim to improve follow-up, consider including behavioural components and monitor health effects in relation to ongoing concerns around risks and the balance of harms. Trial registration Registered retrospectively ISRCTN14767579

AbstractCOVID-19 has caused disruptions in the sharing economy for both platforms and owners, who are typically micro-businesses. Lower demand and ample supply means that users have a great deal of choice. Finding ways for properties to differentiate themselves has been a pressing need. Against this background, this paper pursued two objectives: firstly to explore the perceived functional and emotional value of smart accommodation and the factors contributing to this by adopting the Theory of Consumption Values, and secondly to examine the role of perceived value in driving intention to stay in smart accommodation in the future. 430 responses were collected to analyse the relationships among antecedents, value and intention. The results showed that the functional value of smart accommodation is associated with the perception that such accommodation represents good value for the price, smart devices are useful, they can enhance control of stay experiences, and there are resources and opportunities facilitating the use of technology. Emotional value is determined by the perception that staying in smart accommodation represents sustainable behaviour, the integration of smart home technologies offers control over the stay experience, improves the entertainment experience, aesthetics and playfulness of using technology. Emotional values are inhibited by the perception of surveillance in smart accommodation. Also, the study offers evidence of the correlation of intention with functional and emotional value. The evidence contributes to the literature by explaining the potential implications of innovative technologies for business recovery in the post-pandemic reality, exploring the applications of smart technologies in delivering tourism services, and identifying the factors in the adoption of smart homes in the hospitality sector. The findings provide practical implications for facilitating the applications of innovative technology and its adoption in home and non-home environments.

Abstract Aims Common mental disorders are highly prevalent among Syrian refugees. Problem Management Plus (PM+) is a brief, transdiagnostic, non-specialist helper delivered, psychological intervention targeting psychological distress. This single-blind pilot randomised controlled trial (RCT) on PM+ delivered by peer-refugees examined trial procedures in advance of a definitive RCT, evaluated PM+ 's acceptability and feasibility, and investigated its likely effectiveness and cost-effectiveness among Syrian refugees in the Netherlands. Methods Adult Syrian refugees (N = 60) with elevated psychological distress (Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) score >15) and reduced pychosocial functioning (WHO Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS) score >16) were randomised into PM+ in addition to care as usual (CAU) (PM+/CAU; n = 30) or CAU alone (n = 30). Primary outcomes were symptoms of depression and anxiety (Hopkins Symptom Checklist; HSCL-25) at 3-month follow-up. Secondary outcomes were pychosocial functioning (WHO Disability Assessment Schedule; WHODAS 2.0), symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (PTSD Checklist for DSM 5; PCL-5) and self-identified problems (Psychological Outcomes Profiles; PSYCHLOPS). Changes in service utilisation and time out of employment and/or adult education were estimated (adapted version of the Client Service Receipt Inventory; CSRI). Semi-structured interviews on the implementation of PM+ were conducted with stakeholders (i.e. six PM+ participants, five non-specialist helpers and five key informants). Results Recruitment, randomization and blinding procedures were successful. PM+ was generally perceived positively by stakeholders, especially regarding the intervention strategies, accommodation of the intervention and the helpers. Two serious adverse events not attributable to the trial were reported. At 3-month follow-up, the HSCL-25 total score was significantly lower for the PM+/CAU group (n = 30) than CAU group (n = 30) (p = 0.004; d = 0.58). Significant differences in favour of PM+/CAU were also found for WHODAS psychosocial functioning (p = 0.009, d = 0.73), PCL-5 symptoms of PTSD (p = 0.006, d = 0.66) and PSYCHLOPS self-identified problems (p = 0.005, d = 0.81). There were no significant differences in mean health service costs (p = 0.191) and the mean costs of lost productive time (p = 0.141). This suggests PM+ may potentially be cost-effective with an incremental cost from a health system perspective of €5047 (95% CI €0–€19 773) per additional recovery achieved. Conclusions Trial procedures and PM+ delivered by non-specialist peer-refugee helpers seemed acceptable, feasible and safe. Analyses indicate that PM+ may be effective in improving mental health outcomes and psychosocial functioning, and potentially cost-effective. These results support the development of a definitive RCT with a larger sample of refugees and a longer follow-up period.

PurposeThis study aims to explore the relationships between consumer data vulnerability, peer privacy concerns and consumers' continued usage intention of sharing accommodation platforms, as well as the moderating effects of the various benefits perceived by consumers.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from 327 consumers of sharing accommodation platforms in China. Partial least squares (PLS)-structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to test the research hypotheses.FindingsThe results suggest that both consumer data vulnerability and peer privacy concerns have negative effects on consumer's continued usage intention of sharing accommodation platforms, which can be further mitigated by consumer perceived economic, social and emotional benefits. This study also finds that consumer data vulnerability has a positive effect on consumer's peer privacy concerns.Practical implicationsThis study gives that managers of sharing accommodation platforms a better understanding of how consumers respond to their data vulnerability on sharing accommodation platforms. In addition, this study also highlights the measures that platforms may employ to mitigate the negative influence of consumer data vulnerability and consumers' peer privacy concerns, as well as the measures to reduce consumers' peer privacy concerns.Originality/valueWhile previous studies mainly examined the driving forces of consumers' engagement in sharing accommodation, this study focuses on the impediment. With communication privacy management theory to explore the relationships between consumer data vulnerability, peer privacy concerns and continued usage intention of sharing accommodation platforms, as well as the moderating effects of consumers' perceived benefits, this study facilitates a more comprehensive understanding of consumers' engagement in sharing accommodation.

Purpose Airbnb attempts to stimulate consumer imagination and expectations of home through storytelling before their stay. The purpose of this study is to gain a holistic understanding of the psychological mechanisms by which brand storytelling can evoke consumer imagination of home away from home and their choice of peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodations. Design/methodology/approach By collecting 864 valid questionnaires through two rounds of surveys with Chinese consumers, this study examined the structural relations between narrative elements in the brand story (home characteristics, social interactions in advertising, advertising features), brand perception, self-image congruence and consumption intentions. Findings The results demonstrate that home characteristics, social interactions in advertising, and advertising features positively influence people’s brand perceptions, self-image congruence and consumption intentions through mental imagery processing. Practical implications This study offers helpful implications on how to create a home feeling in P2P accommodations and provides recommendations to promote the connection between consumers and the brand for P2P accommodation providers and hoteliers. Originality/value This study reveals the underlying mechanism of how various narrative elements in brand stories inspire the imagination and feeling of home in consumers during the prestay phase. By analysing the impact of specific trust systems and emotional needs on the construction of a feeling of home, this study is an important complement to existing studies on the study of home in P2P accommodation.

PurposeThe peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation-sharing market has developed rapidly on the strength of information technology in recent years. Matching providers and customers in an information technology (IT)-enabled platform is a key determinant of both parties' experiences and the healthy development of the platform. However, previous research has not sufficiently explained the mechanism of provider–customer matching in accommodation sharing, especially at the psychological level. Based on field cognitive style theory, this study examines how the match and mismatch affect customers' online and offline satisfaction and whether a significant difference exists between online and offline satisfaction under different matching patterns.Design/methodology/approachThe authors test the proposed theoretical model using 122 provider–customer dyad data collected through a field study.FindingsThe results suggest that customers' online and offline satisfaction under match is significantly higher than that under mismatch. In addition, customers' online satisfaction is significantly higher than their offline satisfaction under mismatch, but there is no significant difference between the two under match. The perceived price fairness also plays a moderating role in the case of mismatch.Originality/valueIn summary, these findings provide a novel understanding about the matching patterns and their outcomes in the accommodation-sharing context and expand the contents and applications of field cognitive style theory and matching theory. This study will help these IT-enabled platforms to provide personalized matching services at the psychological level, thereby enhancing user experience and corporate competitiveness. 10; 10;

Purpose Peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation sharing has become a significant part of the travel and lodging industry, allowing homeowners to engage in entrepreneurial activity via sharing of resources. However, there is limited understanding of how hosts can use listing descriptions to better match their offerings to different consumer segments. The purpose of this paper is to understand the use of listing descriptions by Airbnb hosts and the impact of such descriptions on sales performance. Design/methodology/approach In this paper, a deep learning-based sentence-level aspect mining approach is used to extract various aspects from host-provided listing descriptions. Then a regression-based approach is used to understand the impact of various aspects of listing descriptions on listing performance. Findings It was found that aspects for which listing descriptions are the sole source of information have the greatest influence on listing performance. The authors also find that the impact of an aspect on listing performance varies by listing type, and that there is a mismatch between the most included aspects by hosts in their listing descriptions and the most influential aspects that impact sales. Originality/value The impact of consumer reviews in the context of Airbnb has been extensively studied. A novel aspect of this study is the exploration of P2P accommodations from a supplier perspective, by understanding the use and impact of host-provided textual descriptions on sales. The findings of this study can help better market properties from a practice perspective and better understand consumer information consumption from a theoretical perspective. The authors also demonstrate a new approach for exploring social phenomena by performing quantitative analysis on textual data using deep-learning and regression-based techniques.

In today’s impoverished higher education fiscal climate, especially considering the enormous financial implications to higher education of accommodating the changes required by the coronavirus pandemic, “nonessential” though highly important programs, such as centers for teaching and learning (CTLs), are very likely to be underfunded. In this study, we illustrate how underfunded programs can leverage peer collaboration and support to initiate productive, formal systems of assistance for faculty by describing a number of such programs developed by and/or coordinated by our CTL. Moreover, we propose that sustainable programs, especially at small liberal arts institutions, must include a strong component of peer networking and in-house expertise rather than relying on outside consulting services. In a climate of shrinking dollars, CTLs can still perform some key roles effectively while continuing to advocate for more adequate funding.

Purpose When evaluating a booking enquiry, hosts rely on peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation platforms (P2PAP) to make an informed decision. Consequently, accepting or rejecting a booking is influenced by the capacity of the P2PAP to convey to hosts valuable information about guests. This study aims to explain hosts’ task performance in short-term rentals (e-rentals). Design/methodology/approach The proposed model explains hosts’ task performance in e-rentals as a combination of task-specific user capabilities and technology capabilities. The model was tested using the partial least square path modelling technique. Findings Task-specific user capabilities of covert observation and interrogation were found to have a positive influence on task performance. Moreover, a moderation effect of representation on the relationship between self-disclosure and task performance was found to be significant, yet contrary to the one hypothesized. Originality/value The findings from this study help to develop the concept of task-specific user capabilities in shaping task performance.

Recent studies investigate grief among soldiers who experienced combat loss, but little research exists on the qualitative lived experience of such an event. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with soldiers (n = 19) who lost a comrade (3–21 years ago) to delve into their bereavement process. The reflexive thematic analysis of soldiers’ accounts identified six main themes: (1) an unexpected and shattering experience; (2) emotional dissociation; (3) detachment from the outside world; (4) group formation; (5) accommodating the bereaved family; and (6) life-long impact. These themes were positioned on four distinct circles relating to the self and the surrounding social systems, indicating how soldiers’ grief unfolds and remains encapsulated and disenfranchised. The findings emphasize the value of peer support groups that should be facilitated and encouraged by official bodies—even years after—as part of providing social recognition.

PurposeThe prevalence and multi-system nature of post-COVID-19 symptoms warrants clearer understanding of their work ability implications within the working age population. An exploratory survey was undertaken to provide empirical evidence of the work-relevant experiences of workers recovering from COVID-19.Design/methodology/approachA bespoke online survey based on a biopsychosocial framework ran between December 2020 and February 2021. It collected quantitative ratings of work ability and return-to-work status, qualitative responses about return-to-work experiences, obstacles and recommendations, along with views on employer benefits for making accommodations. A sample of 145 UK workers recovering from COVID-19 was recruited via social media, professional networks and industry contacts. Qualitative data was subject to thematic analysis. Participants were mainly from health/social care (50%) and educational settings (14%).FindingsJust over 90% indicated that they had experienced at least some post-COVID-19 symptoms, notably fatigue and cognitive effects. For 55%, symptoms lasted longer than six months. Only 15% had managed a full return-to-work. Of the 88 who provided workability ratings, just 13 and 18% respectively rated their physical and mental workability as good or very good. Difficulties in resuming work were attributed to symptom unpredictability, their interaction with job demands, managing symptoms and demands in parallel, unhelpful attitudes and expectations. Manager and peer support was reported as variable.Originality/valueWorkplace health management characterised by flexible long-term collaborative return-to-work planning, supported by more COVID-centric absence policies and organisational cultures, appear pivotal for sustaining the return-to-work of the large segments of the global workforce affected by post-COVID-19 symptoms.

PurposeBoutique hotels reflect a nascent phenomenon in the literature and in the accommodation sector. As a result, they are void of governmental classification and regulation. Concurrently, they lack any form of operational definition. The purpose of this paper is to address these limitations by identifying the core attributes found to define boutique hotels.Design/methodology/approachTo fulfil the purpose of this paper, the authors conducted a systematic literature review on Web of Science. This resulted in an analysis of 33 peer-review articles published from 1994 to 2022.FindingsThe findings of this review revealed that boutique hotels are defined by eight core attributes; these are (1) multiple ownership structures, (2) situatedness in a historic premises, (3) strategic locations, (4) thematized internal décor, (5) experience design, (6) high levels of personalization, (7) novelty in service provisions and (8) niche marketing strategies.Practical implicationsFor policymakers, this paper may be used as a reference point to establish designated classification systems for boutique hotels. For practitioners, this paper may be used as a source of inspiration and benchmark to establish boutique hotels which align to the criteria highlighted in this paper. For scholars, this paper proposes an operational description of boutique hotels and novel areas for future research.Originality/valueThis paper represents one of the initial efforts undertaken by researchers to unify the literature on boutique hotels.

PurposeThe COVID-19 pandemic compelled the education system to switch over to emergency learning-teaching that is organised remotely. The present study investigated the experience of emergency remote learning (ERL) provided to higher-education learners. The study explores learners' perceived experience regarding the quality of learning resources, the effectiveness of teaching in a virtual climate and the scope of interaction in ERL.Design/methodology/approachUtilising a snowball sampling method, data were obtained from 470 Indian students of higher education through a cross-sectional online survey using a questionnaire through social media platforms. Data were analysed with relevant statistics.FindingsThe majority of students agreed that they had benefited from ERL. The overall impression of the ERL is positive; nevertheless, the students are perplexed and lack confidence in many aspects of the ERL. The Quality of ERL Resources, Teaching Effectiveness, Peer Interaction and Workloads were found to be significant factors in determining the quality of ERL.Originality/valueLearning from the crisis of a pandemic is paramount for the education system. The education system could not go back to what was considered normal before the pandemic; rather it is time to assess and finalise strategies from the experience during this pandemic that could be taken by the higher-education institutions to make the ecosystem better equipped to create 21st-century learning climate. Accommodating the components of remote learning-teaching and engaging technology towards hybridisation are the needs of the time. Hence, assessing the quality of ERL from the learner's perspective might contribute to redesigning future remote learning.

Abstract Background People who use substances experience high levels of substance-related stigma, both within and outside of health care settings, which can prevent people from help-seeking and contribute further to health inequities. Recognizing and respecting how political, social, economic, and historical conditions influence health and health care, cultural safety, with origins in addressing Indigenous racism, is a potential strategy for mitigating stigma and marginalization in health care. Using a participatory research approach, we applied the concept of cultural safety to develop a model of safe primary care from the perspective of people who use substances. Methods People who use or used substances were involved in all phases of the research and led data collection. Study participants (n = 75) were 42.5 years old on average; half identified as female and one quarter as Indigenous. All were currently using or had previous experience with substances (alcohol and/or other drugs) and were recruited through two local peer-run support agencies. Concept mapping with hierarchical cluster analysis was used to develop the model of safe primary care, with data collected over three rounds of focus groups. Results Participants identified 73 unique statements to complete the focus prompt: “I would feel safe going to the doctor if …” The final model consisted of 8 clusters that cover a wide range of topics, from being treated with respect and not being red-flagged for substance use, to preserving confidentiality, advocacy for good care and systems change, and appropriate accommodations for anxiety and the effects of poverty and criminalization. Conclusions Developing a definition of safe care (from the patient perspective) is the necessary first step in creating space for positive interactions and, in turn, improve care processes. This model provides numerous concrete suggestions for providers, as well as serving as starting point for the development of interventions designed to foster system change.

PurposeIn this study, the authors examine how organizational-, systems- and interpersonal-level trust may be required for a smooth functioning of the firms in the sharing economy (SE). The research objective is to explore the trust-building mechanisms of Airbnb, a leading SE organization, and its aim to foster generalized trust. An investigation of the Airbnb's promotion of different trust-building mechanisms will allow to evaluate their effectiveness in how they can help overcome scepticism and distrust between the transacting parties. Consequently, the authors can develop a unique theoretical perspective on generalized trust in SE environments and better understand any trust-related barriers preventing SE transactions.Design/methodology/approachThe authors employ a case study approach to investigate the research questions with the aim to fully understand the abstract and complex nature of trust. They focus on Airbnb as the company enjoys a leading market position, being a sharing economy firm. Moreover, the personal nature of accommodation sharing, which is the business of Airbnb, increases users' trust requirements, and so the company must take active steps to promote trust between the transacting parties. The authors adopt thematic analysis to execute the data analysis of the study's findings, which are derived from emergent themes and directed by the research objectives and relevant literature.FindingsThe results show that users of Airbnb are concerned about the danger of opportunistic hosts, although they are primarily motivated to use the company's services due to its economic benefits. Nevertheless, the success of Airbnb platform stems from the trust that the company has succeeded in establishing among its users, in particular interpersonal trust. Analysis reveals that generalized trust is fostered at an interpersonal level in the form of peer reviews, at an organizational level in terms of brand familiarity and at a systems level in regards to interface design.Originality/valueThe authors advance the argument that confidence to transact in the social economy stems from a combination of three levels of trust, including organizational-, systems- and interpersonal-level trust. These findings contribute to the body of trust research in information technology and people literature from its unique investigative setting, whilst simultaneously strengthening the primarily speculative research on SE with in-depth empirical evidence.

Photo 3701647 © Jeremy Swinborne | Dreamstime.com INTRODUCTION Among the many unclear issues as interpretations of Employment Division v. Smith arise in the context of vaccination mandates is a simple question: Does any exception to a law at all (whether for a group or an individual) render a law not “generally applicable and religion-neutral” in the eyes of the current Supreme Court? I. Background Prior to Employment Division v. Smith,[i] Sherbert v. Verner[ii] set forth the free exercise test which called for strict scrutiny requiring a compelling state interest and the use of the least restrictive means to achieve the state interest when a law poses a substantial burden to the exercise of religion. Sherbert had a broad holding that prior to Smith applied to laws whether neutral on their face or not, and whether the asserted discrimination was intentional or not. One issue with Sherbert was that judges were not especially adept at judging the sincerity of beliefs and the importance of religious rituals to individuals, making it difficult to determine whether a law imposed a “substantial burden” on the practice of a religion. Employment Division v. Smith holds that laws that are generally applicable and religion-neutral need not be justified by a compelling government interest even if they do have the effect of (unintentionally) burdening a religious practice.[iii] Smith, decided in 1990, altered and narrowed judicial discretion in evaluating neutral laws that may impede the free exercise of religion. Justice Scalia aligned free exercise with other First Amendment rights.[iv] He also alleviated the need for judges to determine the burden on and the sincerity of religious beliefs in instances of neutral laws. “Smith therefore diminished judicial power to grant religious citizens exemptions from their civic obligations...”[v] Yet a carveout was maintained for laws that have a “mechanism for individualized discretion”; strict scrutiny still applies to those. Lukumi[vi] (1993) reaffirmed yet distinguished Smith. In Lukumi, the law in question was adopted to ensure that a religious group would be rendered unable to sacrifice animals. The law had numerous exemptions (clearly people may kill animals for many non-essential reasons like hunting and fishing for sport, etc.) and the lawmakers seemed to have the intent of interfering with animal sacrifice. It was not considered generally applicable on various grounds and the Lukumi Court states, “As we noted in Smith, in circumstances in which individualized exemptions from a general requirement are available, the government "may not refuse to extend that system to cases of 'religious hardship' without compelling reason." Ibid., quoting Bowen v. Roy, 476 U. S., at 708 (opinion of Burger, C. J.).”[vii] In Lukumi, arguably there were so many exceptions, the rule was clearly targeting religious sacrifices. The Court applied strict scrutiny and the law was deemed unconstitutional. II. The Current Supreme Court and Laws Outside of Smith The current and recent cases indicate that some justices on the Supreme Court assert that the caselaw supports religious exemptions to a broad array of laws. Two arguments support this result: either a limited interpretation of “generally applicable and neutral” or a slightly different tactic which argues that any laws with individual exceptions call for strict scrutiny. (One argument is that those which allow exceptions are not generally applicable and neutral, and thus fall outside of Smith and they require strict scrutiny;[viii] the other is that a law can be generally applicable and neutral, but if it has a system for exceptions, then it is subject to strict scrutiny.[ix]) In John Does 1-3 v. Mills, the Supreme Court denied an injunction on October 29, 2021. The case concerns Maine’s vaccine mandate and will be heard on the merits. Gorsuch dissented from the denial of injunctive relief. He applied Smith, Lukumi, and Fulton v. Philadelphia[x] saying that because there is a medical exemption, the law is not “generally applicable”[xi] and strict scrutiny will apply. Thomas and Alito joined Gorsuch. The Gorsuch dissent also implies that the Maine medical exemption may be somewhat bogus saying Maine finds the “mere trepidation over vaccination as sufficient” if it is expressed in medical rather than religious terms.[xii] Justice Barrett, joined by Kavanaugh, concurred in the denial of the injunction, but clarified that her reasoning was a wish to avoid giving a “merits preview” by enjoining the law, based on the applicants’ likelihood of success, noting the case is “the first to address the questions presented.”[xiii] III. Do Medical Exemptions Negate the Possibility of a Neutral and Generally Applicable Law? Are they a de facto “mechanism for individual exemption”? To me, it seems that under the current law, a medical exemption could make the absence of a religious exemption more problematic. The big issue now is whether Barrett and Kavanaugh and any (even all) other justices are likely to find the medical exemption is a “mechanism for individual exemptions” or whether it otherwise more simply makes a law not neutral or generally applicable. In previous recent COVID-19 cases, the argument of emergency authority was prominent. Caselaw regarding emergency use of governmental powers trumped some constitutional arguments and led to disparate COVID-19 caselaw.[xiv] For example, some courts applied Jacobson v. Massachusetts,[xv] giving deference to public health authorities while others applied strict scrutiny.[xvi] At the Supreme Court level, Justices Sotomayor, Kagan, and Breyer have been more willing to analyze COVID-19 regulations according to emergency powers.[xvii] a. In Favor of the Gorsuch Reasoning The Gorsuch dissent will require the state to offer proof of some rationale for why a medical exemption would be more acceptable, less dangerous, etc. than a religious one. Because there is a medical exemption, the causal nexus between the state’s goals and the restrictions will matter. For example, in Fraternal Order of Police v. Newark, a requirement that police be clean shaven was invalidated because there was a medical exception.[xviii] The problem with the rule was that the government interest in uniformity was not violated any more or less whether the person was noncompliant due to medical as opposed to religious reasons. Gorsuch correctly applied similar reasoning arguing that those not in compliance with the Maine vaccine mandate due to religious exemptions posed no more danger than those noncompliant due to medical conditions.[xix] An opposing side might argue that by the numbers, and without a need for a doctor’s signature, more people would apply for and receive religious exemptions, thus harming the ability to reach herd immunity more, or posing more risk of community spread. b. But, on the other hand There are many laws with medical exemptions. It would not seem right that they be subject to strict scrutiny for failing to offer religious outs as well. For example, places without motorized vehicles could allow motorized wheelchairs. Indeed, the ADA may even call for special treatment in many circumstances where religious special treatment would not be granted. Disability law often requires variances, changing zoning to allow ramps, or other accommodations.[xx] It does not appear that every disability accommodation equates to a need to allow a corresponding religious accommodation, nor that strict scrutiny would apply. Zoning cases are common where churches seek exceptions from historical landmark regulations and the results of those cases vary.[xxi] One of the biggest vulnerabilities of the Smith ruling is that arguably all laws have an individualized enforcement aspect. While it may not be an official exemption or a “mechanism for individual exemption”, individuals have the ability to use courts to challenge laws, there are laws that rely on wishy washy terms, like “good cause”, and there are groups whose failure to comply with laws may be traditionally ignored. In each of those scenarios, those seeking religious exemptions may have a stronger case, and eventually may chip away at Smith. c. Would a Different Built-In Exemption Preclude Application of Smith? Application of Smith may depend on whether the exemption is discretionary or built in. For example, if an exemption said anyone may apply for an exemption with good cause, religious ones should be fairly and equally considered. If an exemption reads anyone with an autoimmune disease is exempt, the class of people exempt would be delineated (unlike the Maine language) rather than discretionary as with the open-ended medical exemption language of the Maine statute. In the case of a class-like exemption, the argument that the law is neutral and generally applicable would be stronger. Smith was not really meant to declare that laws with any categories would be vulnerable to free exercise challenges. Similarly, objective criteria in providing exemptions differs. When criteria for exemptions are made clear, the religious argument could be weaker. However, the Gorsuch argument that in the end the religious objector poses no more danger to others than the medical (or other maybe conscientious, financial, or physical) objector may be the winning argument. IV. Side Note: Another Consideration for Neutral Laws In Roman Catholic Diocese of New York, Justice Kavanaugh created a peer group limitation in applying Smith. Kavanaugh found that a law that limited gatherings at religious services was not neutral. The law had various categories of entity.[xxii] An interesting twist is that other entities similar to churches in objective concrete ways (like theaters) were closed altogether, so arguably religion was favored over those, but disfavored compared to essential businesses (like food stores). The orange and red zones in the challenged Cuomo Executive Order did have specific rules for places of worship. Gorsuch referred to Lukumi in his concurrence and went directly to strict scrutiny without sincerely entertaining the concept that the Executive Order was a neutral and generally applicable law. That is in keeping with his dissent in Does 1-3 v. Mills. Yet, it remains possible to argue that laws with objective, defined categories may still be neutral and generally applicable. V. Time to Abandon Jacobson at this Juncture of COVID-19 Jacobson applies in public health emergencies and, while in recent Supreme Court cases, many justices rightly pointed to the emergency as a reason to compromise important rights, the emergency aspect of the pandemic is waning. In many areas, the positive rate is quite low, businesses are returning to normal, and the vaccination rate is high. As such, the abandonment of strict scrutiny in favor of Jacobson’s emergency deference to public health entities, something Gorsuch failed to entertain in South Bay Pentecostal Church v. Newsom[xxiii] anyway, is arguably no longer warranted. Deference to the state and to experts must be limited to emergencies. Justices Kagan, Breyer, and Sotomayor who rightly cautioned against “armchair epidemiology”[xxiv] during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic might return to stricter stances on protecting rights as the emergency dies down or becomes localized, and as increasing methods and treatments arise, like the COVID-19 pill by Merck. The calculus of whether we need strict COVID-19 regulations is dynamic. This is not a static emergency with powers to be left in place unconditionally. CONCLUSION The argument that vaccination is a civic and moral obligation that people should engage in regardless of religious beliefs is stronger in an emergency. Whether deemed to include a “mechanism for individual exemptions” or just declared not neutral or generally applicable, laws offering any exceptions are more vulnerable to free exercise claims. Under the current Supreme Court composition, anticipating that laws may face strict scrutiny is wise—Smith is unlikely to shield seemingly neutral laws in the face of free exercise cases. That is not necessarily a bad outcome in a country that purports to allow religious freedom and can do so safely. Strict scrutiny is merely a protection that would ensure the public that laws are meaningful, achieve compelling purposes, and do so without unnecessarily impeding fundamental rights. Yet one bad outcome of a rule that says if there are medical exemptions so must there be religious ones is that lawmakers will write laws that are more absolute, rigid, and unyielding to legitimate claims. [i] 494 U.S. 872 (1990). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/494/872/#tab-opinion-1958253 [ii] 374 U.S. 398 (1963). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/374/398/#tab-opinion-1944463 [iii] Smith, at 879 (religion does not excuse people from compliance with neutral laws.) [iv] Kaplan, Carol M., “The Devil is in the Details: Neutral, Generally Applicable Laws and Exemptions from Smith,” New York University Law Review, October 2000. https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-4-Kaplan.pdf [v] Kaplan, at 1053. [vi] Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. City of Hialeah 508 U.S. 520 (1993). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/508/520/#tab-opinion-1959281 [vii] Lukumi, at 537. [viii] Keeler v. Mayor of Cumberland. 940 F. Supp. 879 (D. Md. 1996) https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/951/83/1381605/; Kaplan, at 1066. [ix] Kaplan, at 1062, citing Swanson v. Guthrie Indep. Sch. Dist., 135 F. Supp. 694 (10th Cir 1998). [x] Fulton v. Philadelphia, 593 U.S. __ (2021) [xi] Does 1-3 v. Mills, 595 U.S. ____(2021). Gorsuch, dissent, p. 2. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/21pdf/21a90_6j37.pdf [xii] Does 1-3 v. Mills, Gorsuch dissent, p. 3. [xiii] Does 1-3 v. Mills, Barret, concurring. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/21pdf/21a90_6j37.pdf [xiv] Zimmerman, A. “Weeding Out Disingenuous Emergency Orders: A Consistent Ethical Justification to Determine Whether to Apply Jacobson V. Massachusetts’ Deferential Approach or the Tiered Scrutiny That Would Apply Absent an Emergency”. 2021. Voices in Bioethics, vol. 7, May 2021, doi:10.7916/vib.v7i.8037. [xv] 197 US 11 (1905). [xvi] Zimmerman, A. 2021. doi:10.7916/vib.v7i.8037. [xvii] South Bay Pentecostal Church v. Newsom (2021), Kagan, dissenting, joined by Breyer and Sotomayor (Justices are “not scientists”.) [xviii] Kaplan, at 1079, citing Fraternal Order of Police v. City of Newark, 170 F. 3d 359 (3d Cir. 1999). [xix] Does 1-3 v. Mills, Gorsuch dissent, p. 4. [xx] https://www.ada.gov/comprob.htm [xxi] Keeler v. Mayor of Cumberland (provisions deemed individualized exemptions so religious deserve strict scrutiny and consideration); Rector of St. Bartholomew’s Church v. City of New York (2d Cir. 1990)(discretion does not negate Smith if it is not discriminatory so religious does not get strict scrutiny); see Kaplan at 1066. [xxii] Cuomo executive order established zones. https://esd.ny.gov/cluster-action-initiative-faq [xxiii] 592 US __ (2021). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/20pdf/20a136_bq7c.pdf [xxiv] South Bay Pentecostal Church v. Newsom (2021) (dissent).