Journal articles on the topic 'Patent licenses – Germany – History'

Abstract This article analyzes the interrelationship among technology transfer mechanisms using data specific to the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). An overview of the history of NIST and US policies that emphasize the economic importance of technology transfer are discussed. The empirical analysis focuses on NIST investments in research and development (R&D) and the cascading impact of those investments on new inventions disclosed, new patent applications, new patents issued and new patent licenses; and accounting for the effects of R&D on these three investments, an overall estimate of the R&D elasticity of new patent licenses is calculated to be 0.7976. The article concludes with a policy-focused summary of the implications of the empirical findings, and a suggested road map for future research related to technology transfer from US federal laboratories.

In the pharmaceutical industry, the development of a new invention – a drug, the acquisition of a patent and the introduction into civil circulation by the developers spend significant resources in material and time. In this regard, drugs are attractive for falsification, and attempts are also being made to reproduce the imitation of original drugs, which requires special attention to the protection of the rights of patent holders. Obtaining a patent for an invention provides an exclusive right to its owner, being a kind of state gratitude for ensuring innovative progress, and, on the other hand, carries significant threats due to the possible dishonesty of patent owners, which, according to the Author, taking into account the latest challenges of the time, requires no less attention in terms of providing protective mechanisms against abuse. Since the availability of medicines is one of the main tasks of national health care, the Author raised the actual problem of applying one of these mechanisms in domestic law, namely the mechanism for issuing compulsory licenses for medicines as inventions (compulsory licensing). The article contains a brief historical outline of the foreign application of such institutions, analyzes domestic regulation and law enforcement practice, on the basis of which theses are put forward on the need for additional legal regulation.

The biohealth industry is directly related to human life and national health, and has important characteristics of publicity such as securing accessibility and fair distribution. Accordingly, issues such as exemption from the obligation to protect intellectual property rights, such as the COVID-19 vaccine, activation of the compulsory license system, and free sharing of biotechnology have been steadily raised. However, there are many negative opinions that technology sharing and the weakening of monopoly rights over intellectual property rights in the biohealth industry, which requires long-term mass investment, hinders incentives for technological innovation from the point of view of companies. Therefore, it is necessary to think about ways to maintain the role of motivating technological innovation while promoting fair and open licensing by analyzing the characteristics of patent licenses in the biohealth field. In this article, we analyzed patent licensing models and cases that are actually being carried out in the field of biohealth to derive problems and shortcomings of the current system, and searched for ways to achieve efficient technology transfer and open innovation. For this purpose, the scope of the biohealth industry is first specified, and the specificity of the biohealth industry and patent licenses in that industry is analyzed. Next, areas requiring improvement were derived through investigation and analysis of representative license models and cases in the biohealth field. Through this process, institutional and policy countermeasures were proposed to promote technological innovation along with efficient technology transfer and technology securing in the biohealth industry.

Abstract Abstract 4471 Background Guidelines recommend glucocorticoids and splenectomy as standard 1st and 2nd line treatments for chronic ITP. We sought to find out how German ITP-patients are treated in respect of these guidelines. Methods Members of a patient support association >18 y with self-reported history of chronic ITP (>6 mo) were surveyed. A questionnaire was developed from literature review with clinician and patient input, and administered on-line. Results 123 questionnaires were evaluated. Age (median 51 years) and gender distribution (38% m, 62% f) are comparable to surveys from other countries. 70% of patients had chronic ITP for more than 5 years and 50% a “usual” platelet count of < 50.000/μl (20% < 30.000/μl). 69% had hematomas or petechiae within the last 12 months, 45% had oropharyngeal bleeds, and 11% had been admitted to a hospital within this year. 88% had received or receive glucocorticoids, 28% were splenectomized. IVIg was given to 55%, rituximab to 22%, anti-D to 11%, cyclosporine to 7%. Complementary and alternative medical treatments had been used by 36%. 38 women were under the age of 50 and 14 (36%) reported that they had been advised not to become pregnant. 23 became pregnant and 10 (44%) required ITP-treatment during their pregnancy. Conclusion Glucocorticoids are the most common therapy for chronic ITP but complementary and alternative treatments already come second and less than 1/3 of the patients are splenectomized. This and the frequent use of complementary medicines suggests dissatisfaction with conventional therapeutic approaches. Many patients receive off-label therapies (rituximab, anti-D, cyclosporine are not licensed for ITP in Germany). There is a major need for adequate counseling and care for pregnant ITP-patients. Disclosures: Matzdorff: GlaxoSmithKline: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; AMGEN: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Roche: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Baxter: Consultancy, Honoraria. Off Label Use: Rituximab for chronic ITP Complementary medicines for ITP. Hummler:GlaxoSmithKline: Employment.

The Dutch Drankwet (hereinafter: Liquor Act) of 1881, the result of decades of temperance activism, was met with much criticism — little had come of the national legislation’s aim to reduce the consumption of alcohol. Even so, did this also mean that little changed in the sale of alcohol? This article examines how the Liquor Act was implemented locally in Leiden and what impact this had on the sale of alcohol there. To this end, both city council minutes and patent registers are analyzed. Patent registers served as compulsory patent taxes and as licenses for liquor stores and drinking establishments. They provide valuable insight into the variation within the sector for alcohol sales in Leiden throughout the nineteenth century. Our examination shows that, contrary to the criticism of the law, the Liquor Act had both short- and long-term effects on Leiden’s pubscape. It led to a limited decrease in the number of public houses and primarily affected the smallest public houses, often owned by women.

Using newly collected patent assignment data for late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Germany and a standard econometric approach from the international trade literature—the gravity model—we demonstrate the existence of border effects on a historical technology market. We show that the geographic distance between assignor and assignee negatively affected the probability of patent assignments, as well as the fact that a state or international border separated the two contracting parties. Surprisingly, we show that the effect of a state border within Germany was nearly as large as the effect of an international border.

An extensive global market in patents and innovations developed after the middle of the nineteenth century. I employ data from the United States, Britain, Germany, Canada, New South Wales, Spain, and Japan during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to assess the evolution of transfers in patent-property rights across these countries. The empirical analysis examines the factors that affected patterns in patent assignments and foreign patenting for these countries. It sheds further light on cross-sectional variation in foreign patenting and transfers to corporations, based on a panel data set of patent grants and assignments at issue in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution. The results indicate that, just as inventive activity responded to incentives, the patterns of market exchange in patent rights varied in accordance with legal, economic, and institutional parameters. The analysis is consistent with the position that developing countries today might benefit from tailoring their patent institutions to individual circumstances rather than adhering to harmonized standards.

Scholars increasingly acknowledge the contingent, varied, complex nature of capitalism, yet overlook a viable vision of the early nineteenth-century United States: communal capitalism. Communal societies proliferated in the early United States as a way to regulate the market. The most industrious, materially successful model of this approach was George Rapp’s Harmony Society, established in 1805. Rapp was a radical Pietist, immigrating with his followers from Württemberg in order to establish a purified community that would persevere into the millennium he predicted was imminent. Despite a ban on private property, the Harmonists embraced the market, building textile factories and conducting market activity under the moniker “Rapp & Associates.” Technologically innovative, shrewd in business, and dogged in pursuit of a “divine economy,” the example of the Harmony Society helps us better understand how religious businesses helped shape the early American capitalist system and, specifically, the contributions of German Pietism to economic thought in the Atlantic world. Ultimately, we discover how the Harmonists’ communal capitalism forsook wages and private property, while embracing stocks, bonds, leases, mortgages, patents, trademarks, licenses, litigation, and contracts as they built an incredibly successful and wealthy manufacturing community in the then-western United States, even as George Rapp’s authoritarian leadership style created tensions within his workforce of immigrant women, men, and children.

The United States and other different countries, drug prices are out of control. In that the prescription drug prices increasingly the medical costs and other different healthcare costs. The branded drugs are launched with high prices that increase by double percentage over year. So, many states and countries are focusing on new ways or new approaches to drug pricing problems using different ways and clarity about drug price transparency are mainly that the study about drug transparency and identify the cost key drivers. India is one of the world's developing countries. The ability to obtain health-related services at a reasonable cost is a major worry for them. As a result, medical costs are a determining element for health-care facilities, particularly when it comes to price management of health-care institutions with a greater budget. NPPA (National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority) and DPCO (Department of Pharmaceutical Pricing and Control) are two Indian regulatory bodies that oversee pharmaceutical pricing (Drug Pricing control order). Despite the establishment of the DPCO, significant price fluctuation is observed between goods containing the same API (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient), and various reasons are responsible for this. TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) offers Compulsory Licenses for which drugs have a distinctive function to play in the affordability of medicines to minimize the stated problem and govern the trade practice by patent holder/brand maker. Essential medicine is a basic requirement of the health-care system in order to serve its consumers, and as a result, an effective and overt price restriction on drugs is currently required.

Abstract Abstract 4692 This otherwise healthy 12-year-old girl presented in March, 2011 with a history of severe ITP that had been diagnosed in November, 2007. Since then, she had suffered from recurrent bruises, petechiae, epistaxis, persistent bleending after tooth-loss and during menstruation (menarche: April, 2010), and subsequent iron-deficiency. Severe headache of sudden onset turned out to be caused by intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) in December, 2009, and in September, 2010, respectively. CT-scans in September 2010 revealed 2 additional ICH which had occured without symptomps. Fortunately, she recovered without sequelae from these complications. The initial and the subsequent treatment consisted of immunoglobulie (IG) and prednisone (IV or orally) given in various doses and for various time-intervals, always followed by a rise in platelet count for short periods of time, and a subsequent decline, when the drugs were withdrawn. Both ICH occured in phases of watchful waiting, while platelet count were below 1000. Splenectomy was offered and repeatedly denied by the patient and her parents. After the second ICH (Sept 2010) the patient received continuous weekly IG as prophylaxis of further ICH. Serious side-effects of prednisone in this patient (Cushing’s habitus, abdominal striae, insomnia and secondary depression) led to withdrawal of this drug. Since February 2011, the efficacy of IG was decreasing significantly, and the patient was referred to hematological practice for further treatment. We obtained the patient’s and her parents’ informed consent for a trial of 4 weekly doses rituximab (375mg/ square meter body surface after premedication with an antihistamine and 50mg prednisone). The infusions were given over a time-period of 5 weeks (May – June 2011) and were well tolerated. Platelet counts began to rise significantly after the 2. course and have remained above 200 000 since the beginning of July, 2011 without any other medication. Through the long-term course in this patient yet has to be followed, we feel that Rituximab (though not licensed for ITP in Germany) has been a useful option in this heavily pretreated patient. Because of good clinical results from US trials, like cases confirm previous reports of B.U. Mueller and C.M. Benett (Pediatr. Blood Cancer 2009; 52:259 and Blood 2006; 107:2639) we are now able to perform this treatment. Disclosures: No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Abstract Introduction Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is an acquired clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by complement-mediated hemolysis, thrombosis, and bone marrow failure. The clinical manifestations of PNH are usually seen in adulthood and are very rarely reported in children. The experience with transplantation in the management of children with PNH is also very limited. Here in this paper, we report a child with PNHpresenting with an episode of hemolytic anemia who was treated successfully with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Case Presentation An eleven-year-old patient presented with a history of fatigue. On physical examination, there was no lymphadenopathy, and liver and spleen were not palpable. Laboratory analysis revealed a hemoglobin of 5.7 g/dL, platelets of 124.000/mL, and white blood cells were 1420/ml. She had increased lactate dehydrogenase and reticulocyte count and decreased haptoglobulin level. Bone marrow biopsy showed erythroid hyperplasia and relative hypocellularity in myeloid cell lines. Chromosomal karyotyping of bone marrow cells was normal. To look for PNH, immunophenotyping was performed. Flow cytometric analysis showed a PNH clone within the RBCs, granulocytes and monocytes. These findings were consistent with a diagnosis of PNH and she was started on anti-complement therapy with eculizumab. Since matched sibling donor was available, she was referred to our center for transplantation. The conditioning regimen of HSCT consisted of fludarabine (40 mg/m2day -9 to -6) and busulphan (4 mg/kg, day -5 to -2) combined with anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) (Fresenius, Munich, Germany) (5 mg/kg, day -2 to 0). GVHD prophylaxis consisted of metotrexate plus cyclosporin. The infusion of bone marrow stem cells contained 11.8x106 CD34+ cells/kg and 7.9 x108total nucleated cells/kg. The patient had no significant complications in the post-transplant period. Neutrophil and platelet engraftment occurred on posttransplant day 11 and day 18, respectively. She is alive and is doing well over 14 months following BMT. Recovery is complete with full donor chimerism and the eradication of PNH clone. Conclusion PNH can occur in children but is often misdiagnosed and mismanaged. Although with the advent of anti-complement therapy, pure hemolytic anemia is no longer a clear indication for HSCT in adult patient, it is not licensed for use in pediatrics. HSCT is the only curative option for patients with PNH and if suitable matched sibling donor is available, transplant should be considered. However, the experience with tranplantation is also very limited. This case is worth mentioning as it shows that busulphan, fludarabine and ATG can be safely and effectively used for conditioning in PNH in children. Disclosures: No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

This article aims to shed light on how the Yugoslav motor industry in the first post-war years sought to overcome the difficulties of mastering the technology of motor vehicle production on a modern industrial basis. During this period, gigantic efforts were made to get the country out of economic backwardness in the shortest possible time. The motor industry had one of the key roles on the path of modernization of the economy, and the state accordingly paid special attention to the construction of factories in this branch of industry. Reliance on pre-war pioneering moves of truck fabrication based on a license purchased in Czechoslovakia was the main capital with which began the process of emancipation of the domestic motor industry. Due to the impossibility to independently solve the issue of construction of all types of motor vehicles, help was sought abroad. Negotiations with the USSR and Hungary were started first, but even before the severance of all relations caused by the conflict between the Yugoslav and Soviet leadership, this attempt to establish cooperation failed. In the following years, after the failure in the East, the state concentrated all its efforts on establishing strong economic ties with the West. Thanks to favorable foreign policy circumstances, the reorientation of state policy had achieved great economic benefits for the further construction of the motor industry. Licenses for the fabrication of the “Ansaldo TCA/60” tractor were purchased, thus resolving the production of all heavy types of vehicles, as well as the production of oil-powered engines. By the early 1950s, cooperation had been established with several renowned companies from Germany, Italy and Switzerland, which provided opportunities for the Yugoslav engine industry to keep pace with the latest technological solutions. However, despite the transfer of technology that played a dominant role in raising the national car and tractor industry, domestic forces played a significant role in the production of the first air-cooled engine, a light wheeled tractor with a gasoline engine and the “Prvenac” truck. The Yugoslav example has shown that reliance on one’s own strength and international cooperation are two inextricably important factors in overcoming all the difficulties that come with the forced industrialization.

The German organic chemist Johann Peter Griess (1829–88), who first developed the diazotization of aryl amines (the key reaction in the synthesis of the azo dyes), and a major figure in the formation of the modern dye industry, worked for more than a quarter of a century at the brewery of Samuel Allsopp and Sons in Burton upon Trent, which, owing to the presence of several notable figures and an increase in the scientific approach to brewing, became a significant centre of scientific enquiry in the 1870s and 1880s. Unlike the other Burton brewing chemists, Griess paralleled his work at the brewery with significant contributions to the chemistry of synthetic dyes, managing to keep the two activities separate—to the extent that some of his inventions in dye chemistry were filed as patents on behalf of the German dye company BASF, without the involvement of Allsopp's. This seemingly unlikely situation can be explained partly by the very different attitudes to patent protection in Britain and in Germany combined with an apparent indifference to the significant business opportunity that the presence of a leading dye chemist presented to Allsopp's. Although his work for the brewery remained largely proprietary, Griess's discoveries in dye chemistry were exploited by the German dye industry, which quickly outpaced its British counterpart. One less well-known connection between brewing and synthetic dyes, and one that may further explain Allsopp's attitude, is the use of synthetic dyes in identifying microorganisms—the perennial preoccupation of brewers seeking to maintain yield and quality. Developments of Griess's original work continue to be applied to many areas of science and technology.

Editor's Note: There is probably no modern scientist as famous as Albert Einstein. Born in Germany in 1879 and educated in physics and mathematics at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, he was at first unable to find a teaching post, working instead as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office from 1901 until 1908. Early in 1905, Einstein published “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions,” a paper that earned him a Ph.D. from the University of Zurich. More papers followed, and Einstein returned to teaching, in Zurich, in Prague, and eventually in Berlin, where an appointment in 1914 to the Prussian Academy of Sciences allowed him to concentrate on research. In November of 1919, the Royal Society of London announced that a scientific expedition had photographed a solar eclipse and completed calculations that verified the predictions that Einstein had made in a paper published three years before on the general theory of relativity. Virtually overnight, Einstein was hailed as the world's greatest genius, instantly recognizable, thanks to “his great mane of crispy, frizzled and very black hair, sprinkled with gray and rising high from a lofty brow” (as Romain Rolland described in his diary). In the essay excerpted here, and first published in 1936, Einstein demonstrates his substantial interest in philosophy as well as science. He is pragmatic, in insisting that the only test of concepts is their usefulness in describing the physical world, yet also idealistic, in aiming for the minimum number of concepts to achieve that description. In 1933, Einstein renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States, where he lived until his death in 1955. A recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921, he was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences in 1924.

Introduction: Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are characterized by ineffective hematopoiesis and peripheral cytopenia. In about half of patients with lower-risk (LR) MDS, thrombocytopenia is present at the time of diagnosis and associated with shortened survival and an increased risk of progression to acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The thrombopoietin receptor agonist (TPO-RA) romiplostim has shown safety and marked efficacy in a still poorly-defined subset of LR-MDS patients with thrombocytopenia. Methods: The EUROPE multicenter phase 2 trial within the EMSCO network investigated the impact of biomarkers like endogenous thrombopoietin (TPO) level and platelet transfusion events (PTE) on the efficacy of romiplostim (750µg SC qw) treatment in patients with LR-MDS (IPSS low/int-1). Patients were eligible if baseline bone marrow blast count was <5% as assessed by central morphology and platelet counts were ≤30 Gpt/L or ≤50 Gpt/L in case of bleeding history. According to a previously published model of response to TPO-RA (Sekeres at al. BJH 2014), patients were assigned into 3 different cohorts at the time of screening based on their previous PTE as well as centrally assessed TPO serum levels (cohort A: TPO<500 ng/l, PTE<6 units/past year; cohort B: TPO<500 ng/l, PTE≥6 units or TPO≥500 ng/l, PTE<6 units, cohort C: TPO≥500 ng/l, PTE≥6 units). Primary endpoint of the study was the rate of hematologic improvement of platelets (HI-P) according to IWG 2006 criteria after 16 weeks of romiplostim treatment. We here present the analysis for the first 16 weeks of romiplostim treatment. Results: From 2015 to 2018, a total of 68 patients were included in 20 trial sites in Germany, France and Czech Republic. Patients displayed a median age of 74 years and a median platelet count of 25 G/L (range 1-50 G/L) and were stratified into cohort A (n=47), B (n=17) or C (n=4), respectively. All patients received at least one cycle of romiplostim with a median weekly dose of 750μg and a median of 15 cycles of romiplostim until week 16. Reasons for premature study discontinuation before week 16 were investigator/patient decision (n=8), adverse events (n=5), disease progression (n=4) or death (n=1). There were 9 reported severe treatment-related adverse events in seven patients including pulmonary embolism (n=1), subacute stroke (n=1), mucocutaneous hemorrhage (n=1), asthenia (n=1), suspicion of anti-romiplostim antibodies (n=1), progression to AML (n=1) and varicella zoster infection (n=1). Two patients had transient increases in peripheral blasts to more than 10% and 1 patient progressed to AML after 1 month of treatment. HI-P was observed in 26 of 68 (38%) patients, while response was ongoing in 24 of them beyond week 16. Moreover, rate of HI-P lasting for at least 8 weeks was notably higher in cohort A (45%, n=21/47) compared to patients in cohort B and C (24%, n=5/21) (p=0.11). Median peak increase of PLT count in responding patients was 199 G/L in cohort A and 83 G/L in cohort B (p=0.25) and was observed in median after 7 weeks (range 3-16). In addition, responses occurred also in 2 patients in the neutrophil (HI-N) and in 7 patients in the erythroid (HI-E) lineage according to IWG 2006 criteria (Table 1). Explorative analysis showed a correlation between pretreatment platelet transfusion requirement and endogenous TPO-levels (spearman-test, p=0.034). Median pretreatment endogenous TPO-level was lower in responders compared to non-responders (82 vs. 103 pg/ml, p=0.15). Higher response rates occurred in patients with lower TPO-levels (<500 ng/l) and lower pre-treatment transfusion needs (PTE<6 units/past year), but both variables were not significantly associated with response to romiplostim (univariable logistic regression, p= 0.13 and p=0.53, respectively). Evaluation of the mutational profile in a subgroup of 49 patients demonstrated that 67% of responders exhibited spliceosome mutations including SRSF2, SF3B1, U2AF1 and ZRSR2 compared to 35% in non-responders (p=0.06) (Table 1). Conclusion: This prospective study confirms that romiplostim treatment is highly effective in a subgroup of LR-MDS patients, but neither baseline platelet transfusion requirements nor baseline TPO levels were significantly associated with clinical response to romiplostim. Further translational analyses are ongoing to elucidate potential biomarkers of response. Disclosures Platzbecker: Celgene: Consultancy, Honoraria; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria; Abbvie: Consultancy, Honoraria. Götze:AbbVie: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Cony-Makhoul:Pfizer: Consultancy; Novartis: Consultancy; Incyte Biosciences: Honoraria, Speakers Bureau; BMS: Consultancy, Honoraria, Speakers Bureau. Park:Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding. Thiede:Daiichi Sankyo: Honoraria; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding, Speakers Bureau; AgenDix GmbH: Employment, Equity Ownership; Diaceutics: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Ades:Helsinn Healthcare: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Takeda: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Silence Therapeutics: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Agios: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Jazz: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Abbvie: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astellas: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Amgen: Research Funding. OffLabel Disclosure: Romiplostim is formally not licensed for the treatment of thrombocytopenia due to myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS).

Abstract STUDY QUESTION Does incisional endometriosis (IE) harbor somatic cancer-driver mutations? SUMMARY ANSWER We found that approximately one-quarter of IE cases harbor somatic-cancer mutations, which commonly affect components of the MAPK/RAS or PI3K-Akt-mTor signaling pathways. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Despite the classification of endometriosis as a benign gynecological disease, it shares key features with cancers such as resistance to apoptosis and stimulation of angiogenesis and is well-established as the precursor of clear cell and endometrioid ovarian carcinomas. Our group has recently shown that deep infiltrating endometriosis (DE), a form of endometriosis that rarely undergoes malignant transformation, harbors recurrent somatic mutations. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION In a retrospective study comparing iatrogenically induced and endogenously occurring forms of endometriosis unlikely to progress to cancer, we examined endometriosis specimens from 40 women with IE and 36 women with DE. Specimens were collected between 2004 and 2017 from five hospital sites in either Canada, Germany or the Netherlands. IE and DE cohorts were age-matched and all women presented with histologically typical endometriosis without known history of malignancy. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS Archival tissue specimens containing endometriotic lesions were macrodissected and/or laser-capture microdissected to enrich endometriotic stroma and epithelium and a hypersensitive cancer hotspot sequencing panel was used to assess for presence of somatic mutations. Mutations were subsequently validated using droplet digital PCR. PTEN and ARID1A immunohistochemistry (IHC) were performed as surrogates for somatic events resulting in functional loss of respective proteins. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Overall, we detected somatic cancer-driver events in 11 of 40 (27.5%) IE cases and 13 of 36 (36.1%) DE cases, including hotspot mutations in KRAS, ERBB2, PIK3CA and CTNNB1. Heterogeneous PTEN loss occurred at similar rates in IE and DE (7/40 vs 5/36, respectively), whereas ARID1A loss only occurred in a single case of DE. While rates of detectable somatic cancer-driver events between IE and DE are not statistically significant (P > 0.05), KRAS activating mutations were more prevalent in DE. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION Detection of somatic cancer-driver events were limited to hotspots analyzed in our panel-based sequencing assay and loss of protein expression by IHC from archival tissue. Whole genome or exome sequencing, or epigenetic analysis may uncover additional somatic alterations. Moreover, because of the descriptive nature of this study, the functional roles of identified mutations within the context of endometriosis remain unclear and causality cannot be established. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS The alterations we report may be important in driving the growth and survival of endometriosis in ectopic regions of the body. Given the frequency of mutation in surgically displaced endometrium (IE), examination of similar somatic events in eutopic endometrium, as well as clinically annotated cases of other forms of endometriosis, in particular endometriomas that are most commonly linked to malignancy, is warranted. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) This study was funded by a Canadian Cancer Society Impact Grant [701603, PI Huntsman], Canadian Institutes of Health Research Transitional Open Operating Grant [MOP-142273, PI Yong], the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Foundation Grant [FDN-154290, PI Huntsman], the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Project Grant [PJT-156084, PIs Yong and Anglesio], and the Janet D. Cottrelle Foundation through the BC Cancer Foundation [PI Huntsman]. D.G. Huntsman is a co-founder and shareholder of Contextual Genomics Inc., a for profit company that provides clinical reporting to assist in cancer patient treatment. R. Aguirre-Hernandez, J. Khattra and L.M. Prentice have a patent MOLECULAR QUALITY ASSURANCE METHODS FOR USE IN SEQUENCING pending and are current (or former) employees of Contextual Genomics Inc. The remaining authors have no competing interests to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER Not applicable.

Abstract Introduction: Current therapies for patients with r/r ALL who have had prior allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) have very poor outcomes. Improvements in the therapeutic options available for adult r/r ALL are required. Blinatumomab is a bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE®) antibody construct that redirects cytotoxic T cells to lyse CD19-positive B cells. The aim of the present analysis was to characterize a subset of patients with r/r ALL and prior alloHSCT before treatment with blinatumomab from a large confirmatory open-label, single-arm, multicenter phase 2 study (Topp MS et al Lancet Oncol 2015;16(1):57-66). Methods: Eligible patients (≥18 years) had Philadelphia chromosome-negative r/r ALL with 1 of the following negative prognostic factors: primary refractory, first relapse within 12 months of first remission, relapse within 12 months of alloHSCT, or second or greater salvage. Patients with active acute or chronic graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) were excluded. Patients were required to stop all immunosuppressive GvHD therapy within 2 weeks before starting blinatumomab. A total of 189 patients were enrolled and received blinatumomab by continuous intravenous infusion (4 weeks on/2 weeks off) for up to 5 cycles. The primary endpoint was complete remission or complete remission with partial hematologic recovery (CR/CRh) within the first 2 cycles. Secondary endpoints included overall survival (OS), relapse-free survival (RFS), and adverse events (AEs). Results: 64 (34%) patients had received alloHSCT before study enrollment; 10 patients had 2 prior alloHSCTs. Donor types primarily included 29 (45%) matched sibling and 31 (48%) unrelated, with 34 (59%) patients receiving myeloablative conditioning regimens (donor chimerism data were unavailable). Among those with prior alloHSCT, median age (range) was 32 (19-74) years. At baseline, 23 (36%) patients had 1 prior relapse, 24 (38%) had 2 prior relapses, and 17 (27%) had ≥3 prior relapses; 28 (44%) patients had relapsed post-alloHSCT. Of the 55 patients who had received previous salvage therapy, 38 (69%) had received salvage therapy after last alloHSCT and prior to blinatumomab. Median time (range) between the last alloHSCT and subsequent relapse was 6 (1-33) months. Median time from last prior alloHSCT to first dose of blinatumomab was 10 (3-40) months. Nineteen (30%) patients had a history of GvHD, and 42 (66%) had ≥50% bone marrow blasts at start of treatment as assessed by a central laboratory. Patients received blinatumomab for a median of 2 (1-5) cycles. Efficacy data are presented in Table 1. Overall, 45% (29/64; 95% confidence interval [CI], 33-58) of patients achieved CR/CRh within the first 2 cycles, with similar rates of remission also observed in the alloHSCT-naïve (42%; 52/125) group. With a median follow-up of 8.8 months, median (95% CI) OS was 8.4 (4.2-9.4) months for the 64 patients with prior alloHSCT treated with blinatumomab. Of the 29 responders (CR, n=18 and CRh, n=11), 22 (76%) had a minimal residual disease (MRD) response and 19 (66%) achieved a complete MRD response. Median RFS (95% CI) was 6.1 (5.0-7.7) months. 9/29 (31%) responders subsequently underwent another alloHSCT. In total, 56 (88%) patients had grade ≥3 treatment-emergent AEs, with the most frequent including neutropenia (22%), febrile neutropenia (20%), anemia (17%), and thrombocytopenia (14%). Six patients reported treatment-emergent GvHD (two grade ≥ 3) during blinatumomab treatment, 3 of whom had GvHD in skin. Eight patients had fatal treatment-emergent AEs, which included 1 due to gastrointestinal hemorrhage, 1 due to respiratory failure, and 6 due to infection/infestation; 1 of these (candida infection) was considered to be possibly related to treatment by the investigator. Of the subjects who had treatment-emergent fatal AEs, none were in remission at the time of death. Summary: In this heavily pretreated group of patients with r/r ALL and prior alloHSCT, single-agent blinatumomab was able to induce a CR/CRh rate of 45%, with an AE profile consistent with that previously reported. Post-alloHSCT patients who had relapsed performed equally as well as those without prior alloHSCT. To prolong remission in this poor outcome patient group, the addition of other immunotherapies to the treatment regimen may be considered for future investigations. Disclosures Stein: Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Seattle Genetics: Research Funding. Topp:Astra: Consultancy; Regeneron: Consultancy; Affimed: Consultancy, Research Funding; Roche: Consultancy, Other: Travel Support; Jazz: Consultancy; Pfizer: Consultancy; Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Other: Travel Support. Goekbuget:Erytech: Consultancy; Gilead Sciences: Consultancy; Kite: Consultancy; Mundipharma: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Bayer: Equity Ownership; Sanofi: Equity Ownership; GlaxoSmithKline: Honoraria, Research Funding; Bristol-Myers Squibb: Honoraria; Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Eusapharma/Jazz: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Medac: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Pfizer: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; SigmaTau: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding. Bargou:Pfizer: Consultancy, Honoraria; Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Patents & Royalties: Patent for blinatumomab; University of Wuerzburg, Germany: Employment; GEMoaB GmbH: Consultancy, Honoraria; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria. Rambaldi:Roche: Honoraria; Novartis: Honoraria; Amgen: Honoraria; Celgene: Research Funding; Pierre Fabre: Honoraria. Zhang:Amgen: Employment, Equity Ownership. Zimmerman:Amgen: Employment, Equity Ownership. Forman:Mustang: Research Funding; Amgen: Consultancy.

Stronger patent rights will help innovators to protect their inventions in domestic and export markets, however stronger patent right exporting decisions depend on market expansion and market power effects. Although it is quite late to promulgate patent law, Vietnam began to record patent applications and granted them for both domestic and foreign firms from 1981 (patent law was enacted in 2005). However the number of foreign patent applications is different among Vietnam trade partners. I use a number of patent applications of Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France to analyze the relationship between trade inflow from those countries and patent rights, I find that Japan applied for the greatest number of patents, which have increased over time. Japanese exports to Vietnam are dominated by market power effects, while other countries’ patent application numbers tend to fluctuate or increases insignificantly over time, with exports being dominated by market expansion effects. Keywords Patent right, market power effects, market expansion effects, Vietnamese importation References [1] Keller, W., “International technology diffusion,” Journal of Economic Literature, 42 (2004), 752-82.[2] Falvey, R., N. Foster and D. Greenaway, “Trade, imitative ability and intellectual property rights," Review of World Economics (Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv), 145 (2009), 373-404.[3] Van Pottelsberghe de la Potterie, B. and Lichtenberg, F., “Does foreign direct investment transfer technology across borders?”, Review of Economics and Statistics, 83 (2001), 490-97.[4] Maskus, K. E. and M. Penubarti, “How trade-related are intellectual property rights,” Journal of International Economics, 39 (1995), 227-48.[5] Smith, P. J., “Are weak patent rights a barrier to U.S. exports,” Journal of International Economics, 48 (1999), 151-77.[6] Plasmans, J. E. J., and Tan, J., “Intellectual property rights and international trade with China,” Working Paper, Department of Economics and CESIT, University of Antwerp, Belgium, 2004.[7] Liu, W. H., and Y. C. Lin, “Foreign patent rights and high-tech exports: evidence from Taiwan,” Applied Economics, 37 (2005), 1543-55.[8] Foster, N., “Intellectual Property rights and the margins of international trade”, Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 23 (2014), 2014.[9] Boring, A., “The impact of patent protection on US pharmaceutical exports to developing countries”, Applied Economics, 47 (2015) 13, 1314-1330.[10] Fink, C., & Primo-Braga, C. A., “How stronger protection of intellectual property rights affects international trade flows”, 1999. [11] Annual Report of National Office of Intellectual Property of Vietnam (2007-2015).[12] Hu, A., and A. Jaffe, “Patent citations and International knowledge flow: The cases of Korea and Taiwan,” International Journal of Industrial Organization, 21 (2003), 849-80.[13] Park, Walter G., “International patent protection: 1960-2005,” Research Policy, 37 (2008), 761-766.[14] Smith, P. J., “How do foreign patent right affect U.S. exports, affiliate sales, and licenses,” Journal of International Economics, 55 (2001), 411-39.

Introduction: Help at birth is one of the historically oldest volunteers supports that a woman has offered to another woman. One of the reasons for high maternal and infant mortality was identified as a lack of basic medical knowledge among the woman who helped during birth and this required immediate action to secure the survival of nations. When the Church and government made demands for education and professional license, the voluntary help at birth transformed into an educated and paid profession for women. The study aimed to describe the evolution of women’s education and the midwifery profession in Nordic countries from the 1600s until today. Methods: Historical and contemporary documents, research and grey literature, are drawn together to provide a historical description of the midwifery professional development and education in Nordic countries. Results: In the Nordic countries, governments from the 1600s had significant problems with high maternal and infant mortality. Most vulnerable were unmarried women and their children. To change the trend, northern countries had been inspired by France, Holland, England, and Germany, which had introduced education and a professional license for midwives. The targeted and systematic investment in midwifery education, followed by industrialization and welfare development in Nordic countries, has resulted in one of the highest survival rates for mothers and infants in the world today. In parallel with this, it has created the first female paid profession in history. Today, midwifery education is at the university level in all Nordic countries, and the certified midwife is responsible for pre- and post-natal care and normal birth. In Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, the midwife’s responsibility also includes contraception counseling and prescription of drugs for birth control purposes. Conclusions: The education and professional licenses have contributed to a progressively improved care of birth women and infants. The professional and licensed midwife is positioned in society as an essential player in the current development of pre- and post-natal care. Furthermore, the graduated and licensed midwife positioned herself as the first paid professional female profession in modern history.

Objective: To investigate the etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of neonatal cerebral infarction (NCI) to further improve the understanding of the disease. Methods: Clinical data and follow-up results of 33 cases of NCI in neonatal intensive care unit of a first-class hospital from September 2009 to September 2019 were retrospectively analyzed. Results: All 33 patients were diagnosed with NCI by MRI. Among them, 31 cases (93.94%) were full-term infants, 25 cases (75.76%) were mother’s first birth, and 18 (54.55%) cases were males. Pregnancy complications were reported in 18 cases (54.55%), and 19 cases (57.58%) had perinatal hypoxia history. Seizures were the most common first symptom and clinical manifestation in the course of disease (81.8%). There were 27 cases (81.82%) of patent foramen ovale (PFO) among NCI cohort. Ischemic cerebral infarction occurred in 32 cases (96.97%). The middle cerebral artery and its branches were more frequently involved, mainly on the left side. The acute stage of NCI was managed by symptomatic support treatment, and the recovery stage involved mainly rehabilitation treatment. Among the 33 cases, five cases were lost to follow-up, two patients died, 26 patients survived without complications, one case had cerebral palsy, one case had language retardation, and six cases had dyskinesia. Poor prognosis was associated with the involvement of deep gray matter nuclei or multiple lobes, and intrapartum complications. Vaginal mode of delivery and longer hospital stay were associated with better prognosis. Conclusions: Complications leading to placental circulation disorder during pregnancy and perinatal hypoxia are common high-risk factors of NCI. The seizure is the most common clinical manifestation. There is a possible correlation between PFO and NCI. Involvement of deep gray matter or multiple lobes and intrapartum complications may indicate poor prognosis, while vaginal delivery and prolonged hospitalizations are associated with better prognosis of NCI. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.37.7.4720 How to cite this:Yang N, He X, Yin C, Zhao L. Clinical analysis of 33 cases with neonatal cerebral infarction. Pak J Med Sci. 2021;37(7):---------. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.37.7.4720 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Watch the VIDEO of the presentation.This paper examines trends in funding and distributing academic journals in Finland. Scholarly societies have been major actors in the field of academic publishing since the nineteenth century. First, they funded their own journals but the system of government subsidies was created already in the middle of the nineteenth century. Hence, the societies were freed of the necessity of selling publications. Instead, publications were distributed by exchanging them with other societies and institutions. At the time, the scholarly community was often called “Republic of Letters” – the concept mirrored an ideal of free, egalitarian and collaborative world of researchers. Exchange of publications was a part of this ideal. Commercial scientific publishing began to prosper in Germany at the end of the nineteenth century. Only in the 1980s, did the trend towards commercial distribution strengthen in Finland. Bookstore Tiedekirja was founded to promote selling and marketing society publications. Societies were advised to restrict the number of exchanges and promote selling instead. The government subsidy was restricted to cover only a minor share of costs of publishing. The national service for electronic distribution of journals “Elektra” was based on the license fees paid by the research libraries. Yet, the income of sales and licenses remained modest. The subscription fees were very low. Income from Elektra was far from sufficient so that the journals had to maintain their printed versions. The international Open Access movement, which actually is not so far from the old ideal of the “Republic of Letters”, was introduced in Finland, in 2004. Its first agents were libraries and some universities. In the 2010s, it became the policy of the ministry of education and major research funders. Yet, the structures of commercial distribution created in the 1980s and 1990s proved to be an obstacle in making the scholarly journals open. Even though the money involved in publishing was insignificant in comparison with major international publishers, the societies were cautious in abandoning the sources of income they had managed to establish. Therefore, to promote Open Access publishing, a new funding model is needed. The history of academic publishing can be understood as a closing circle – from the non-commercial system of exchanges via period of commercializing to the non-commercial open world. This vision supports the funding system where journals or articles are funded collectively, e.g. via a consortium of institutions which need the domestic journals as a publication forum. Another way to look at history is to see varying trends, which leads one to predict an era of commercial interests. In the era of open publishing, the commercial vision probably manifests in funding by article processing charges.

For the upcoming conference on Intelligence Studies at ICI 2020 in Bad Nauheim, Germany the focus of this issue of JISIB is on collective intelligence and foresight. The first two papers by Søilen and Almedia and Lesca deal with collective intelligence from an intelligence studies perspective. It may be said that the Internet itself is a gigantic collective intelligence effort, the largest in human history. Open source is a prerequisite for this system to work for everyone. The article by Černý et al. is on open source. All other contributions are on the connection between the Internet, software and intelligence. This issue consists of seven articles to compensate for two articles that were taken out by editors in the last issue. The first article by Søilen entitled “Making sense of the collective intelligence field: a review” is a historical review of the field of collective intelligence. The paper shows how collective intelligence is an interdisciplinary field and argues there is a flaw in the notion of “wisdom of crowds”. Collective intelligence can be understood in terms of social systems theory and as such this approach has been fruitful for the social sciences, although so far not very popular. It also bares relevance for the study of business and economics. The second article by Almeida and Lesca is entitled “Collective intelligence process to interpret weak signals and early warnings”. Early warning and the detection of weak signals is a vital topic for any intelligence organization. Two aspects are discussed in the paper, the importance of new technology and collective sense making or interpretation The third article by Shaikh and Singhal entitled “Study on the various intellectual property management strategies used and implemented by ICT firms for business intelligence” deals with intellectual property rights and patenting strategies. The authors identify a number of defensive and offensive IP strategies applied to ICT companies. The results have a bearing on patent acquisitions. The fourth article by Lamrhari et al. is entitled “Web intelligence for understanding customer satisfaction: application of Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) and the Kano model”. Customer satisfaction today is mostly measured with data from the internet, using different business intelligence techniques. The Kano model is still valuablei,ii, but the way we gather information to assess the different levels in the model has changed. The authors use Latent Dirichlet Allocation to analyze the voice of customer (VOC) in online reviews. They suggest that BI techniques and a fuzzy-Kano model can enable companies to better understand their customers’ online reviews. The fifth article by Nahili et al. is entitled “A new corpus-based convolutional neutral network for big data text analysis”. Companies need efficient ways to analyze everything that is said about them on the internet (reviews, comments). The paper suggests a convolutional neural network (CNN) as it has been successfully used for text classification. IMDB movie reviews and Reuters datasets were used for the experiment. The sixth article by Černý et al. is entitled “Using open data and google search data for competitive intelligence analysis”. Taking the Czech antidepressant market as an example, the authors show how competitive intelligence can be obtained using Google Search data, Google Trend and other OSINT sources. The seventh article by Dadkhah et al. is entitled “The potential of business intelligence tools for expert findings”. The paper suggests a way for researchers to find experts using business intelligence tools. The same method may also be used by any business or person looking for experts on a specific topic. As always, we would above all like to thank the authors for their contributions to this issue of JISIB. Thanks to Dr. Allison Perrigo for reviewing English grammar and helping with layout design for all articles and to the Swedish Research Council for continuous financial support. We hope to see you all at the ICI 2020 on the 16-17 March, 2020. The deadline for the two-page abstract submission is March 1st, 2020.

1. Guy Debord in the Land of the Long WeekendIt’s the weekend – leisure time. It’s the interlude when, Guy Debord contends, the proletarian is briefly free of the “total contempt so clearly built into every aspect of the organization and management of production” in commodity capitalism; when workers are temporarily “treated like grown-ups, with a great show of solicitude and politeness, in their new role as consumers.” But this patronising show turns out to be another form of subjection to the diktats of “political economy”: “the totality of human existence falls under the regime of the ‘perfected denial of man’.” (30). As Debord suggests, even the creation of leisure time and space is predicated upon a form of contempt: the “perfected denial” of who we, as living people, really are in the eyes of those who presume the power to legislate our working practices and private identities.This Saturday The Weekend Australian runs an opinion piece by Christopher Pearson, defending ABC Radio National’s Stephen Crittenden, whose program The Religion Report has been axed. “Some of Crittenden’s finest half-hours have been devoted to Islam in Australia in the wake of September 11,” Pearson writes. “Again and again he’s confronted a left-of-centre audience that expected multi-cultural pieties with disturbing assertions.” Along the way in this admirable Crusade, Pearson notes that Crittenden has exposed “the Left’s recent tendency to ally itself with Islam.” According to Pearson, Crittenden has also thankfully given oxygen to claims by James Cook University’s Mervyn Bendle, the “fairly conservative academic whose work sometimes appears in [these] pages,” that “the discipline of critical terrorism studies has been captured by neo-Marxists of a postmodern bent” (30). Both of these points are well beyond misunderstanding or untested proposition. If Pearson means them sincerely he should be embarrassed and sacked. But of course he does not and will not be. These are deliberate lies, the confabulations of an eminent right-wing culture warrior whose job is to vilify minorities and intellectuals (Bendle escapes censure as an academic because he occasionally scribbles for the Murdoch press). It should be observed, too, how the patent absurdity of Pearson’s remarks reveals the extent to which he holds the intelligence of his readers in contempt. And he is not original in peddling these toxic wares.In their insightful—often hilarious—study of Australian opinion writers, The War on Democracy, Niall Lucy and Steve Mickler identify the left-academic-Islam nexus as the brain-child of former Treasurer-cum-memoirist Peter Costello. The germinal moment was “a speech to the Australian American Leadership Dialogue forum at the Art Gallery of NSW in 2005” concerning anti-Americanism in Australian schools. Lucy and Mickler argue that “it was only a matter of time” before a conservative politician or journalist took the plunge to link the left and terrorism, and Costello plunged brilliantly. He drew a mental map of the Great Chain of Being: left-wing academics taught teacher trainees to be anti-American; teacher trainees became teachers and taught kids to be anti-American; anti-Americanism morphs into anti-Westernism; anti-Westernism veers into terrorism (38). This is contempt for the reasoning capacity of the Australian people and, further still, contempt for any observable reality. Not for nothing was Costello generally perceived by the public as a politician whose very physiognomy radiated smugness and contempt.Recycling Costello, Christopher Pearson’s article subtly interpellates the reader as an ordinary, common-sense individual who instinctively feels what’s right and has no need to think too much—thinking too much is the prerogative of “neo-Marxists” and postmodernists. Ultimately, Pearson’s article is about channelling outrage: directing the down-to-earth passions of the Australian people against stock-in-trade culture-war hate figures. And in Pearson’s paranoid world, words like “neo-Marxist” and “postmodern” are devoid of historical or intellectual meaning. They are, as Lucy and Mickler’s War on Democracy repeatedly demonstrate, mere ciphers packed with the baggage of contempt for independent critical thought itself.Contempt is everywhere this weekend. The Weekend Australian’s colour magazine runs a feature story on Malcolm Turnbull: one of those familiar profiles designed to reveal the everyday human touch of the political classes. In this puff-piece, Jennifer Hewett finds Turnbull has “a restless passion for participating in public life” (20); that beneath “the aggressive political rhetoric […] behind the journalist turned lawyer turned banker turned politician turned would-be prime minister is a man who really enjoys that human interaction, however brief, with the many, many ordinary people he encounters” (16). Given all this energetic turning, it’s a wonder that Turnbull has time for human interactions at all. The distinction here of Turnbull and “many, many ordinary people” – the anonymous masses – surely runs counter to Hewett’s brief to personalise and quotidianise him. Likewise, those two key words, “however brief”, have an unfortunate, unintended effect. Presumably meant to conjure a picture of Turnbull’s hectic schedules and serial turnings, the words also convey the image of a patrician who begrudgingly knows one of the costs of a political career is that common flesh must be pressed—but as gingerly as possible.Hewett proceeds to disclose that Turnbull is “no conservative cultural warrior”, “onfounds stereotypes” and “hates labels” (like any baby-boomer rebel) and “has always read widely on political philosophy—his favourite is Edmund Burke”. He sees the “role of the state above all as enabling people to do their best” but knows that “the main game is the economy” and is “content to play mainstream gesture politics” (19). I am genuinely puzzled by this and imagine that my intelligence is being held in contempt once again. That the man of substance is given to populist gesturing is problematic enough; but that the Burke fan believes the state is about personal empowerment is just too much. Maybe Turnbull is a fan of Burke’s complex writings on the sublime and the beautiful—but no, Hewett avers, Turnbull is engaged by Burke’s “political philosophy”. So what is it in Burke that Turnbull finds to favour?Turnbull’s invocation of Edmund Burke is empty, gestural and contradictory. The comfortable notion that the state helps people to realise their potential is contravened by Burke’s view that the state functions so “the inclinations of men should frequently be thwarted, their will controlled, and their passions brought into subjection… by a power out of themselves” (151). Nor does Burke believe that anyone of humble origins could or should rise to the top of the social heap: “The occupation of an hair-dresser, or of a working tallow-chandler, cannot be a matter of honour to any person… the state suffers oppression, if such as they, either individually or collectively, are permitted to rule” (138).If Turnbull’s main game as a would-be statesman is the economy, Burke profoundly disagrees: “the state ought not to be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in a trade of pepper and coffee, callico or tobacco, or some other such low concern… It is a partnership in all science; a partnership in all art; a partnership in every virtue, and in all perfection”—a sublime entity, not an economic manager (194). Burke understands, long before Antonio Gramsci or Louis Althusser, that individuals or social fractions must be made admirably “obedient” to the state “by consent or force” (195). Burke has a verdict on mainstream gesture politics too: “When men of rank sacrifice all ideas of dignity to an ambition without a distinct object, and work with low instruments and for low ends, the whole composition [of the state] becomes low and base” (136).Is Malcolm Turnbull so contemptuous of the public that he assumes nobody will notice the gross discrepancies between his own ideals and what Burke stands for? His invocation of Burke is, indeed, “mainstream gesture politics”: on one level, “Burke” signifies nothing more than Turnbull’s performance of himself as a deep thinker. In this process, the real Edmund Burke is historically erased; reduced to the status of stage-prop in the theatrical production of Turnbull’s mass-mediated identity. “Edmund Burke” is re-invented as a term in an aesthetic repertoire.This transmutation of knowledge and history into mere cipher is the staple trick of culture-war discourse. Jennifer Hewett casts Turnbull as “no conservative culture warrior”, but he certainly shows a facility with culture-war rhetoric. And as much as Turnbull “confounds stereotypes” his verbal gesture to Edmund Burke entrenches a stereotype: at another level, the incantation “Edmund Burke” is implicitly meant to connect Turnbull with conservative tradition—in the exact way that John Howard regularly self-nominated as a “Burkean conservative”.This appeal to tradition effectively places “the people” in a power relation. Tradition has a sublimity that is bigger than us; it precedes us and will outlast us. Consequently, for a politician to claim that tradition has fashioned him, that he is welded to it or perhaps even owns it as part of his heritage, is to glibly imply an authority greater than that of “the many, many ordinary people”—Burke’s hair-dressers and tallow-chandlers—whose company he so briefly enjoys.In The Ideology of the Aesthetic, Terry Eagleton assesses one of Burke’s important legacies, placing him beside another eighteenth-century thinker so loved by the right—Adam Smith. Ideology of the Aesthetic is premised on the view that “Aesthetics is born as a discourse of the body”; that the aesthetic gives form to the “primitive materialism” of human passions and organises “the whole of our sensate life together… a society’s somatic, sensational life” (13). Reading Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments, Eagleton discerns that society appears as “an immense machine, whose regular and harmonious movements produce a thousand agreeable effects”, like “any production of human art”. In Smith’s work, the “whole of social life is aestheticized” and people inhabit “a social order so spontaneously cohesive that its members no longer need to think about it.” In Burke, Eagleton discovers that the aesthetics of “manners” can be understood in terms of Gramscian hegemony: “in the aesthetics of social conduct, or ‘culture’ as it would later be called, the law is always with us, as the very unconscious structure of our life”, and as a result conformity to a dominant ideological order is deeply felt as pleasurable and beautiful (37, 42). When this conservative aesthetic enters the realm of politics, Eagleton contends, the “right turn, from Burke” onwards follows a dark trajectory: “forget about theoretical analysis… view society as a self-grounding organism, all of whose parts miraculously interpenetrate without conflict and require no rational justification. Think with the blood and the body. Remember that tradition is always wiser and richer than one’s own poor, pitiable ego. It is this line of descent, in one of its tributaries, which will lead to the Third Reich” (368–9).2. Jean Baudrillard, the Nazis and Public MemoryIn 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Third Reich’s Condor Legion of the Luftwaffe was on loan to Franco’s forces. On 26 April that year, the Condor Legion bombed the market-town of Guernica: the first deliberate attempt to obliterate an entire town from the air and the first experiment in what became known as “terror bombing”—the targeting of civilians. A legacy of this violence was Pablo Picasso’s monumental canvas Guernica – the best-known anti-war painting in art history.When US Secretary of State Colin Powell addressed the United Nations on 5 February 2003 to make the case for war on Iraq, he stopped to face the press in the UN building’s lobby. The doorstop was globally televised, packaged as a moment of incredible significance: history in the making. It was also theatre: a moment in which history was staged as “event” and the real traces of history were carefully erased. Millions of viewers world-wide were undoubtedly unaware that the blue backdrop before which Powell stood was specifically designed to cover the full-scale tapestry copy of Picasso’s Guernica. This one-act, agitprop drama was a splendid example of politics as aesthetic action: a “performance” of history in the making which required the loss of actual historical memory enshrined in Guernica. Powell’s performance took its cues from the culture wars, which require the ceaseless erasure of history and public memory—on this occasion enacted on a breathtaking global, rather than national, scale.Inside the UN chamber, Powell’s performance was equally staged-crafted. As he brandished vials of ersatz anthrax, the power-point behind him (the theatrical set) showed artists’ impressions of imaginary mobile chemical weapons laboratories. Powell was playing lead role in a kind of populist, hyperreal production. It was Jean Baudrillard’s postmodernism, no less, as the media space in which Powell acted out the drama was not a secondary representation of reality but a reality of its own; the overheads of mobile weapons labs were simulacra, “models of a real without origins or reality”, pictures referring to nothing but themselves (2). In short, Powell’s performance was anchored in a “semiurgic” aesthetic; and it was a dreadful real-life enactment of Walter Benjamin’s maxim that “All efforts to render politics aesthetic culminate in one thing: war” (241).For Benjamin, “Fascism attempts to organize the newly created proletarian masses without affecting the property structure which the masses strive to eliminate.” Fascism gave “these masses not their right, but instead a chance to express themselves.” In turn, this required “the introduction of aesthetics into politics”, the objective of which was “the production of ritual values” (241). Under Adolf Hitler’s Reich, people were able to express themselves but only via the rehearsal of officially produced ritual values: by their participation in the disquisition on what Germany meant and what it meant to be German, by the aesthetic regulation of their passions. As Frederic Spotts’ fine study Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics reveals, this passionate disquisition permeated public and private life, through the artfully constructed total field of national narratives, myths, symbols and iconographies. And the ritualistic reiteration of national values in Nazi Germany hinged on two things: contempt and memory loss.By April 1945, as Berlin fell, Hitler’s contempt for the German people was at its apogee. Hitler ordered a scorched earth operation: the destruction of everything from factories to farms to food stores. The Russians would get nothing, the German people would perish. Albert Speer refused to implement the plan and remembered that “Until then… Germany and Hitler had been synonymous in my mind. But now I saw two entities opposed… A passionate love of one’s country… a leader who seemed to hate his people” (Sereny 472). But Hitler’s contempt for the German people was betrayed in the blusterous pages of Mein Kampf years earlier: “The receptivity of the great masses is very limited, their intelligence is small, but their power of forgetting is enormous” (165). On the back of this belief, Hitler launched what today would be called a culture war, with its Jewish folk devils, loathsome Marxist intellectuals, incitement of popular passions, invented traditions, historical erasures and constant iteration of values.When Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer fled Fascism, landing in the United States, their view of capitalist democracy borrowed from Benjamin and anticipated both Baudrillard and Guy Debord. In their well-know essay on “The Culture Industry”, in Dialectic of Enlightenment, they applied Benjamin’s insight on mass self-expression and the maintenance of property relations and ritual values to American popular culture: “All are free to dance and enjoy themselves”, but the freedom to choose how to do so “proves to be the freedom to choose what is always the same”, manufactured by monopoly capital (161–162). Anticipating Baudrillard, they found a society in which “only the copy appears: in the movie theatre, the photograph; on the radio, the recording” (143). And anticipating Debord’s “perfected denial of man” they found a society where work and leisure were structured by the repetition-compulsion principles of capitalism: where people became consumers who appeared “s statistics on research organization charts” (123). “Culture” came to do people’s thinking for them: “Pleasure always means not to think about anything, to forget suffering even where it is shown” (144).In this mass-mediated environment, a culture of repetitions, simulacra, billboards and flickering screens, Adorno and Horkheimer concluded that language lost its historical anchorages: “Innumerable people use words and expressions which they have either ceased to understand or employ only because they trigger off conditioned reflexes” in precisely the same way that the illusory “free” expression of passions in Germany operated, where words were “debased by the Fascist pseudo-folk community” (166).I know that the turf of the culture wars, the US and Australia, are not Fascist states; and I know that “the first one to mention the Nazis loses the argument”. I know, too, that there are obvious shortcomings in Adorno and Horkheimer’s reactions to popular culture and these have been widely criticised. However, I would suggest that there is a great deal of value still in Frankfurt School analyses of what we might call the “authoritarian popular” which can be applied to the conservative prosecution of populist culture wars today. Think, for example, how the concept of a “pseudo folk community” might well describe the earthy, common-sense public constructed and interpellated by right-wing culture warriors: America’s Joe Six-Pack, John Howard’s battlers or Kevin Rudd’s working families.In fact, Adorno and Horkheimer’s observations on language go to the heart of a contemporary culture war strategy. Words lose their history, becoming ciphers and “triggers” in a politicised lexicon. Later, Roland Barthes would write that this is a form of myth-making: “myth is constituted by the loss of the historical quality of things.” Barthes reasoned further that “Bourgeois ideology continuously transforms the products of history into essential types”, generating a “cultural logic” and an ideological re-ordering of the world (142). Types such as “neo-Marxist”, “postmodernist” and “Burkean conservative”.Surely, Benjamin’s assessment that Fascism gives “the people” the occasion to express itself, but only through “values”, describes the right’s pernicious incitement of the mythic “dispossessed mainstream” to reclaim its voice: to shout down the noisy minorities—the gays, greenies, blacks, feminists, multiculturalists and neo-Marxist postmodernists—who’ve apparently been running the show. Even more telling, Benjamin’s insight that the incitement to self-expression is connected to the maintenance of property relations, to economic power, is crucial to understanding the contemptuous conduct of culture wars.3. Jesus Dunked in Urine from Kansas to CronullaAmerican commentator Thomas Frank bases his study What’s the Matter with Kansas? on this very point. Subtitled How Conservatives Won the Heart of America, Frank’s book is a striking analysis of the indexation of Chicago School free-market reform and the mobilisation of “explosive social issues—summoning public outrage over everything from busing to un-Christian art—which it then marries to pro-business policies”; but it is the “economic achievements” of free-market capitalism, “not the forgettable skirmishes of the never-ending culture wars” that are conservatism’s “greatest monuments.” Nevertheless, the culture wars are necessary as Chicago School economic thinking consigns American communities to the rust belt. The promise of “free-market miracles” fails ordinary Americans, Frank reasons, leaving them in “backlash” mode: angry, bewildered and broke. And in this context, culture wars are a convenient form of anger management: “Because some artist decides to shock the hicks by dunking Jesus in urine, the entire planet must remake itself along the lines preferred” by nationalist, populist moralism and free-market fundamentalism (5).When John Howard received the neo-conservative American Enterprise Institute’s Irving Kristol Award, on 6 March 2008, he gave a speech in Washington titled “Sharing Our Common Values”. The nub of the speech was Howard’s revelation that he understood the index of neo-liberal economics and culture wars precisely as Thomas Frank does. Howard told the AEI audience that under his prime ministership Australia had “pursued reform and further modernisation of our economy” and that this inevitably meant “dislocation for communities”. This “reform-dislocation” package needed the palliative of a culture war, with his government preaching the “consistency and reassurance” of “our nation’s traditional values… pride in her history”; his government “became assertive about the intrinsic worth of our national identity. In the process we ended the seemingly endless seminar about that identity which had been in progress for some years.” Howard’s boast that his government ended the “seminar” on national identity insinuates an important point. “Seminar” is a culture-war cipher for intellection, just as “pride” is code for passion; so Howard’s self-proclaimed achievement, in Terry Eagleton’s terms, was to valorise “the blood and the body” over “theoretical analysis”. This speaks stratospheric contempt: ordinary people have their identity fashioned for them; they need not think about it, only feel it deeply and passionately according to “ritual values”. Undoubtedly this paved the way to Cronulla.The rubric of Howard’s speech—“Sharing Our Common Values”—was both a homage to international neo-conservatism and a reminder that culture wars are a trans-national phenomenon. In his address, Howard said that in all his “years in politics” he had not heard a “more evocative political slogan” than Ronald Reagan’s “Morning in America”—the rhetorical catch-cry for moral re-awakening that launched the culture wars. According to Lawrence Grossberg, America’s culture wars were predicated on the perception that the nation was afflicted by “a crisis of our lack of passion, of not caring enough about the values we hold… a crisis of nihilism which, while not restructuring our ideological beliefs, has undermined our ability to organise effective action on their behalf”; and this “New Right” alarmism “operates in the conjuncture of economics and popular culture” and “a popular struggle by which culture can lead politics” in the passionate pursuit of ritual values (31–2). When popular culture leads politics in this way we are in the zone of the image, myth and Adorno and Horkheimer’s “trigger words” that have lost their history. In this context, McKenzie Wark observes that “radical writers influenced by Marx will see the idea of culture as compensation for a fragmented and alienated life as a con. Guy Debord, perhaps the last of the great revolutionary thinkers of Europe, will call it “the spectacle”’ (20). Adorno and Horkheimer might well have called it “the authoritarian popular”. As Jonathan Charteris-Black’s work capably demonstrates, all politicians have their own idiolect: their personally coded language, preferred narratives and myths; their own vision of who “the people” might or should be that is conjured in their words. But the language of the culture wars is different. It is not a personal idiolect. It is a shared vocabulary, a networked vernacular, a pervasive trans-national aesthetic that pivots on the fact that words like “neo-Marxist”, “postmodern” and “Edmund Burke” have no historical or intellectual context or content: they exist as the ciphers of “values”. And the fact that culture warriors continually mouth them is a supreme act of contempt: it robs the public of its memory. And that’s why, as Lucy and Mickler’s War on Democracy so wittily argues, if there are any postmodernists left they’ll be on the right.Benjamin, Adorno, Horkheimer and, later, Debord and Grossberg understood how the political activation of the popular constitutes a hegemonic project. The result is nothing short of persuading “the people” to collaborate in its own oppression. The activation of the popular is perfectly geared to an age where the main stage of political life is the mainstream media; an age in which, Charteris-Black notes, political classes assume the general antipathy of publics to social change and act on the principle that the most effective political messages are sold to “the people” by an appeal “to familiar experiences”—market populism (10). In her substantial study The Persuaders, Sally Young cites an Australian Labor Party survey, conducted by pollster Rod Cameron in the late 1970s, in which the party’s message machine was finely tuned to this populist position. The survey also dripped with contempt for ordinary people: their “Interest in political philosophy… is very low… They are essentially the products (and supporters) of mass market commercialism”. Young observes that this view of “the people” was the foundation of a new order of political advertising and the conduct of politics on the mass-media stage. Cameron’s profile of “ordinary people” went on to assert that they are fatally attracted to “a moderate leader who is strong… but can understand and represent their value system” (47): a prescription for populist discourse which begs the question of whether the values a politician or party represent via the media are ever really those of “the people”. More likely, people are hegemonised into a value system which they take to be theirs. Writing of the media side of the equation, David Salter raises the point that when media “moguls thunder about ‘the public interest’ what they really mean is ‘what we think the public is interested in”, which is quite another matter… Why this self-serving deception is still so sheepishly accepted by the same public it is so often used to violate remains a mystery” (40).Sally Young’s Persuaders retails a story that she sees as “symbolic” of the new world of mass-mediated political life. The story concerns Mark Latham and his “revolutionary” journeys to regional Australia to meet the people. “When a political leader who holds a public meeting is dubbed a ‘revolutionary’”, Young rightly observes, “something has gone seriously wrong”. She notes how Latham’s “use of old-fashioned ‘meet-and-greet’campaigning methods was seen as a breath of fresh air because it was unlike the type of packaged, stage-managed and media-dependent politics that have become the norm in Australia.” Except that it wasn’t. “A media pack of thirty journalists trailed Latham in a bus”, meaning, that he was not meeting the people at all (6–7). He was traducing the people as participants in a media spectacle, as his “meet and greet” was designed to fill the image-banks of print and electronic media. Even meeting the people becomes a media pseudo-event in which the people impersonate the people for the camera’s benefit; a spectacle as artfully deceitful as Colin Powell’s UN performance on Iraq.If the success of this kind of “self-serving deception” is a mystery to David Salter, it would not be so to the Frankfurt School. For them, an understanding of the processes of mass-mediated politics sits somewhere near the core of their analysis of the culture industries in the “democratic” world. I think the Frankfurt school should be restored to a more important role in the project of cultural studies. Apart from an aversion to jazz and other supposedly “elitist” heresies, thinkers like Adorno, Benjamin, Horkheimer and their progeny Debord have a functional claim to provide the theory for us to expose the machinations of the politics of contempt and its aesthetic ruses.ReferencesAdorno, Theodor and Max Horkheimer. "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception." Dialectic of Enlightenment. London: Verso, 1979. 120–167.Barthes Roland. “Myth Today.” Mythologies. Trans. Annette Lavers. St Albans: Paladin, 1972. 109–58.Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York: Semiotext(e), 1983.Benjamin, Walter. “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.” Illuminations. Ed. Hannah Arendt. Trans. Harry Zorn. New York: Schocken Books, 1969. 217–251.Burke, Edmund. Reflections on the Revolution in France. Ed. Conor Cruise O’Brien. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969.Charteris-Black, Jonathan. Politicians and Rhetoric: The Persuasive Power of Metaphor. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. Trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith. New York: Zone Books, 1994.Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990.Frank, Thomas. What’s the Matter with Kansas?: How Conservatives Won the Heart of America. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004.Grossberg, Lawrence. “It’s a Sin: Politics, Post-Modernity and the Popular.” It’s a Sin: Essays on Postmodern Politics & Culture. Eds. Tony Fry, Ann Curthoys and Paul Patton. Sydney: Power Publications, 1988. 6–71.Hewett, Jennifer. “The Opportunist.” The Weekend Australian Magazine. 25–26 October 2008. 16–22.Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. Trans. Ralph Manheim. London: Pimlico, 1993.Howard, John. “Sharing Our Common Values.” Washington: Irving Kristol Lecture, American Enterprise Institute. 5 March 2008. ‹http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,233328945-5014047,00html›.Lucy, Niall and Steve Mickler. The War on Democracy: Conservative Opinion in the Australian Press. Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006.Pearson, Christopher. “Pray for Sense to Prevail.” The Weekend Australian. 25–26 October 2008. 30.Salter, David. The Media We Deserve: Underachievement in the Fourth Estate. Melbourne: Melbourne UP, 2007. Sereny, Gitta. Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth. London: Picador, 1996.Spotts, Frederic. Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics. London: Pimlico, 2003.Wark, McKenzie. The Virtual Republic: Australia’s Culture Wars of the 1990s. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1997.Young, Sally. The Persuaders: Inside the Hidden Machine of Political Advertising. Melbourne: Pluto Press, 2004.

From elephants to ABBA fans, silicon to hormone, the following discussion uses a new research method to look at printed text, motion pictures and a teenage rebel icon. If by ‘print’ we mean a mechanically reproduced impression of a cultural symbol in a medium, then printing has been with us since before microdot security prints were painted onto cars, before voice prints, laser prints, network servers, record pressings, motion picture prints, photo prints, colour woodblock prints, before books, textile prints, and footprints. If we accept that higher mammals such as elephants have a learnt culture, then it is possible to extend a definition of printing beyond Homo sapiens. Poole reports that elephants mechanically trumpet reproductions of human car horns into the air surrounding their society. If nothing else, this cross-species, cross-cultural reproduction, this ‘ability to mimic’ is ‘another sign of their intelligence’. Observation of child development suggests that the first significant meaningful ‘impression’ made on the human mind is that of the face of the child’s nurturer – usually its mother. The baby’s mind forms an ‘impression’, a mental print, a reproducible memory data set, of the nurturer’s face, voice, smell, touch, etc. That face is itself a cultural construct: hair style, makeup, piercings, tattoos, ornaments, nutrition-influenced skin and smell, perfume, temperature and voice. A mentally reproducible pattern of a unique face is formed in the mind, and we use that pattern to distinguish ‘familiar and strange’ in our expanding social orbit. The social relations of patterned memory – of imprinting – determine the extent to which we explore our world (armed with research aids such as text print) or whether we turn to violence or self-harm (Bretherton). While our cultural artifacts (such as vellum maps or networked voice message servers) bravely extend our significant patterns into the social world and the traversed environment, it is useful to remember that such artifacts, including print, are themselves understood by our original pattern-reproduction and impression system – the human mind, developed in childhood. The ‘print’ is brought to mind differently in different discourses. For a reader, a ‘print’ is a book, a memo or a broadsheet, whether it is the Indian Buddhist Sanskrit texts ordered to be printed in 593 AD by the Chinese emperor Sui Wen-ti (Silk Road) or the US Defense Department memo authorizing lower ranks to torture the prisoners taken by the Bush administration (Sanchez, cited in ABC). Other fields see prints differently. For a musician, a ‘print’ may be the sheet music which spread classical and popular music around the world; it may be a ‘record’ (as in a ‘recording’ session), where sound is impressed to wax, vinyl, charged silicon particles, or the alloys (Smith, “Elpida”) of an mp3 file. For the fine artist, a ‘print’ may be any mechanically reproduced two-dimensional (or embossed) impression of a significant image in media from paper to metal, textile to ceramics. ‘Print’ embraces the Japanese Ukiyo-e colour prints of Utamaro, the company logos that wink from credit card holographs, the early photographs of Talbot, and the textured patterns printed into neolithic ceramics. Computer hardware engineers print computational circuits. Homicide detectives investigate both sweaty finger prints and the repeated, mechanical gaits of suspects, which are imprinted into the earthy medium of a crime scene. For film makers, the ‘print’ may refer to a photochemical polyester reproduction of a motion picture artifact (the reel of ‘celluloid’), or a DVD laser disc impression of the same film. Textualist discourse has borrowed the word ‘print’ to mean ‘text’, so ‘print’ may also refer to the text elements within the vision track of a motion picture: the film’s opening titles, or texts photographed inside the motion picture story such as the sword-cut ‘Z’ in Zorro (Niblo). Before the invention of writing, the main mechanically reproduced impression of a cultural symbol in a medium was the humble footprint in the sand. The footprints of tribes – and neighbouring animals – cut tracks in the vegetation and the soil. Printed tracks led towards food, water, shelter, enemies and friends. Having learnt to pattern certain faces into their mental world, children grew older and were educated in the footprints of family and clan, enemies and food. The continuous impression of significant foot traffic in the medium of the earth produced the lines between significant nodes of prewriting and pre-wheeled cultures. These tracks were married to audio tracks, such as the song lines of the Australian Aborigines, or the ballads of tramping culture everywhere. A typical tramping song has the line, ‘There’s a track winding back to an old-fashion shack along the road to Gundagai,’ (O’Hagan), although this colonial-style song was actually written for radio and became an international hit on the airwaves, rather than the tramping trails. The printed tracks impressed by these cultural flows are highly contested and diverse, and their foot prints are woven into our very language. The names for printed tracks have entered our shared memory from the intersection of many cultures: ‘Track’ is a Germanic word entering English usage comparatively late (1470) and now used mainly in audio visual cultural reproduction, as in ‘soundtrack’. ‘Trek’ is a Dutch word for ‘track’ now used mainly by ecotourists and science fiction fans. ‘Learn’ is a Proto-Indo-European word: the verb ‘learn’ originally meant ‘to find a track’ back in the days when ‘learn’ had a noun form which meant ‘the sole of the foot’. ‘Tract’ and ‘trace’ are Latin words entering English print usage before 1374 and now used mainly in religious, and electronic surveillance, cultural reproduction. ‘Trench’ in 1386 was a French path cut through a forest. ‘Sagacity’ in English print in 1548 was originally the ability to track or hunt, in Proto-Indo-European cultures. ‘Career’ (in English before 1534) was the print made by chariots in ancient Rome. ‘Sleuth’ (1200) was a Norse noun for a track. ‘Investigation’ (1436) was Latin for studying a footprint (Harper). The arrival of symbolic writing scratched on caves, hearth stones, and trees (the original meaning of ‘book’ is tree), brought extremely limited text education close to home. Then, with baked clay tablets, incised boards, slate, bamboo, tortoise shell, cast metal, bark cloth, textiles, vellum, and – later – paper, a portability came to text that allowed any culture to venture away from known ‘foot’ paths with a reduction in the risk of becoming lost and perishing. So began the world of maps, memos, bills of sale, philosophic treatises and epic mythologies. Some of this was printed, such as the mechanical reproduction of coins, but the fine handwriting required of long, extended, portable texts could not be printed until the invention of paper in China about 2000 years ago. Compared to lithic architecture and genes, portable text is a fragile medium, and little survives from the millennia of its innovators. The printing of large non-text designs onto bark-paper and textiles began in neolithic times, but Sui Wen-ti’s imperial memo of 593 AD gives us the earliest written date for printed books, although we can assume they had been published for many years previously. The printed book was a combination of Indian philosophic thought, wood carving, ink chemistry and Chinese paper. The earliest surviving fragment of paper-print technology is ‘Mantras of the Dharani Sutra’, a Buddhist scripture written in the Sanskrit language of the Indian subcontinent, unearthed at an early Tang Dynasty site in Xian, China – making the fragment a veteran piece of printing, in the sense that Sanskrit books had been in print for at least a century by the early Tang Dynasty (Chinese Graphic Arts Net). At first, paper books were printed with page-size carved wooden boards. Five hundred years later, Pi Sheng (c.1041) baked individual reusable ceramic characters in a fire and invented the durable moveable type of modern printing (Silk Road 2000). Abandoning carved wooden tablets, the ‘digitizing’ of Chinese moveable type sped up the production of printed texts. In turn, Pi Sheng’s flexible, rapid, sustainable printing process expanded the political-cultural impact of the literati in Asian society. Digitized block text on paper produced a bureaucratic, literate elite so powerful in Asia that Louis XVI of France copied China’s print-based Confucian system of political authority for his own empire, and so began the rise of the examined public university systems, and the civil service systems, of most European states (Watson, Visions). By reason of its durability, its rapid mechanical reproduction, its culturally agreed signs, literate readership, revered authorship, shared ideology, and distributed portability, a ‘print’ can be a powerful cultural network which builds and expands empires. But print also attacks and destroys empires. A case in point is the Spanish conquest of Aztec America: The Aztecs had immense libraries of American literature on bark-cloth scrolls, a technology which predated paper. These libraries were wiped out by the invading Spanish, who carried a different book before them (Ewins). In the industrial age, the printing press and the gun were seen as the weapons of rebellions everywhere. In 1776, American rebels staffed their ‘Homeland Security’ units with paper makers, knowing that defeating the English would be based on printed and written documents (Hahn). Mao Zedong was a book librarian; Mao said political power came out of the barrel of a gun, but Mao himself came out of a library. With the spread of wireless networked servers, political ferment comes out of the barrel of the cell phone and the internet chat room these days. Witness the cell phone displays of a plane hitting a tower that appear immediately after 9/11 in the Middle East, or witness the show trials of a few US and UK lower ranks who published prints of their torturing activities onto the internet: only lower ranks who published prints were arrested or tried. The control of secure servers and satellites is the new press. These days, we live in a global library of burning books – ‘burning’ in the sense that ‘print’ is now a charged silicon medium (Smith, “Intel”) which is usually made readable by connecting the chip to nuclear reactors and petrochemically-fired power stations. World resources burn as we read our screens. Men, women, children burn too, as we watch our infotainment news in comfort while ‘their’ flickering dead faces are printed in our broadcast hearths. The print we watch is not the living; it is the voodoo of the living in the blackout behind the camera, engaging the blood sacrifice of the tormented and the unfortunate. Internet texts are also ‘on fire’ in the third sense of their fragility and instability as a medium: data bases regularly ‘print’ fail-safe copies in an attempt to postpone the inevitable mechanical, chemical and electrical failure that awaits all electronic media in time. Print defines a moral position for everyone. In reporting conflict, in deciding to go to press or censor, any ‘print’ cannot avoid an ethical context, starting with the fact that there is a difference in power between print maker, armed perpetrators, the weak, the peaceful, the publisher, and the viewer. So many human factors attend a text, video or voice ‘print’: its very existence as an aesthetic object, even before publication and reception, speaks of unbalanced, and therefore dynamic, power relationships. For example, Graham Greene departed unscathed from all the highly dangerous battlefields he entered as a novelist: Riot-torn Germany, London Blitz, Belgian Congo, Voodoo Haiti, Vietnam, Panama, Reagan’s Washington, and mafia Europe. His texts are peopled with the injustices of the less fortunate of the twentieth century, while he himself was a member of the fortunate (if not happy) elite, as is anyone today who has the luxury of time to read Greene’s works for pleasure. Ethically a member of London and Paris’ colonizers, Greene’s best writing still electrifies, perhaps partly because he was in the same line of fire as the victims he shared bread with. In fact, Greene hoped daily that he would escape from the dreadful conflicts he fictionalized via a body bag or an urn of ashes (see Sherry). In reading an author’s biography we have one window on the ethical dimensions of authority and print. If a print’s aesthetics are sometimes enduring, its ethical relationships are always mutable. Take the stylized logo of a running athlete: four limbs bent in a rotation of action. This dynamic icon has symbolized ‘good health’ in Hindu and Buddhist culture, from Madras to Tokyo, for thousands of years. The cross of bent limbs was borrowed for the militarized health programs of 1930s Germany, and, because of what was only a brief, recent, isolated yet monstrously horrific segment of its history in print, the bent-limbed swastika is now a vilified symbol in the West. The sign remains ‘impressed’ differently on traditional Eastern culture, and without the taint of Nazism. Dramatic prints are emotionally charged because, in depicting Homo sapiens in danger, or passionately in love, they elicit a hormonal reaction from the reader, the viewer, or the audience. The type of emotions triggered by a print vary across the whole gamut of human chemistry. A recent study of three genres of motion picture prints shows a marked differences in the hormonal responses of men compared to women when viewing a romance, an actioner, and a documentary (see Schultheiss, Wirth, and Stanton). Society is biochemically diverse in its engagement with printed culture, which raises questions about equality in the arts. Motion picture prints probably comprise around one third of internet traffic, in the form of stolen digitized movie files pirated across the globe via peer-to-peer file transfer networks (p2p), and burnt as DVD laser prints (BBC). There is also a US 40 billion dollar per annum legitimate commerce in DVD laser pressings (Grassl), which would suggest an US 80 billion per annum world total in legitimate laser disc print culture. The actively screen literate, or the ‘sliterati’ as I prefer to call them, research this world of motion picture prints via their peers, their internet information channels, their television programming, and their web forums. Most of this activity occurs outside the ambit of universities and schools. One large site of sliterate (screen literate) practice outside most schooling and official research is the net of online forums at imdb.com (International Movie Data Base). Imdb.com ‘prints’ about 25,000,000 top pages per month to client browsers. Hundreds of sliterati forums are located at imdb, including a forum for the Australian movie, Muriel’s Wedding (Hogan). Ten years after the release of Muriel’s Wedding, young people who are concerned with victimization and bullying still log on to http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0110598/board/> and put their thoughts into print: I still feel so bad for Muriel in the beginning of the movie, when the girls ‘dump’ her, and how much the poor girl cried and cried! Those girls were such biartches…I love how they got their comeuppance! bunniesormaybemidgets’s comment is typical of the current discussion. Muriel’s Wedding was a very popular film in its first cinema edition in Australia and elsewhere. About 30% of the entire over-14 Australian population went to see this photochemical polyester print in the cinemas on its first release. A decade on, the distributors printed a DVD laser disc edition. The story concerns Muriel (played by Toni Collette), the unemployed daughter of a corrupt, ‘police state’ politician. Muriel is bullied by her peers and she withdraws into a fantasy world, deluding herself that a white wedding will rescue her from the torments of her blighted life. Through theft and deceit (the modus operandi of her father) Muriel escapes to the entertainment industry and finds a ‘wicked’ girlfriend mentor. From a rebellious position of stubborn independence, Muriel plays out her fantasy. She gets her white wedding, before seeing both her father and her new married life as hollow shams which have goaded her abandoned mother to suicide. Redefining her life as a ‘game’ and assuming responsibility for her independence, Muriel turns her back on the mainstream, image-conscious, female gang of her oppressed youth. Muriel leaves the story, having rekindled her friendship with her rebel mentor. My methodological approach to viewing the laser disc print was to first make a more accessible, coded record of the entire movie. I was able to code and record the print in real time, using a new metalanguage (Watson, “Eyes”). The advantage of Coding is that ‘thinks’ the same way as film making, it does not sidetrack the analyst into prose. The Code splits the movie print into Vision Action [vision graphic elements, including text] (sound) The Coding splits the vision track into normal action and graphic elements, such as text, so this Coding is an ideal method for extracting all the text elements of a film in real time. After playing the film once, I had four and a half tightly packed pages of the coded story, including all its text elements in square brackets. Being a unique, indexed hard copy, the Coded copy allowed me immediate access to any point of the Muriel’s Wedding saga without having to search the DVD laser print. How are ‘print’ elements used in Muriel’s Wedding? Firstly, a rose-coloured monoprint of Muriel Heslop’s smiling face stares enigmatically from the plastic surface of the DVD picture disc. The print is a still photo captured from her smile as she walked down the aisle of her white wedding. In this print, Toni Collette is the Mona Lisa of Australian culture, except that fans of Muriel’s Wedding know the meaning of that smile is a magical combination of the actor’s art: the smile is both the flush of dreams come true and the frightening self deception that will kill her mother. Inserting and playing the disc, the text-dominant menu appears, and the film commences with the text-dominant opening titles. Text and titles confer a legitimacy on a work, whether it is a trade mark of the laser print owners, or the household names of stars. Text titles confer status relationships on both the presenters of the cultural artifact and the viewer who has entered into a legal license agreement with the owners of the movie. A title makes us comfortable, because the mind always seeks to name the unfamiliar, and a set of text titles does that job for us so that we can navigate the ‘tracks’ and settle into our engagement with the unfamiliar. The apparent ‘truth’ and ‘stability’ of printed text calms our fears and beguiles our uncertainties. Muriel attends the white wedding of a school bully bride, wearing a leopard print dress she has stolen. Muriel’s spotted wild animal print contrasts with the pure white handmade dress of the bride. In Muriel’s leopard textile print, we have the wild, rebellious, impoverished, inappropriate intrusion into the social ritual and fantasy of her high-status tormentor. An off-duty store detective recognizes the printed dress and calls the police. The police are themselves distinguished by their blue-and-white checked prints and other mechanically reproduced impressions of cultural symbols: in steel, brass, embroidery, leather and plastics. Muriel is driven in the police car past the stenciled town sign (‘Welcome To Porpoise Spit’ heads a paragraph of small print). She is delivered to her father, a politician who presides over the policing of his town. In a state where the judiciary, police and executive are hijacked by the same tyrant, Muriel’s father, Bill, pays off the police constables with a carton of legal drugs (beer) and Muriel must face her father’s wrath, which he proceeds to transfer to his detested wife. Like his daughter, the father also wears a spotted brown print costume, but his is a batik print from neighbouring Indonesia (incidentally, in a nation that takes the political status of its batik prints very seriously). Bill demands that Muriel find the receipt for the leopard print dress she claims she has purchased. The legitimate ownership of the object is enmeshed with a printed receipt, the printed evidence of trade. The law (and the paramilitary power behind the law) are legitimized, or contested, by the presence or absence of printed text. Muriel hides in her bedroom, surround by poster prints of the pop group ABBA. Torn-out prints of other people’s weddings adorn her mirror. Her face is embossed with the clown-like primary colours of the marionette as she lifts a bouquet to her chin and stares into the real time ‘print’ of her mirror image. Bill takes the opportunity of a business meeting with Japanese investors to feed his entire family at ‘Charlie Chan’’s restaurant. Muriel’s middle sister sloppily wears her father’s state election tee shirt, printed with the text: ‘Vote 1, Bill Heslop. You can’t stop progress.’ The text sets up two ironic gags that are paid off on the dialogue track: “He lost,’ we are told. ‘Progress’ turns out to be funding the concreting of a beach. Bill berates his daughter Muriel: she has no chance of becoming a printer’s apprentice and she has failed a typing course. Her dysfunction in printed text has been covered up by Bill: he has bribed the typing teacher to issue a printed diploma to his daughter. In the gambling saloon of the club, under the arrays of mechanically repeated cultural symbols lit above the poker machines (‘A’ for ace, ‘Q’ for queen, etc.), Bill’s secret girlfriend Diedre risks giving Muriel a cosmetics job. Another text icon in lights announces the surf nightclub ‘Breakers’. Tania, the newly married queen bitch who has made Muriel’s teenage years a living hell, breaks up with her husband, deciding to cash in his negotiable text documents – his Bali honeymoon tickets – and go on an island holiday with her girlfriends instead. Text documents are the enduring site of agreements between people and also the site of mutations to those agreements. Tania dumps Muriel, who sobs and sobs. Sobs are a mechanical, percussive reproduction impressed on the sound track. Returning home, we discover that Muriel’s older brother has failed a printed test and been rejected for police recruitment. There is a high incidence of print illiteracy in the Heslop family. Mrs Heslop (Jeannie Drynan), for instance, regularly has trouble at the post office. Muriel sees a chance to escape the oppression of her family by tricking her mother into giving her a blank cheque. Here is the confluence of the legitimacy of a bank’s printed negotiable document with the risk and freedom of a blank space for rebel Muriel’s handwriting. Unable to type, her handwriting has the power to steal every cent of her father’s savings. She leaves home and spends the family’s savings at an island resort. On the island, the text print-challenged Muriel dances to a recording (sound print) of ABBA, her hand gestures emphasizing her bewigged face, which is made up in an impression of her pop idol. Her imitation of her goddesses – the ABBA women, her only hope in a real world of people who hate or avoid her – is accompanied by her goddesses’ voices singing: ‘the mystery book on the shelf is always repeating itself.’ Before jpeg and gif image downloads, we had postcard prints and snail mail. Muriel sends a postcard to her family, lying about her ‘success’ in the cosmetics business. The printed missal is clutched by her father Bill (Bill Hunter), who proclaims about his daughter, ‘you can’t type but you really impress me’. Meanwhile, on Hibiscus Island, Muriel lies under a moonlit palm tree with her newly found mentor, ‘bad girl’ Ronda (Rachel Griffiths). In this critical scene, where foolish Muriel opens her heart’s yearnings to a confidante she can finally trust, the director and DP have chosen to shoot a flat, high contrast blue filtered image. The visual result is very much like the semiabstract Japanese Ukiyo-e woodblock prints by Utamaro. This Japanese printing style informed the rise of European modern painting (Monet, Van Gogh, Picasso, etc., were all important collectors and students of Ukiyo-e prints). The above print and text elements in Muriel’s Wedding take us 27 minutes into her story, as recorded on a single page of real-time handwritten Coding. Although not discussed here, the Coding recorded the complete film – a total of 106 minutes of text elements and main graphic elements – as four pages of Code. Referring to this Coding some weeks after it was made, I looked up the final code on page four: taxi [food of the sea] bq. Translation: a shop sign whizzes past in the film’s background, as Muriel and Ronda leave Porpoise Spit in a taxi. Over their heads the text ‘Food Of The Sea’ flashes. We are reminded that Muriel and Ronda are mermaids, fantastic creatures sprung from the brow of author PJ Hogan, and illuminated even today in the pantheon of women’s coming-of-age art works. That the movie is relevant ten years on is evidenced by the current usage of the Muriel’s Wedding online forum, an intersection of wider discussions by sliterate women on imdb.com who, like Muriel, are observers (and in some cases victims) of horrific pressure from ambitious female gangs and bullies. Text is always a minor element in a motion picture (unless it is a subtitled foreign film) and text usually whizzes by subliminally while viewing a film. By Coding the work for [text], all the text nuances made by the film makers come to light. While I have viewed Muriel’s Wedding on many occasions, it has only been in Coding it specifically for text that I have noticed that Muriel is a representative of that vast class of talented youth who are discriminated against by print (as in text) educators who cannot offer her a life-affirming identity in the English classroom. Severely depressed at school, and failing to type or get a printer’s apprenticeship, Muriel finds paid work (and hence, freedom, life, identity, independence) working in her audio visual printed medium of choice: a video store in a new city. Muriel found a sliterate admirer at the video store but she later dumped him for her fantasy man, before leaving him too. One of the points of conjecture on the imdb Muriel’s Wedding site is, did Muriel (in the unwritten future) get back together with admirer Brice Nobes? That we will never know. While a print forms a track that tells us where culture has been, a print cannot be the future, a print is never animate reality. At the end of any trail of prints, one must lift one’s head from the last impression, and negotiate satisfaction in the happening world. References Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “Memo Shows US General Approved Interrogations.” 30 Mar. 2005 http://www.abc.net.au>. 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