Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Pasture response'

The experiments described in this thesis were designed to assess changes in pasture dynamics (biomass and species composition of pasture) of grazing land on the Southern Tablelands of ACT and NSW, after 16 combinations of rabbit control treatments had been applied. The rabbit control performed by CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology consisted of all combinations of presence-absence of Poisoning (using sodium monofluoroacetate, 1080: POIS), Ripping (ripping warrens using a tractor fitted with ripping tynes: RIP), Fumigation (pressure fumigation using chloropicrin: FUM) and repeated follow-up fumigation (using phostoxin pellets one, six and eighteen months after completion of the initial treatment: ANN). The pasture was assessed before treatments were applied, and every six months after rabbit control treatments. Treatment combinations were assigned randomly in a 24 factorial design on a total of 32 sites. There was a significant increase of pasture biomass at the RIP+ANN treatment at post-treatment sample 5. The analysis of covariance did not detect any other significant increase or decrease of pasture biomass for any rabbit control treatment, at any posttreatment sample. A significant increase of grass species occurred for the treatments of POIS+RIP+FUM, POIS and RIP+ANN for the post-treatment samples of 1, 3 and 5 respectively. There was a significant increase of thistles at the rabbit control treatments of POIS+RIP+FUM+ANN (post-treatment sample 1), RIP, ANN, RIP+FUM, RIP+FUM+ANN and POIS+RIP+FUM+ANN (post-treatment sample 3) and RIP and FUM+ANN (post-treatment sample 5). A significant increase of weeds occurred at FUM (post-treatment sample 3) and at FUM+ANN (post-treatment sample 5). No significant changes in the amount of herbs or legumes was apparent for any rabbit control treatment or post-treatment sample. There were no significant decreases for any species group. Except for the significant results for post-treatment sample 1, all significant increases of biomass for any species group occurred during spring (post-treatment sample 3 and 5) which suggests a growth phase during spring then subsequent dieback (particularly for thistles and weeds), as any change was not detected in the following autumn sample. No strong trend is evident for any particular rabbit control treatments, or any combination of treatments. Analysis of covariance revealed that the rabbit control treatment of RIP+ANN showed significant increases in both total biomass of pasture and grass biomass during post-treatment sample 5. This treatment reduced the number of active entrances the most. Significant positive correlations were found between pasture biomass (total) with grass, herb, legume, thistle and weed species groups. Significant negative correlations between grass biomass and the number of active entrances were found when the rabbit control had been highly effective in reducing the number of active entrances. When rabbit control had not been very successful, there was a significant positive but low correlation with the number of active entrances. There was no significant relationship between the number of active entrances with the weight of rabbit dung pellets. It is reasoned that they are different measures of rabbit abundance. More rabbit dung pellets were found closer to the warren than further away from the warren, but there was no correlation between rabbit dung and pasture biomass. Rainfall was above average for most of the experiment, biomass increased accordingly, and rabbit control was highly successful. The resulting changes in the pasture were difficult to detect, although some increases in species composition groups occurred. It is reasoned that the changes observed are partly attributable to seasonal conditions, and to high rainfall. Grazing by domestic animals, sheep and cattle, had been found to be consistent throughout the experiment.

The number of people on our planet is projected to rise to between 9.4 and 10 billion by 2050. Some estimates suggest that current levels of food production will need to double to feed this population. Increasing the intensity of food production on existing agricultural land will be a crucial element in meeting this goal, but practices associated with intensive management can cause biodiversity declines and erode the ecosystem functions that underpin production. My work explores agricultural intensification within the context of pasture-based cattle production. I focus on a variety of ecosystem functions supported by dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea) and other dung-associated invertebrates. I investigate how variations in diversity, and chemical perturbations of veterinary anthelmintics affect the delivery of multiple ecosystem functions. I show that maintaining species-rich dung beetle assemblages has inconsistent benefits in providing multiple ecosystem functions. While dung beetles play an important role in supporting functioning in the short term, my work also reveals that their contributions may be less evident when considered over longer periods. Chemical perturbations caused by anthelmintic residues represent a significant threat to some invertebrate groups, but my experiments show that exposure does not always translate into an immediate reduction in ecosystem functioning. While use of anthelmintic products with relatively low toxicological risk did not cause obvious reductions in function, my work shows exposure can have significant consequences for the conservation of sensitive species. Overall, my work highlights the need for multigenerational studies, mathematical modelling, and careful consideration of sublethal effects to assess fully the risks of anthelmintic residues in the pasture environment. Furthermore, the emphasis on dung beetles (rather than other dung-associated invertebrates) in the existing literature neglects potentially important functional benefits provided by other taxa, such as earthworms. As the global human population continues to expand, it is important that we find sustainable ways to produce food while simultaneously conserving biodiversity. As loss of biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems does not always have functional consequences, it is important that wider justifications for conservation remain integrated into agricultural policy and practice.

Forage is an essential part of the equine diet for health and performance. Pasture nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) have been shown to fluctuate diurnally and seasonally throughout the year due to various factors including environmental conditions and plant stress. The intake of elevated NSC content is linked with metabolic and digestive diseases, including colic and laminitis. A yearlong grazing study was conducted at the Virginia Tech Middleburg Agricultural Research and Extension Center from October 2016 through September 2017 to investigate fluctuations in pasture NSC concentrations as well as the metabolic and digestive response of grazing horses. Twelve sporthorse mares (15 ± 3.4 yrs) were maintained on an 8.5-ha cool season mixed grass pasture with water, mineral (Buckeye Nutrition, Dalton, OH), and white salt ad libitum. Weekly pasture samples (200 g wet weight) were clipped at random 2.5 cm from the plant base at 0800 (AM) and 1600 h (PM) on d 1 and 0800 (AM) and 1300 h (PM) on d 2. Samples were weighed and dried at 70� C and submitted to a commercial laboratory (Equi-analytical, Ithaca, NY) to determine NSC content (water soluble carbohydrates [WSC] + starch). Environmental conditions were measured including ambient temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, rainfall, soil and canopy temperature, and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Corresponding weekly blood samples were collected at 1300 h on d 2 via jugular venipuncture into 4 mL potassium oxalate, and 7 mL EDTA vacutainer tubes and analyzed for glucose (mg/dL), insulin (μIU/mL), and L-lactate (mg/dL). Each month, fecal grab samples were collected from the midrectum to measure pH and D-lactate (�M). Additionally, monthly glucose and insulin dynamics (% �) were assessed via a modified oral sugar test. Pasture nutrients including DE (2.35 ± 0.12 Mcal/kg), NSC (25.45 ± 4.02% DM), WSC (19.65 ± 3.47% DM), and starch (7.25 ± 1.29% DM) were higher in the afternoon hours (PM) compared to morning measurements (AM). Pasture CP and carbohydrate fractions were higher in the spring and fall months compared to summer and winter months with NSC concentrations being highest in May (wk 19) at 25.45% DM. Pasture NSC content was correlated (P � 0.05) with relative humidity (r = 0.38), solar radiation (r = 0.32), and PAR (r = 0.51) and tended (P � 0.1) to have a relationship with ambient temperature (r = 0.23) and rainfall (r = 0.23). There was seasonal variation in all morphometric measures in grazing horses. BW was highest in the spring (P < 0.0001), while BCS and CNS were highest in the fall (P = 0.0021 and P < 0.0001, respectively). Metabolic responses in grazing horses also fluctuated seasonally with glucose and insulin concentrations being most elevated in the spring (P < 0.0001). There was also seasonal variation in digestive measures in grazing horses. Plasma L-lactate and fecal D-lactate means differed by month (P < 0.05) with the highest concentrations in April (11.8 ± 0.91 mg/dL and 4220.4 ± 185.5 �M, respectively). Fecal pH was most acidic in April (6.52 ± 0.08). Pasture NSC content was correlated with weight (r = 0.35), glucose (r = 0.21), and insulin (0.26) in grazing horses and tended to have a relationship with CNS (r = 0.14). There was also a relationship between NSC and plasma L-lactate (r = 0.33), fecal D-lactate (r = 0.48) and pH (r = -0.27). Lastly, glucose and insulin % � (P < 0.0001) were greatest during spring months, but there was no effect of fasting insulin (P < 0.2787) or fasting glucose (P < 0.2055) on glucose % �. These data indicate a relationship between seasonal changes in pasture NSC content and the physiological response in grazing horses. Future aims include evaluating possible seasonal fluctuations in the hindgut microbiome of grazing horses to better understand the link between the equine microbiome and nutritionally-related disturbances. Improved grazing management strategies are needed to reduce the risk of metabolic and gastrointestinal disorders in horses, which may lead to subsequent colic and pasture-associated laminitis.
Doctor of Philosophy
Lush pastures are an important part of the equine diet for overall health and performance. However, there are several nutrition-related diseases that can occur when environmental conditions favor starch and sugar (nonstructural carbohydrates, NSC) accumulation in pasture grasses. Environmental conditions such as air temperature, intensity of sunlight, frost, and drought can all lead to increased accumulation of NSC in pasture grasses, especially in spring and fall months. When horses graze pastures with elevated NSC concentrations they can develop several conditions such as obesity, insulin resistance, and gastrointestinal upset. One of the most common but least understood equine diseases is pasture-associated laminitis, in which inflammation causes pain and damage to the structure of the equine hoof. The objectives of our research were to measure seasonal changes in pasture NSC concentrations as well as the metabolic and digestive response in grazing horses to better understand how the intake of pasture NSC content may lead to disturbances or disease in the horse. A yearlong grazing study was conducted at the Virginia Tech Middleburg Agricultural Research and Extension Center from October 2016 through September 2017 to investigate the relationship between pasture NSC and grazing horses. Twelve sporthorse mares were maintained on a 21-acre mixed grass pasture with water, mineral (Buckeye Nutrition, Dalton, OH), and white salt ad libitum. Weekly pasture samples collected to determine NSC content of the grasses. Weekly blood samples were collected from the horses to measure glucose, insulin, and L- lactate concentrations. Each month, fecal samples were collected to measure pH and Dlactate. Additionally, monthly glucose and insulin dynamics (% ∆) were assessed via a modified oral sugar test. Pasture NSC content fluctuated throughout the year and was most elevated in the spring and fall months. There was seasonal variation in the metabolic response of grazing horses with glucose and insulin concentrations being highest in the spring months. There was also seasonal variation in digestive measures in grazing horses. Plasma L-lactate and fecal D-lactate were most elevated in the spring and fecal pH was most acidic in the spring. These results indicate a relationship between seasonal changes in pasture NSC content and the physiological response in grazing horses. Future aims include evaluating possible seasonal fluctuations in the hindgut microbiota of grazing horses to better understand the link between the equine gastrointestinal bacteria and nutritionally-related diseases. Improved grazing management strategies are needed to reduce the risk of metabolic and gastrointestinal disorders in horses, which may lead to diseases such as colic and pasture-associated laminitis.

Nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC), which includes sugars, starches and fructans in pasture forages, undergo circadian and seasonal variation which has direct effects on metabolism in grazing horses. Increased intake of NSC is implicated in the development of digestive and metabolic disorders, such as laminitis. A series of five studies at Virginia Techâ s M.A.R.E. Center in April, May, August, and October 2005, and January 2006, examined circadian and seasonal variability in forage NSC content and metabolic and digestive variables in horses over a 36 h sampling period. Fourteen mares were randomly assigned to grazing (housed on a 5-ha predominantly tall fescue pasture; n = 10) or control (stabled within the pasture and fed timothy/alfalfa hay; n = 4) groups. Blood samples were collected hourly from the horses which corresponded to hourly pasture forage samples. In all five studies, plasma glucose and insulin were measured and proxies for insulin resistance were calculated. In the April study, plasma L-lactate and fecal pH, L-lactate, D-lactate and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) were also measured. Two approaches were used for the determination of carbohydrate profiles in pasture forage samples. For the first (LAB1), sugar was water soluble carbohydrates extracted prior to analysis for starch, and included fructans. The NSC was the sum of starch and sugar. For the second (LAB2), samples were analyzed for specific NSC fractions using hydrolytic enzymes, with the addition of HCL for the determination of fructans including graminans, the type of fructans in cool season grasses. Both the LAB1 and LAB2 analyses revealed circadian and seasonal patterns in forage NSC and its constituents. In general, pasture forage NSC content was lowest in the morning and highest in the late afternoon. April had the highest NSC content which was comprised mostly of simple sugars. Forage NSC content (LAB1) was associated with environmental variables in all months with strongest correlations in April; ambient temperature (r = 0.72, P < 0.001), solar radiation (r = 0.62, P < 0.001), and humidity (r = -0.84, P < 0.001). In the animals, plasma insulin was highest in grazing horses in April (P < 0.001) followed by May (P < 0.001). Plasma insulin was higher in grazing compared to control horses at all sample points in April, and a circadian pattern was evident (P = 0.012). In grazing horses, plasma glucose was higher in April than all months except for May, and plasma glucose was higher in grazing horses compared to controls in April. In grazing horses, plasma insulin was significantly correlated with NSC and sugar in April (r = 0.69 and r = 0.67, respectively); May (r = 0.46 and r = 0.47, respectively); and January (r = 0.44 and r = 0.46, respectively). In April only, individual mean insulin response was proportional to the increase in insulin per increase in unit of NSC (r2 = 0.033, P < 0.001). Sinusoidal circadian patterns in NSC (r2 = 0.51, P < 0.001) and insulin in grazing horses (r2 = 0.12, P < 0.001) had similar frequency (P = 0.36). Plasma L-lactate was higher in grazing horses (0.64 mmol/L) than control horses (0.40 mmol/L) (P < 0.001). Fecal pH was lower in grazing horses (pH 6.9) than control horses (pH 7.2) (P = 0.008). Fecal VFAs, including acetic acid, butyric acid, and D- and L-lactate were higher in grazing horses compared to control horses (P < 0.05). These studies identified a link between forage NSC content and alterations in carbohydrate metabolism and digestion that may increase risk of laminitis via exacerbation of insulin resistance. Strategies for management practices to decrease intakes of pasture NSC by horses at risk of developing metabolic disorders are needed.
Ph. D.

Climate change is likely to alter plant species composition and interactions between plants and soil microbes that together dictate the quantity and quality of forage produced in pastures, the base of animal production in central Kentucky. This study assessed the seasonal dynamics of soil microbes and their response to increased temperature (+3oC) and growing season precipitation (+30% of the mean annual). Total soil microbial biomass, community composition, enzyme activities, potential carbon mineralization, and catabolic responses to selected substrates were measured seasonally in the different climate treatments. In this system, seasonal variability was a dominant driving factor for all the soil microbial characteristics that I investigated. Summer maxima and winter minima were identified in the active microbial biomass, while soil microbial community structure differed between each season. Extracellular enzyme activities were generally highest in either the spring or summer, while seasonal patterns for each substrate were unique across catabolic response profiles. Climate treatments produced few significant main or interactive effects on the soil microbial biomass and function. This resiliency, coupled with evidence of functional redundancy, suggests that central Kentucky pasture ecosystems may be well-equipped to handle future environmental stress associated with climate change and to maintain critical ecosystem services.

In New Zealand, native shrubs are considered an important potential carbon-sink in disturbed or abandoned land (e.g., pastoral land that is unsustainable for long-term pastoral agriculture). However, the impact of varying environmental drivers on carbon uptake from photosynthesis and carbon loss from respiration of a developing shrubland remains uncertain. In this study, the effects of both temperature and soil water content (θ) on photosynthesis and respiration were examined under controlled growth cabinet and field conditions in a pasture grass and the native shrub, kānuka (Kunzea ericoides var. ericoides). The purpose of the investigation was to assess the combined impacts of varying temperature and θ on canopy processes and to disentangle the effects of θ on photosynthesis and respiration for the two different plant types. A controlled growth cabinet study (Chapter 2) showed that θ had a greater effect on the short-term temperature response of photosynthesis than the temperature response of respiration. The optimum value of θ for net photosynthesis was around 30 % for both kānuka and the grass. Statistical analysis showed that the temperature sensitivity of photosynthetic parameters was similar for both plant types, but the sensitivity of respiratory parameters was different. Reduction in θ induced an inhibition of photosynthetic capacity in both plant types. The response of respiratory parameters to θ was not related to substrate limitations, however available evidence suggests that it is likely to be a species dependent plant mechanism in regulating the cost of maintenance due to reduced photosynthate assimilation and decreasing energy supply to support the activity of respiratory enzymes. Results obtained from a field study (Chapter 3) showed that photosynthesis and respiration in the grass and kānuka were sensitive to seasonal changes in temperature and θ. Photosynthetic parameters showed little acclimation following changes in seasonal growth conditions. In contrast, respiratory parameters tended to acclimate more strongly. Respiratory acclimation to multiple environmental conditions was characterised by changes in temperature sensitivity and a shift in the response of respiration to temperature, demonstrating the involvement of both ‘Type I’ and ‘Type II’ acclimation in both plant types. The results from controlled growth cabinet and field studies were used to drive a leaf level model that integrates the responses of photosynthesis and respiration to changes in temperature and θ and incorporates acclimation using variable photosynthetic and respiratory parameters (Chapter 4). This model was used to estimate the annual canopy carbon exchange of the grass and kānuka in response to seasonal changes and to predict changes in canopy carbon exchange under varying future climate change scenarios. The model highlighted the importance of considering seasonally-acclimated parameters in estimating canopy carbon exchange of both plant types to concurrent changes in multiple environmental variables. The overall results support the conclusion that understanding the combined effects of environmental variables on canopy processes is essential for predicting canopy net carbon exchange of a pasture-shrub system in a changing global environment. It has been shown here that the rate of increase in photosynthesis with increasing θ is greater than that of respiration which results in a progressively greater apparent carbon gain at moderate values of θ. Moreover, the impact of lower values of θ, which reduced the apparent sensitivity of respiration to temperature, may effectively decrease the rate of respiration during warmer summer months and enhance thermal acclimation via downregulation of respiration. Therefore, considering the influence of soil water conditions on the temperature sensitivity of photosynthetic and respiratory model parameters has important implications for precisely predicting the net carbon exchange of a pasture-shrub system.

Treatment of endophyte-infected tall fescue [Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh] with the broad leaf herbicide Chaparral® can mitigate fescue toxicosis and enhance forage quality by suppressing seedhead emergence. Applying the herbicide to fescue pastures also reduces forage mass and promotes severe spot grazing when pastures are continuously grazed. A grazing experiment was conducted with steers (2013) and heifers (2014) to evaluate animal and plant responses in fescue-bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) mixtures treated with Chaparral to determine the effects of grazing management on pasture carrying capacity, nutritive values, botanical composition, and animal performance. Continuous and rotational (i.e., four subdivisions to provide a 7-d grazing period and a 21-d rest period) grazing treatments were assigned to six, 3.0-ha fescue-bluegrass pastures in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Each pasture had six tester animals, and stocking rates were varied using put-and-take animals. Pastures were grazed from 16 April to 8 July 2013 (Year 1) and 20 May to 12 Aug (Year 2) and cattle were blocked by body weight for allotment to pastures. Pasture carrying capacities were greater (P = 0.07) for rotational compared to continuous pastures across both years. Calves on rotationally grazed pastures had greater average daily gain (P = 0.03) and gain per acre (P = 0.05) than those on the continuous treatment across both years. Canopies of continuously grazed pastures contained less (P = 0.01) tall fescue than those in rotationally grazed pastures. Herbage in pre-grazed paddocks had less NDF and ADF than post-grazed paddocks and continuously grazed pastures in 2013 (P < 0.10), but did not differ in 2014 (P > 0.10). In vitro digestible dry matter was greater (P = 0.07) in pre-graze rotational pastures in 2013 compared with continuous and post-graze rotational, and IVDDM did not differ (P < 0.01) between pre-graze rotational and continuous in 2014, but was greater than post-graze rotational. Crude protein was lower (P = 0.06) in both years in post-graze rotational pasture than in continuous or pre-graze rotational pasture, which did not differ. In 2013, there was no difference (P = 0.60) in root WSC among treatments; however, in 2014, WSC levels were greater (P = 0.01) in rotationally grazed pastures compared with continuously grazed pastures. This grazing experiment indicated that rotational grazing of Chaparral treated fescue-bluegrass mixtures can improve both animal performance and the sustainability of pasture productivity.

The general goal of this research was to understand the agronomic and physiological changes of a lucerne crop in distinct physical radiation environments and to verify the potential of lucerne to grow under shaded conditions. To achieve this, the research was conducted in four main steps: (i) firstly, experimental data collection in the field using two artificial shade materials (shade cloth and wooden slats) under inigated and non-irrigated conditions; (ii) a second experiment with data collection in a typical temperate dryland agroforestry area under non-irrigated conditions; (iii) generation of a light interception sub-model suitable for shaded crops and (iv) a linkage between the light interception sub-model and a canopy photosynthesis model for agroforestry use. In experiments 1 and 2, lucerne crop was exposed to 6 different light regimes: full sunlight (FS), shade cloth (FS+CL), wooden slats (FS+SL), trees (T), trees+cloth (T +CL) and trees+slats (T+SL). The FS+SL structure produced a physical radiation environment (radiation transmission, radiation periodicity and spectral composition) that was similar to that observed in the agroforestry site (f). The mean annual photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was 41 % under the FS+CL, 44% under FS+SL and 48% under T compared with FS in clear sky conditions. Plants were exposed to an intermittent (sun/shade) regime under both FS+SL and T, whereas under FS+CL the shaded light regime was continuous. The red to far-red (RIFR) ratio measured during the shade period under the slats was 0.74 and under the trees was 0.64. However, R/FR ratio increased to 1.26 and 1.23 during the illuminated period under FS+SL and T, respectively, and these were equivalent to the ratio of 1.28 observed under the FS+CL and 1.31 in FS. The radiation use efficiency (RUE) of shoots increased under the 5 shaded treatments compared with full sunlight. The pattern of radiation interception was unchanged by radiation flux, periodicity and spectral composition and all treatments had a mean extinction coefficient of 0.82. However, the magnitude of the decrease in canopy growth was less than those in PPFD transmissivity. The mean lucerne annual dry matter (DM) yield was 17.5 t ha⁻¹ in FS and 10 t ha⁻¹ under the FS+CL, FS+SL and T regimes. This declined to 3.4 t DM ha⁻¹ under T+CL (22% PPFD transmissvity) and 4.1 t DM ha⁻¹ under T+SL (23% transmissivity). A similar pattern of response was observed for leaf net photosynthesis (Pn) rates under the shade treatments compared with full sun. In addition, spectral changes observed under the trees and slats affected plant motphology by increasing the number of long stems, stem height and internode length compared with full sunlight. Thus, there were two main explanations for the increase in RUE under shade compared with full sun: (i) preferential partition of assimilates to shoot rather than root growth and/or (ii) leaves under shade were still operating at an efficient part of the photosynthetic light curve. The changes proposed for the canopy Pn model were appropriate to simulate the radiation environment of an agroforestry system. However, the model underestimated DM yields under the continuous and intermittent shade regimes. These were considered to be mainly associated with plant factors, such as overestimation in maintenance respiration and partitioning between shoots and roots in shade and the intermittency light effect on leaf Pn rates. Further investigation in these topics must be addressed to accurately predict crop yield in agroforestry areas. Overall, the lucerne crop responded typically as a sun-adapted plant under shade. It was concluded that lucerne yield potential to grow under intermediate shade was superior to most of C3 pastures previously promoted in the literature.

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Caprine livestock is among the main economic activities in semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil which is characterized by low rain rates and a dry weather, where caatinga biome represents the most important feed source for caprine herds. In this study, we evaluated the fatty acids and volatile compounds profiles as well as the sensorial properties of milk and cheese from caprines kept and raised under different systems in semi-arid Brazil, confined space and open pastures. An optimization of the extraction conditions for the volatile compounds in caprine milk was made by using Response Surface Methodology. From this statistical tool we could identify the best conditions to maximize the number of volatile compounds extracted, corresponding them to 15 minutes for equilibrium time, 30 minutes for extraction time and 45 °C for extraction temperature. Using these conditions, 19 different volatile compounds were identified. Amongst these compounds, octanoic acid (caprylic acid) and decanoic acid (capric acid) can be highlighted with having larger relative areas, and they are volatile fatty acids correlated to the characteristic flavor presented in caprine milk. The dairy caprines (Saanen and American Alpine) used were divided into two groups: Caprines fed in open pasture plus concentrate supplementation (OF) and those fed in confined space (CS) with hay and concentrate. Milk and cheese from animals fed in OF presented higher content of fatty acids for oleic acid (C18:1c9), stearic acid (C18:0), polyunsaturated (PUFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA), including C16:1c7 C16:1c9 e C17:1c9, isomers cis and trans of C18:1, linoleic acid (C18:2n6), linolenic acid (C18:3n3), arachidonic acid (C20:4n6), desired fatty acids (DFA) and higher PUFA/SFA and MUFA/SFA rates. Several volatile compounds found in milk and cheese from OF were not present in CS, such as the terpene compounds α-terpineol e β-caryophyllene. The milk from OS was described for having a more intense herbal flavor whereas the milk from CS was more intense in butter flavor and taste and showed a higher residual aftertaste. Regarding to the sensorial properties of the cheese, no differences were found between the two different systems, however, the overall acceptability was higher for milk and cheese from animals feed in OF. Our results suggest that raising caprines in open field can be considered the best production system to be used in semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil as it valorizes the use of the native pasture found in Caatinga to feed caprine herds, being an interesting economic alternative for the local farmers.
A pecuária caprina é uma das principais atividades realizadas na região semiárida do Nordeste brasileiro. Essa região caracteriza-se por apresentar condições ambientais de terras áridas e de baixa pluviosidade, onde os caprinos têm no Bioma caatinga sua principal fonte alimentar. Neste estudo, avaliou-se o impacto do sistema de produção realizado na região semiárida brasileira sobre os perfis de ácidos graxos, voláteis e sensorial do leite e do queijo caprino. Inicialmente, foi realizada a otimização das condições de extração de compostos voláteis em leite caprino por meio da metodologia da superfície de resposta. A partir desta metodologia estatística, foi possível identificar as melhores condições para maximizar a variável resposta (número de compostos voláteis extraídos), correspondendo a 15 minutos para o tempo de equilíbrio, 30 minutos para o tempo de extração e 45 °C para a temperatura de extração. Utilizando estas condições, foram identificados 19 compostos voláteis diferentes, dentre os quais se destacaram o ácido octanóico (ácido caprílico) e ácido decanóico (ácido cáprico) com maiores áreas relativas. Em seguida, cabras leiteiras mestiças, Sannen e Alpina-americana, foram divididas, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, em dois grupos: cabras alimentadas em sistema de pastagem mais a suplementação concentrada (SP), e aquelas alimentadas em sistema de confinamento (SC), com feno e concentrado. O leite e o queijo de animais alimentados em SP apresentaram maiores quantidades ácido oleico (C18:1c9), esteárico (C18:0), de poli-insaturados (PUFA) e monoinsaturados (MUFA) totais, incluindo os monoinsaturados C16:1c7 C16:1c9 e C17:1c9, os isômeros cis e trans de C18:1, o ácido linoleico (C18:2n6), linolênico (C18:3n3), araquidônico (C20:4n6), ácidos graxos desejáveis (DFA) e maior razão PUFA/SFA, MUFA/SFA. Alguns compostos voláteis estavam ausentes nos leites e queijos provenientes de animais de confinamento, destacando-se a presença de dois compostos terpênicos (α-terpineol e β-cariofileno), encontrados exclusivamente em leite e queijo de animais de pasto. O leite SP foi descrito com maior sabor herbáceo e o leite SC com maior aroma e sabor de manteiga e maior persistência residual. As variações entre os sistemas de produção não foram suficientes para promover diferenças perceptíveis nos atributos sensoriais dos queijos, mas, para o atributo aceitabilidade geral, tanto o leite quanto o queijo SP foram considerados mais aceitos pelos julgadores. Os resultados provenientes da execução deste estudo indicam que o melhor sistema de produção a ser realizado na região semiárida nordestina é o sistema desenvolvido na pastagem nativa com suplementação, pois valoriza a criação de caprinos leiteiros na Caatinga, tornando-se uma alternativa economicamente vantajosa para os produtores e processadores de leite de cabra.

Tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum) is the principal cool-season species within pastures of the southeastern USA and is known to have a mutualistic relationship with a fungal endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum) that produces the ergot alkaloids responsible for tall fescue toxicosis. Management of the reproductive growth of tall fescue is necessary, as the seedheads contain the highest concentrations of ergot alkaloids, and livestock have been documented to selectively graze these tissues. Recently, the herbicide Chaparral™ has been shown to be an effective method to prevent seedhead production in tall fescue pastures while also increasing steer gains at a low stocking rate. The objective of this study was to compare the impact of Chaparral on steer and pasture production under multiple grazing intensities (GI). Chaparral (0 and 140 g ha-1) and two levels of GI (low: 3300±250 kg ha-1 & moderate: 2500±250 kg ha-1) treatments were arranged in a factorial combination as RCBD with three replications. Tall fescue seedhead densities were decreased (P < 0.05) within the Chaparral-treated pastures, but efficiency of the inhibition varied slightly between growing seasons. Chaparral-treated pastures had lower (P < 0.05) forage availabilities and contained forage with higher (P < 0.05) concentrations of crude protein (CP) and in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) during both growing season. Steers within the Chaparral-treated pastures and low GI treatment had higher average daily gains (ADG). Carrying capacities (CC) were lowest and highest within the Chaparral-low GI and control-moderate GI treatments, respectively. Estimates of CC were not different (P > 0.15) between the Chaparral-moderate GI and control-low GI treatments. The higher ADG compensated for the lower CC of the Chaparral and low GI treatments and resulted in no difference (P > 0.60) in total gain per hectare (GPH) between grazing intensities and herbicide treatments in 2011. In 2012, the GPH were higher within the control and moderate GI treatments due to a lessening in the magnitude of difference between the herbicide and GI treatments. The effects of these treatments for alleviating symptoms of tall fescue toxicosis were inconclusive due to the low levels of ergot alkaloids production.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2008.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on September 19, 2008) Includes bibliographical references.

In an attempt to investigate the cause of change in the competitive ability between monocots and dicots in a pastureland in Farnham, Quebec under CO2 enrichment, I chose to study the response of Plantago major (dicot) and Poa pratensis (monocot) grown in ambient and elevated CO2 chambers, hypothesizing that a large increase in root biomass of dicots would be observed under elevated CO 2. A transient stimulation of root biomass of Plantago major was found during the first month of CO2 exposure but disappeared later.
The second objective of this study was to examine the effect of 5 years of CO2 enrichment both on root biomass and on total C and N content of roots and soil in the pasture. The largest belowground growth was recorded for Taraxacum officinale. Plantago major responded by achieving the highest aboveground growth.
N content of CO2 enriched roots was reduced. This change in the elemental composition of root tissues might negatively affect the process of decomposition and therefore, the nutrient availability to soil microbes and plants. The observed reduction of NO3 in CO2 enriched soil maybe due to greater N immobilization caused by the expected increase in microbial populations.

The mixing of mine tailings and waste rock to form “paste rock” prior to disposal is now receiving significant attention from the point of view of sustainable mine waste management practice. This approach has been viewed as a favourable alternative to traditional methods of mine waste disposal because paste rock has the potential to overcome deficiencies, such as acid rock drainage and mechanical instability, associated with traditional methods of mine waste disposal. In consideration of the current limited understanding of the fundamental mechanical response, a systematic laboratory triaxial testing research program was undertaken on paste rock specimens prepared such that the tailings would “just fill” the void spaces between the coarse-particle skeleton. A new “slurry displacement” method was developed for reconstitution of saturated, uniform/homogeneous specimens of highly gap-graded paste rock for triaxial testing. Undrained cyclic triaxial tests indicated that reconstituted paste rock displayed “cyclic-mobility-type” strain development. Strain-softening accompanied by loss of shear strength did not manifest regardless of the applied cyclic stress ratio (CSR). The results suggest that the material is not likely to experience flow deformation under monotonic (static) and/or cyclic loading conditions at least up to the tested initial effective confining stress conditions of up to ≤400 kPa. The behaviour of paste rock was noted to be more similar to the behaviour of rock-only material than that of tailings-only material indicating that the rock skeleton mostly controls the shear resistance in “just filled” paste rock. This finding is in accord with the behaviour of paste rock observed from one-dimensional consolidation tests. In relative terms, paste rock has a higher potential for strain development under a given cyclic stress ratio and number of load cycles in comparison to tailings-only and rock-only materials. The presence of tailings in the pore space between the rock particles appears to decrease the ability of the rock particles to engage contact and develop inter-particle stresses in comparison to the case with rock-only material.

This study was conducted in the old arable land located in Lushington communal area in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The objectives of the study were to assess the effect of legume introduction on biomass yield, forage and soil mineral levels of the arable lands planted to four leguminous pastures in four seasons. Planting was done in March and October 2008 in Lushington. All legumes were subjected to grow under rain fed conditions. Trifolium vesiculosum (arrowleaf clover), Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza), Trifolium repens (white clover) and Lotus corniculatus (birdsfoot trefoil) are the four forage legume species that were sampled for the purposes of this study. The four legume species persisted out of the fourteen species that were initially tested for adaptability and persistence in the environmental conditions of Lushington communal area. The legumes, grasses and soils from these legume plots were sampled to determine the effect of legume introduction on the forage yield, mineral contents of the companion grasses and soils over four seasons. Plant and soil samples were collected once in spring (November) 2013, summer (February), autumn (March) and winter (May) 2014 for biomass production, macro and micronutrients determination. Results indicated that legume inclusion and season affected (P < 0.05) the total dry matter (TDM) yield production. Plots with Lespedeza cuneata had the highest TDM (1843 kg/ha) and control plots had the least dry matter production (1091 kg/ha). Summer season provided the highest (P < 0.05) TDM compared to the other seasons. Both legume and grass quality was also affected (P < 0.05) by legume inclusion in different seasons. Accordingly, grasses harvested from Trifolium repens plot showed higher CP level (10.90 percent) than those harvested from other plots whereas the lowest grass CP content (6.90 percent) was measured in the control treatment. L. cuneate had the highest (P < 0.05) CP level (11.00 percent) and T. repens had the least CP (6.63 percent) level. Grasses harvested in autumn had the highest (P < 0.05) CP level (12.50 percent) and those harvested in winter had the least CP level (4.60 percent). Similarly, all legume pastures harvested in spring had superior (P < 0.05) CP (10.80 percent) levels and those harvested in winter had the least CP (3.50 percent) level. Legume inclusion had an effect (P < 0.05) on both grass and legume macro nutrient contents. Trifolium repens plot had the highest grass K (1.07 percent), Ca (1.50 percent) and Mg (1.83 percent), whereas there were lower K (0.12 percent), Ca (1.25 percent) and Mg (1.08 percent) contents in grasses harvested from the control and T. vesiculosum plots, respectively. In legumes, macro nutrient concentrations: K (0.68 percent), Ca (1.75 percent) were superior in the T. vesiculosum plot in comparison to other plots. Season also affected (P < 0.05) both grass and legume macro nutrient content. There was higher K (0.90 percent), Ca (1.30 percent) and Mg (0.94 percent) content in grasses harvested in autumn whereas there were lower levels in winter harvests. In legumes, superior K (0.74 percent) and Mg (1.87 percent) content were attained during spring while the least were measured in winter (0.07 percent) and autumn (0.75 percent), respectively. Likewise, both legume inclusion and season had an significant effect (P < 0.05) on the forages micronutrient levels. During spring, there was superior soil P content (36.28 mg/kg) while during autumn; there was less P (22.58 mg/kg) content. The highest SOC level (1.49 percent) was measured in the T. repens plot whereas the lowest SOC (1.15 percent) was attained in the control plot. The results of this study showed that grass legume mixtures produced forages with high nutrient content and herbage yield. Legume planting in the old arable lands has a potential to improve soil quality parameters such as soil P and SOC content.

Geotechnical and environmental responses of paste tailings systems to coupled thermo chemical loadings. Cement paste tailings (CPT) and tailings shotcrete (TS) are investigated for thermo-chemo coupled effects on mechanical strength, durability and reactivity. CPT are made from Portland cement type I (PCI) and PCI-slag with 0 ppm, 5000 ppm, 15000 ppm and 25000 ppm of sulphate, cured at 2°C, 20°C, 35°C and 50°C and tested for UCS at 28, 90, and 150 days respectively. The mechanical strength depends upon both sulphate and temperature. Sulphate concentration, up to 15000 ppm, contributes positively to the strength whereas 25000 ppm reduces the strength at 50°C. Sulphate adsorption by calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) at 35°C and 50°C is also noticed. CPT used in cold mines is also found less durable than CPT used in hot mines (20°C-35°C). The reactivity of the CPT system depends upon pyrite content and type of binder as well as curing time. Reactivity increases with increase of pyrite content and decreases with increase of curing time. The reactivity also increases with increase of curing temperature. TS samples made from PCI, PCI-slag and PCI-fibre with 0 ppm, 2500 ppm and 5000 ppm of sulphate, are prepared and cured at 2°C, 20°C, 35°C and 50°C and tested for UCS at 1, 7, 28 and 120 days respectively, to study the thermochemical effect on mechanical strength, durability and reactivity. The results show that sulphate and temperature significantly affect the mechanical strength, durability and reactivity of TS. Sulphate content up to 2500 ppm is found to contribute positively to the strength whereas 5000 ppm at higher temperatures shows deterioration in strength due to sulphate attack (adsorption of sulphate by C-S-H gel). PCI-slag performs better than PCI in sulphate and non-sulphate environments at 20°C and 35°C, but PCI-slag show poor performance at 2°C and 50°C. Fibre does not contribute any additional gain in strength to the TS. PCI performs very well at 50°C in sulphate as well as non-sulphate environments. The TS with PCI-Slag shows the lowest fluid transport ability. The reactivity of TS also depends upon percentage of pyrites and types of binder.

Pasture plants already adapted to acidic soil conditions are required as part of an integrated approach (with lime amelioration) to managing acid soils on the Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. The objective of this thesis is to evaluate the usefulness of Austrodanthonia species for this purpose. The material evaluated in this study was collected during a previous survey of the distribution of Austrodanthonia on the Central, Southern and Monaro Tablelands of New South Wales. It was hypothesised that the genus Austrodanthonia has a wide range of tolerance to acid soils. A series of experiments that provided information on the growth and physiology of Austrodanthonia in relation to soil acidity, with a view to the identification and eventual domestication of the most promising plant material have been conducted through pot, hydroponics and field investigations. Firstly, soils were acidified or limed to obtain a range of soil pH and Al concentrations. This experiment showed that adding aluminium sulfate and calcium carbonate followed by washing excess salts with water is a simple, rapid and convenient method for adjusting soil pH for pot experiments. The pH of the amended soils remained relatively unchanged eight months after treatment. The experimental set-up also resulted in a wide range of soluble Al (2-52 mg/kg) across the soils. The relative Al-tolerance of 183 accessions from 15 Austrodanthonia species was tested in a pot experiment using a range of soil pH. Emergence, survival and growth of all accessions were drastically reduced by high soil acidity (pH 3.9, P < 0.001). About 11% of plants emerged at pH 3.9, whereas at pH 4.4 and 5.3, ~72% of plants emerged. Accessions exhibited large variation within and between species in their tolerance to soil acidity. From the species/accessions tested, 49 accessions from eight species were selected for further study (on the basis of being more acid tolerant). Hydroponic experiments conducted in the glasshouse evaluated: (i) formulation of nutrient solution with a stable pH, (ii) effectiveness of the formulation using tap water and deionised water and (iii) estimation of free ion activities of Al and Mn in the nutrient solution and their effects on Austrodanthonia growth. These experiments showed that a NO3-N/NH4-N ratio of 9:4 is the most appropriate ratio to obtain a stable pH 4.0 without affecting plant growth; that there was little difference between tap water and deionised water on the ionic effects of Al and Mn, and plant-size did not play a role on accession survival and that accessions of Austrodanthonia could grow well within a wide range of pH (3.5-5.5), Al (50-250 �M) and Mn (100-2000 �M). Growth of Austrodanthonia accessions declined under high acidity (pH < 3.5) and Al (300 �M), but tolerated high concentrations of Mn (2000 �M). Root-tips stained with hematoxylin grouped accessions in a similar way to the pot and hydroponic experiments for most of the accessions tested. The intensity of root staining with hematoxylin and the differential distribution of Al in the shoots and roots provided an indication that different tolerance mechanisms may be involved with Austrodanthonia accessions. It appears that both exclusion and internal mechanisms may operate for Al- and Mn-tolerance. A field experiment was conducted at Carcoar (33037�S, 149013�E, elevation 800 m) using gradients in soil pH and Al available on-site to grow selected accessions of Austrodanthonia. The accessions exhibited a range of responses to soil acidity. The accession responses to acidity from the pot and hydroponic experiments were similar to those obtained in the field, especially where Al was present as a low Al-challenge. Overall, this study shows that Austrodanthonia exhibits a wide range of acid tolerance between species and accessions within species. Among the species tested, A. duttoniana and A. fulva appeared to have the greatest commercial potential, because of their productivity and acid tolerance. The variability that exists in the accessions may be exploitable in breeding and selection programs for improved cultivars.

In Zambia, it is true to say that people are politically free but materially still very poor, 49 years after independence which was attained in 1964. Many people lie below poverty datum-line and those that are, most hit, are the people living in rural areas. Many people are flocking from the rural areas to cities, leaving the old people, women and children in rural areas and in poverty. The levels of poverty in Zambia have reached a crisis, that even the president of Zambia, His Excellence Mr. Michael Chilufya Sata, acknowledged this fact during his parliamentary address to the second session of the 11th National assembly broadcast live on Zambia National broadcasting Network in September 2012. The church is challenged by conditions under which the rural dwellers find themselves in. As a church, our political liberation is to be transformed and driven by the will to restructuring and healing our society; thus ultimately developing those individuals who are suffering in the rural areas of the country. In Zambia, the church should accept that the missionaries who brought the gospel from western countries worked very well in the area of community development. The missionaries’ work and their care for the poor should inspire the churches today to be willing to help the poor rural people to be transformed. The good thing the United Church of Zambia could learn from the early missionaries is that the Christian church needs to be committed and involved in the plight of the poor. The church cannot ignore the socio – economic issues that affect rural poor communities. The United Church of Zambia should be transformed and made to understand that human liberation is not possible, if the political and economic issues are not equally addressed, a human being is not only the soul but also, consist of body and mind. The Christian church must bring a holistic ministry to the suffering people. The church; especially the United Church of Zambia, should understand that economic freedom is a reality which cannot be separated from people’s daily life. The church should learn to listen and act as ‘a midwife’ and a place of safety. She must be willing to suffer with the poor, for the sake of the poor. While the church is committed to development issues, let it also not lose sight of spiritual issues. Therefore, the church leadership should serve as a role model in human and community development. The Christian church should use the gospel to change the mind-set of the rural poor in order to help them transform their living standards.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2014
Practical Theology
unrestricted

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul
Elephantopus mollis is a Asteraceae family species recently found in soybean crops / winter pastures in the central-western region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Its presence has reduced yields and increased the cost of production of these crops. In order to get the emergency pattern of the species throughout the year and its sensitivity to the main herbicide used in these crops it is that took place this work. To determine the emergency flow and the seed bank in the area two experiments were conducted in a rural area of the municipality of Tupanciretã, and for the response to herbicides were conducted five trials of dose-response curves to the herbicide glyphosate, 2, 4-D, metsulfuron-methyl, flumioxazin and saflufenacil. In the emergency experiments it have been demarcated two areas side by side. One kept uncroped and another subjected to the usual crop of the total area. In both areas, treatments were represented by twelve months of the year to carry out the count of emerged plants for each month. The samples to estimate the seed bank were collected in the month of August in each of the twelve portions of the area kept uncroped in the depths of 0 to 5 cm and 5 to 10 cm. In trays kept in a greenhouse (UFSM), counts were made of emerged plants, every 15 days for 150 days. For dose-response curves were established doses and represents the division multiple of the recommended dose of herbicide for similar species as 0; x / 8; x / 4; x / 2; x; 2x; 4x; 8x. For glyphosate x = 1440 g ha-1, 2,4-D x = 670 g ha-1, metsulfuron x = 2.4 g ai ha-1, flumioxazin x = 50 g ai ha-1 and saflufenacil x = 35 g ai ha-1. Herbicide treatments were applied to plants with 8 to 10 leaves. The variables were visual assessment of control (%) (range 0-100) at 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after treatments and the mass of green and dry matter of roots and shoots, producing the total mass and relative, by its expression as a percentage of treatment without herbicide to 28 days. The results show that E. mollis emerges during all months of the year, with major emergencies in the months of November, February and May. But the seed bank pointed to the presence in the average of all samples of 400 seeds m2 of E. mollis in the 0 to 5 cm and inexpressive 5 to 10 cm. There was a weak correlation between the emerged plants and seed bank, proving to be the most intense emergency probably due to soil temperature for the months of November, February and May. It can be suggested that emergency peaks coincide with the time of implantation of cultures and thus represent the best opportunities to make up the control. The results found with the curves show that glyphosate and 2,4-D are not efficient in the control and can not conclude on the efficiency metsulfuron, flumioxazin and saflufenacil.
Elephantopus mollis é uma espécie da família Asteraceae recentemente encontrada em cultivos de soja/pastagens de inverno na região centro-oeste do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Sua presença tem reduzido o rendimento e aumentado o custo de produção dessas culturas. Com o objetivo de conhecer o padrão de emergência da espécie ao longo do ano e sua sensibilidade aos principais herbicidas empregados nesses cultivos é que realizou-se o presente trabalho. Para determinar o fluxo de emergência e a estimativa do banco de sementes na área foram conduzidos dois experimentos em área rural do município de Tupanciretã, e para a resposta aos herbicidas foram conduzidos cinco ensaios de curvas de dose-resposta com os herbicidas glifosato, 2,4-D, metsulfuron-metil, flumioxazin e saflufenacil. Nos experimentos para a emergência foram demarcadas duas áreas próximas. Uma mantida sem cultivo e outra submetida ao cultivo usual da área total. Em ambas, os tratamentos foram representados pelos doze meses do ano para realizar a contagem das plantas emergidas para cada mês, com quatro repetições. As amostras para estimar o banco de sementes foram coletadas no mês de agosto, em cada uma das doze parcelas da área mantida sem cultivo, nas profundidades de 0 a 5 cm e de 5 a 10 cm. Em bandejas mantidas em casa de vegetação, foram efetuadas as contagens das plantas emergidas, a cada 15 dias, durante 150 dias. Para as curvas de dose-resposta foram estabelecidas doses representando a divisão e múltiplo da dose recomendada dos herbicidas para espécies similares, na forma: 0; x/8; x/4; x/2; x; 2x; 4x; 8x. Para glifosato x = 1440 g ea ha-1, 2,4-D x = 670 g ea ha-1, metsulfuron x = 2,4 g ia ha-1, flumioxazin x = 50 g ia ha-1 e saflufenacil x = 35 g ia ha-1. Os tratamentos herbicidas foram aplicados sobre plantas com 8 a 10 folhas. As variáveis foram a avaliação visual de controle (%) (escala 0-100) aos 3, 7, 14, 21 e 28 dias após os tratamentos e a massa de matéria verde e seca das raízes e parte aérea, produzindo a massa total e relativa, por sua expressão em percentagem do tratamento sem herbicida aos 28 dias. Os resultados demonstram que E. mollis emerge durante todos meses do ano, com maiores emergências nos meses de novembro, fevereiro e maio. Já a estimativa do banco de sementes apontou para a presença, na média de todas amostras, de 400 sementes m2 de E. mollis na profundidade de 0 a 5 cm e inespressiva entre 5 a 10 cm. Houve uma fraca correlação entre as plantas emergidas e o banco de sementes, demonstrando ser a emergência mais intensa provavelmente devido à temperatura do solo dos meses de novembro, fevereiro e maio. Pode-se sugerir que os picos de emergência coincidem com os momentos de implantação das culturas e representam assim as melhores oportunidades para realizar-se o controle. Os resultados das curvas demonstram que glifosato e 2,4-D não são eficientes no controle e não se pode concluir sobre a eficiência de metsulfuron, flumioxazin e saflufenacil.

Liquefaction is a major challenge in geotechnical engineering in which soil strength and stiffness are compromised due to earthquake activity. Understanding and predicting the behaviour and liquefaction susceptibility of soils under cyclic loading is a critical issue in civil engineering, mining and protective engineering. Numerous earthquake-induced ground failure events (e.g., substantial ground deformation, reduced bearing capacity) or liquefaction in natural fine-grained soils or manmade fine-grained soils (i.e., fine tailings) produced by mining activities have been observed and reported in the literature. Tailings are manmade soils that remain following the extraction of metals and minerals from mined ore in a mine processing plant. Traditionally, such tailings are stored in surface tailings impoundments at the mine’s surface. However, geotechnical and environmental risks and consequences related to conventional tailings impoundments have attracted the attention of the engineering community to develop novel methods of tailings disposal and management to minimize geotechnical and environmental risks. Thus, engineers have introduced and implemented innovative tailings technologies—thickened tailings and paste tailings—as cost-effective means for tailings management in mining operations. As both thickened tailings and paste tailings have lower water content and higher solid content than tailings in conventional impoundments, these tailings may be more resistant to liquefaction. However, it should be noted that the seismic or cyclic behaviour of these thickened and paste tailings, with and without heavy rainfall effects, are not fully understood. There is little technical information or data about the behaviour and liquefaction of thickened and paste tailings under seismic or cyclic loading conditions. The objective of the present PhD research is to investigate the response of layered thickened and paste tailings deposits, with and without heavy rainfall effects, to cyclic loads by conducting shaking table tests. To simulate the field deposition of thickened and paste tailings, tailings were deposited in three thin layers in a flexible laminar shear box (FLSB) attached to the shaking table equipment. A sinusoidal seismic loading at a frequency of 1 Hz and peak horizontal acceleration of 0.13g was applied at the bottom of the layered tailings deposits. Acceleration, displacement and pore water pressure responses to the cyclic loading were monitored at the middle depth of each layer of the tailings deposits. Regarding the acceleration response of these thickened and paste tailings deposits (without the effect of heavy rainfall), there was no difference between the middle of the bottom and middle layers or at the base of the shaking table. However, the acceleration at the middle of the top layer differed from the acceleration at the base of the shaking table. Throughout shaking, the layered tailings deposits (with and without the effect of heavy rainfall) exhibited contraction and dilation responses. The excess pore water pressure ratios of the layered thickened tailings deposit that was not exposed to heavy rainfall prior to shaking were found to exceed 1.0 during shaking. However, for the layered paste tailings deposit that was not exposed to the effect of heavy rainfall prior to shaking, the excess pore water pressure ratios were found to be lower than 0.85 during shaking. This reveals that without the effect of heavy rainfall, the layered thickened tailings deposit was susceptible to liquefaction, whereas the layered paste tailings deposit was resistant to liquefaction during shaking. The excess pore water ratios of the layered thickened and the paste tailings deposits that were exposed to heavy rainfall prior to shaking were found to be lower than 0.8 during shaking. This reveals that with the effect of heavy rainfall, the layered thickened and paste tailings deposits were resistant to liquefaction during shaking. The results and findings of this PhD research thus provide valuable information for the implementation of tailings in earthquake-prone areas.

Thesis (M.S.) -- University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2005.
Title from title page screen (viewed on Sept. 09, 2005). Thesis advisor: John C. Waller. Document formatted into pages (ix, 75 p. : ill. (some col.)). Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 44-54).

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Georgia, 2004.
Directed by Miguel L. Cabrera. Includes articles submitted to Journal of animal science, and Journal of envrironmental quality. Includes bibliographical references.

碩士
龍華科技大學
機械工程系碩士班
103
Nowadays, most of the electronic products put their emphasis on beneficial functionality and diversity. Also, the size of products tends to lighter and thinner. Therefore, the surface mount technology (SMT) plays an important role in the process of production. There are three major steps in SMT: the screen printer, the component placement and the reflow oven. Among the entire SMT process, Screen Printer is the most important key for the quality and stability of the entire production. Four process parameters: the printing pressure paste printing process, the printing speed, printing snap-off distance and printing snap-off speed were used in this study.The response surface methodology was applied to 30 different combinations of process parameters experimental analysis. A predict equation for the solder paste printing process parameters with constituted height, area and volume was found.In order to understand and predict printing process parameters associated with the printing of tin, the ANOVA showed that the printing pressure and printing speed wasthe most important influencing parameters.Thelast optimal parameters printing pressure 86.67N, printing speed 225.76mm/s, printing snap-off distance 0.15mm,printing snap-off speed 1.82mm/s predicted value and the actual measurement error may be less than 0.3%, the result shows the optimization of process parameters in the predict equations for the standard value of the height, area and volume were agree with the target predict equation from the actual measurement results.

碩士
龍華科技大學
機械工程系碩士班
102
In today’s electronics industry, consumers are increasingly demanding higher quality 3C products, including products with slimmer designs. This trend highlights the importance of surface mount technology. This technology can be roughly divided into three steps: stencil printing, component placement, and solder reflow. The first step, stencil printing, is especially crucial because it may cause the failure of subsequent processing if the printing quality is low. In addition to having to spend more time, redoing the work would also mean spending more money. 　　This study used a combination of the Taguchi and response surface methods for the solder paste printing process’ technical volume, choosing four parameters (squeegee pressure、squeegee speed、snap-off height and snap-off speed), with each parameter containing three levels. Then the study used L9(34) orthogonal array, followed by Taguchi’s nominal-the-best method to analyze, with the target value set at 2073600 μm3. The optimum parameters achieved were: squeegee pressure 80 N, squeegee speed 50 mm/s, snap-off height 0.2 mm, and snap-off speed 2 mm/s. In the end, the results from the response surface regression analysis were used to deduce the predicted volume of solder paste and the optimum parameters. This method allowed us to achieve a paste volume predicted value of 1899124 μm3. The result showed that the predicted values are closer to our target values.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Estatística, Matemática e Computação apresentada à Universidade Aberta
A metodologia de superfícies de resposta MSR é um conjunto de técnicas estatístico-matemáticas que visa a optimização. No nosso tipo de sociedade, orientada para um mercado globalizado onde impera a lei do mais forte, qualquer ganho de produtividade, qualquer diminuição dos custos de produção, qualquer inovação, podem marcar a diferença entre o sucesso e a falência. Falar em MSR é um sonho, implementar a metodologia é antecipar o sucesso. O processo inicia-se com a interpretação do problema, definição clara do objectivo e identificação dos factores que o influenciam. Num primeiro momento, um modelo de primeira ordem é, normalmente, suficiente para modelar o processo, uma regressão múltipla estabelece a relação entre o objectivo e os factores identificados como relevantes. Verificados os pressupostos de aplicação do modelo e a linearidade do processo, urge caminhar no sentido da superfície de resposta que presumivelmente contém o ótimo (máximo ou mínimo). Para isso procuramos o máximo incremento na resposta: pelo método da máxima inclinação ascendente (steepest ascent) se procuramos um ponto de máximo, ou pelo método da máxima inclinação descendente (steepest descent) se procuramos um mínimo. Chegados à superfície de resposta ou ajustamos um novo modelo de primeira ordem ou realizamos experiências adicionais, particularmente ajustando um polinómio de ordem dois, para obter uma estimativa mais precisa do ótimo. A MSR é um processo sequencial cujo algoritmo iremos descrever através de um caso prático no âmbito da indústria cerâmica, mais concretamente no fabrico de “chávenas de porcelana”. A aplicação da metodologia de resposta tem vindo a crescer exponencialmente como o atestam o elevado número de artigos científicos publicados e a diversidade dos campos onde é implementada. Neste estudo, centramos a nossa atenção em modelos de primeira e segunda ordem, contudo a ciência não tem limite e analistas, apoiados na capacidade numérica e gráfica dos computadores, publicam já muitos trabalhos com modelos de ordem superior.
The response surface methodology, MSR is a set of statistical and mathematical techniques aimed at optimization. In our kind of society, oriented towards a global market where the law of the strongest preveils, any productivity gains, any decrease in production costs, or any innovation, can make the difference between success and failure. Speaking MSR is a dream, implementing the methodology is to anticipate success. The process begins with the interpretation of the problem, clear definition of the subject and identification the factors that influence it. At first, a model of the first order is usually sufficient to model the process, a multiple regression establishes the relationship between the subject and the factors, identified as relevant. Satisfied the conditions of application of the model and the linearity of the process, it is urgent to move towards the surface response that presumably contains the optimum (maximum or minimum). For this, we look for the maximum increment in the response: at the maximum upward slope (steepest ascent) method, if we seek a point of maximum, or by the method of maximum descending slope (steepest descent) if we seek a minimum. Arriving at the response surface, or we adjust a new model of first order or we perform additional experiments , particularly adjusting a polynomial of order two, to obtain more accurate estimate of the optimal . The MSR is a sequential process by which algorithm we will describe a study case under the ceramics industry, specifically in the manufacture of "porcelain cups." The response of this methodology has been growing exponentially as a large number of scientific articles have been published and the diversity of the fields where it is implemented. In this study, we focus our attention on models of first and second order, yet science has no limit and analysts, supported by numerical and graphical capabilities of computers, many papers have been published with models of higher order.