Academic literature on the topic 'Pasture plants Physiology'

AbstractGrasshopper density and species composition were determined from 1982 to 1985 in four 75-ha pastures in the northern mixed prairie region near Miles City, MT. Treatment in two pastures consisted of sagebrush removal and interseeding alfalfa and cicer milkvetch. Two pastures were not treated. The treated pastures were grazed only half as long as the untreated pastures but with twice the number of steers. Forage yield decreased in all pastures from 1983 to 1985 because of below-average precipitation and grasshopper density increases. In one pasture, 10% of the legume seedlings were destroyed by grasshoppers. The annual rates of increase in total grasshopper presence were similar in treated and untreated pastures. However, Melanoplus sanguinipes (F.), which eats forbs and is a strong flyer, increased more in treated than untreated pastures; six additional abundant species, all of which were grass feeders, did not increase more in treated pastures. Thus, treatments did not markedly affect total grasshopper population trends but did influence species composition and provided additional food plants for some species.

Pasture brome (Bromus valdivianus Phil.) has the potential to increase current levels of herbage production and pasture persistence in New Zealand dryland, well-drained soils. However, there is little literature on the effect of defoliation management on growth of this grass under contrasting soil-water restriction levels. The growth physiology and performance of pasture brome were evaluated in pots in a glasshouse. Defoliation frequency (DF) treatments were applied based on three different accumulated growing degree-days (AGDD): 250, 500 and 1000 AGDD (high, medium, and low DF). At end of the first growing cycle (1000 AGDD), water availability was restricted to 20–25% of field capacity (FC) in half of the pots, while the other pots were maintained between 80–85% FC. Total accumulated herbage mass was positively related with the low DF and well-watered conditions (p < 0.05). At the final harvest, plants subjected to low DF had greater root mass than high and medium DF (p < 0.05). At each harvest, the leaf regrowth stage (LS) for low DF was 3.5, while for high and medium DF, the LS was 1.5 and 2.0; respectively. Tiller water-soluble carbohydrates were highest at the low DF and under 20–25% FC. Regardless of soil-water conditions, defoliation at 3.5 LS supports production, enhancing survival during a drought.

The correction of soil acidity and the evaluation of the effects of correctives used are not frequent practices in pasture areas. The benefits of silicon on the physiology and biochemistry of pastures is a subject that has not been explored in great detail. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of Urochloa brizantha plants (cultivar Xaraés) submited to condictions of water deficity and silicate fertilization through physiological and biochemical parameters. The experiment was carried out in pots under greenhouse conditions..The experimental design was randomized blocks, in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, with eight replications. The treatments consisted of a combination of the presence and absence of silicon (by means of soil correction using agrosilicon and dolomitic limestone, to raise the base saturation to 50%) with 2 soil water conditions (40 and 80% of field capacity). The analyzes were performed to determine: net CO2 assimilation rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, water use efficiency, superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities, shoot dry matter ,neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber determinations and leave protein. The application of silicon in Urochloa brizantha cultivar Xaraés has the potential of attenuate the water deficity, increasing the photosynthesis, plant dry matter and antioxidant enzymes activity.

Nitrogen fertilization is determinant for pasture productivity, as it results in increasing forage yield and is associated with the growth physiology of forage plants. An experiment was carried out in a greenhouse to evaluate the effects of nitrogen rates and times of application after cutting on Tifton 85 Bermuda grass (Cynodon spp.) tillering. Plants were grown in a Typic Quartzipsamment soil and nitrogen rates were 0, 80, 160 and 240 mg kg-1 of soil; times of application were immediately after and seven days after cutting. A 4 x 2 factorial experiment was set in a completely randomized block design (n= 4). Plants were evaluated in two sequential growth periods - 39 and 41 days. Nitrogen rates affected tiller density, considering the initial number of tillers in the second growth and the emerged and final number of tillers at the end of the growth periods. Tiller weight increased up to the nitrogen rate of 201 and 185 mg kg-1 of soil in the first and second growth periods, and the correlation coefficients between the final number of tillers and dry matter yields in the top part of the plant for these periods were 0.92 and 0.94, respectively. The rate of tiller development, evaluated in each of the seven-day periods, was affected by nitrogen rates and time of application. There was an effect of rates and time of application in the first and a significant interaction between rates and time in the second growth period.

Heat and drought are two major limiting factors for perennial pasture production in south eastern Australia. Although previous studies have focused on the effects of prolonged heat and drought stresses on pasture growth and physiology, the effects of short term recurring combined heat and drought stresses and the recovery from them have not been studied in detail. A controlled environment experiment was conducted to investigate the growth and physiological responses of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) plants exposed to two consecutive seven day heat (control = 25/15 °C day/night; moderate = 30/20 °C day/night and severe = 35/30 °C day/night) and/or drought stresses each followed by a seven day recovery period. During the first moderate and severe heat and drought treatments, maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), cell membrane permeability and relative leaf water content decreased in chicory and tall fescue compared to perennial ryegrass and cocksfoot. However, during the second moderate heat and drought treatment, all species showed less reduction in the same parameters suggesting that these species acclimated to consecutive moderate heat and drought stresses. Chicory was the only species that was not affected by the second severe heat and drought stress while physiological parameters of all grass species were reduced closer to minimum values. Irrigation mitigated the negative effects of heat stress by cooling the canopies 1–3 °C below air temperatures with the most cooling observed in chicory. All the species exposed to moderate heat and drought were fully recovered and those exposed to severe heat and drought recovered partially at the end of the experiment. These findings suggest that chicory may be a potential species for areas subject to frequent heat and drought stress.

Plant–animal interactions impact on all elements of pasture and animal performance in grazing systems. The quality of pastures for animals can be described in terms of feeding value (FV), which is a combination of feed nutritive value (NV) and voluntary intake. There are numerous complex interactions between plant physiology and pasture FV and NV. This review focuses on these interactions in four key areas (plant growth strategies, phenological development, pasture regrowth, and response to environmental stress), extracting key principles and illustrating how plant breeding or management may be used to manipulate such interactions to improve FV. The FV is low in pastures with native species that have evolved in nutrient-poor environments, especially if there are greater proportions of C4 than C3 species in the sward. Reproductive development of grasses and long grazing intervals (which affect stage of regrowth) reduce the proportion of leaf and increase stem or dead matter content in the sward. This is exacerbated by environmental stresses such as warmer temperatures and water deficit. Management decisions provide a means of manipulating many of these interactions to improve the FV of pasture, especially by improving soil nutrient status, using irrigation where possible, introducing exotic perennial pasture species such as perennial ryegrass, phalaris and tall fescue, linking the timing of grazing to stage of regrowth, and carefully managing post-grazing residual sward state. Likewise, plant breeding has focused on altering the flowering date of grasses, reducing aftermath heading, and reducing lignification within the plant to improve the FV of pasture for livestock.

When exposed to warmer, nonstressful average temperatures, some plant organs grow and develop at a faster rate without affecting their final dimensions. Other plant organs show specific changes in morphology or development in a response termed thermomorphogenesis. Selected coding and noncoding RNA, chromatin features, alternative splicing variants, and signaling proteins change their abundance, localization, and/or intrinsic activity to mediate thermomorphogenesis. Temperature, light, and circadian clock cues are integrated to impinge on the level or signaling of hormones such as auxin, brassinosteroids, and gibberellins. The light receptor phytochrome B (phyB) is a temperature sensor, and the phyB–PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 4 (PIF4)–auxin module is only one thread in a complex network that governs temperature sensitivity. Thermomorphogenesis offers an avenue to search for climate-smart plants to sustain crop and pasture productivity in the context of global climate change.

Existem fortes evidencias da ocorrência de mudanças climáticas globais por causa do aumento de gases de efeito estufa, as quais provavelmente serão cada vez mais severas no futuro. Para enfrentar esse problema, as plantas, serão confrontadas com opções limitadas para evitar a perda de seu hábitat ou extinção: adaptar-se, migrar ou morrer. Em geral, o aumento da concentração atmosférica do CO2 atuando como “fertilizante” para a fotossíntese poderia aumentar o crescimento e a produção de biomassa das plantas. No entanto, o aumento da temperatura global poderia afetar negativamente a fisiologia e a produtividade vegetal, bem como provocar alterações nos padrões de precipitação com impactos graves sobre a produção agrícola e outros serviços ecossistêmicos. Para uma melhor estimativa dos impactos das mudanças climáticas na agricultura, pecuária, ecossistemas de florestas e pastagens serão necessários grandes avanços científicos. No âmbito da pesquisa, será necessária e prioritária a elucidação das interações entre o elevado CO2, temperatura, fertilidade do solo, disponibilidade hídrica e o efeito de poluentes como o ozônio sobre o crescimento, o rendimento e a produtividade das plantas. Efeitos das mudanças climáticas sobre o florescimento, viabilidade do pólen, polinizadores e produção de grãos também precisam ser esclarecidos. Qualquer avanço do melhoramento genético das plantas e uso da biodiversidade visando reduzir a sensibilidade à elevada temperatura ou melhorar a resposta ao CO2 será de grande utilidade. There is strong evidence that global climate change because of increase in the greenhouse gases are already occurring and will become increasingly severe. To address this problem, the plants will be faced with limited options to avoid losing their habitat or extinction: adapt, migrate or die. In general, the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration acting as "fertilizer" for photosynthesis could increase growth and biomass production of the plants. However, the increase in global temperature could adversely affect the physiology and plant productivity and cause changes in rainfall patterns with serious impacts on agricultural production and other ecosystem services. A better estimate of the impacts of climate change on agricultural, forest and pasture ecosystems will require urgent scientific advances. It will be necessary to prioritize the elucidation of interactions between elevated CO2, temperature, soil fertility, water availability and the effect of pollutants such as ozone on growth, yield, and productivity of plants. Effects of climate change on flowering, pollen viability, pollinators and yield will need to be elucidated. Any advancement of plant breeding and use of biodiversity for reducing the sensitivity to high temperature and improve the response to CO2 will be very useful. Keywords: global climate change, warming, biodiversity, agriculture, plant productivity.

The P efficiency of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lamk. cv Grasslands Tama) and phalaris (Phalaris aquatica L. cv Sirosa) was compared on both a temporal and ontogenetic basis. As ontogeny and growth are interrelated, such a comparison allowed the growth and physiological responses to P level of the two species to be separated from responses due to the species being at different ontogenetic stages at the time of comparison. Plants were grown from seed through to anthesis under P deficient and P sufficient conditions in soil in a glasshouse. The ontogenies of Italian ryegrass and phalaris were similar, but the rate of development of Italian ryegrass was greater at both P rates. P deficiency resulted in arrested reproductive development in phalaris. At both P levels shoot, root and total biomass and net P uptake per plant by Italian ryegrass were greater than by phalaris when the two species were compared on a temporal basis, but when compared on an ontogenetic basis the two species were similar. There were some differences in the allocation of P between the acid-soluble P, lipid P, and residue P fractions, but biomass production was not determined by the efficiency of P utilization. The superior biomass production of Italian ryegrass on a temporal basis was due to its greater seed size and rate of ontogeny rather than differences in photosynthetic rate, unit leaf rate, leaf area ratio or shoot: root ratio. Similarly, the greater P uptake per plant of Italian ryegrass on a temporal basis was driven by its greater plant size and faster root extension rate rather than by P uptake per unit root length. The level of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) infection in the roots of the two species was similar under P deficiency but greater in phalaris under P sufficient conditions. Overall, the different temporal responses to P of Italian ryegrass and phalaris were largely related to their different rates of ontogeny and the interrelationships between ontogeny and growth rate rather than to differences in their physiology in relation to P acquisition and utilization.

This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of Mombasa grass in a silvopastoral system and submitted to different nitrogen fertilization rates and pasture management strategies. Treatments consisted of four nitrogen fertilizer doses (0.0, 125.0, 187.5, and 250.0 kg N ha-1 year-1) and three cutting heights (70, 90, and 105 cm). Plant agronomic and physiologic efficiencies, as well as nitrogen use and accumulation by plants, forage production, and increments of forage production, were verified for the application of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilization was only efficient for grasses cut at 105 cm, where 75% of the applied nitrogen at a dose of 125 kg ha-1 year-1 was recovered. Yet the grasses cut at 70 and 90 cm presented low results for nitrogen fertilization, showing plants with low physiological and agronomic efficiencies. For Mombasa grass in a silvopastoral system, nitrogen fertilization is more efficient when applied at lower doses and for plants cut at higher heights.

Os trabalhos de pesquisa não têm dado ênfase à importância das características morfológicas e fisiológicas relacionadas com a produtividade das plantas forrageiras tropicais sob pastejo. Existe a necessidade de se saber como o dossel forrageiro responde a regimes de desfolha, em termos de morfologia de plantas, estrutura do pasto, arquitetura do dossel e de processos fisiológicos como a fotossíntese, para que estratégias ótimas de colheita via pastejo sejam identificadas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar respostas morfológicas e fisiológicas de dosséis de capim Tanzânia (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. Tanzânia) sob três intensidades de pastejo, sob lotação rotacionada e irrigação, procurando estabelecer relações causa-efeito não só entre as variáveis estudadas, mas também entre elas e a produção do pasto, medida como acúmulo de massa seca. O experimento foi conduzido na Fazenda Areão da USP/ESALQ, em Piracicaba, SP, em uma área de 4,8 ha de capim Tanzânia. Os tratamentos foram três intensidades de pastejo, aplicados como quantidades de matéria seca verde residual pós-pastejo (T1=1000; T2=2500 e T3=4000 kg MSV ha -1 ), em um delineamento experimental de blocos completos casualizados com quatro repetições. Durante oito ciclos de pastejo (rebrotas de 33 dias após três dias de pastejo em cada ciclo), foram realizadas avaliações de altura média do dossel, índice de área foliar (IAF), interceptação luminosa (IL), ângulos foliares médios, fotossíntese foliar líquida (FFL) e temperatura foliar (TF), em quatro dias dentro do período de rebrota (1, 11, 22 e 33 dias após a saída dos animais). A massa de forragem foi estimada pré- e pós-pastejo em um experimento acompanhante e, com os valores de massa, foram calculados o acúmulo e a taxa de acúmulo de forragem. Calibrações de massa versus altura do dossel nessas datas, foram usadas para estimar as massas nos quatro momentos do período de rebrota. A análise de correlações parciais indicou correlações entre altura e MF, altura e IL, IAF e IL, e ângulos foliares e MF. Com o progresso da estação de pastejo, da primavera-verão para outono-inverno houve reduções nas taxas de FFL, TF e IAF médio. Valores médios de IAF crítico (95% IL) foram de 3,3 (T1), 3,8 (T2) e 4,2 (T3), alcançados por volta do 22 o dia das rebrotas. Não houve diferença entre tratamentos para taxa de acúmulo líquido de forragem (média = 88,7 kg MS ha -1 d -1 ) nem para acúmulo total de forragem (média = 21652 kg MS ha -1 acumulado nos 8 ciclos de pastejo). A maior intensidade de pastejo (menor resíduo) alterou a estrutura da pastagem no que diz respeito à arquitetura do dossel, evidenciada pela redução nos ângulos foliares médios (folhas mais planas) ao longo das estações, com plantas passando a interceptar mais luz por unidade de área foliar. Os IAFs críticos medidos sugerem a necessidade de períodos de descanso relativamente curtos em pastos de capim Tanzânia, submetidos a pastejo intensivo sob lotação rotacionada e irrigação. A maior intensidade de pastejo também não causou depressão no vigor de rebrota medido como a taxa de acúmulo líquido de forragem. É necessário, entretanto, avaliar a persistência e perenidade de pastagens de capim Tanzânia manejadas com altas intensidades de pastejo, a longo prazo. O manejo da pastagem em sistemas intensivos de produção, deve buscar níveis de resíduos pós-pastejo que permitam altas taxas iniciais de acúmulo líquido de forragem.
Research has often not emphasized the importance of morphological and physiological traits that are related to the productivity of tropical forages under grazing. There is a need for clarification on how does the sward respond to specific defoliation regimes, in relation to plant morphology, sward structure and architecture, as well as physiological processes such as photosynthesis, so that optimum grazing methods can be devised. The objective of this research was to quantify morphological and physiological responses of Tanzania grass (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. Tanzania) under three grazing intensities in an irrigated, rotationally stocked setting, in order to establish cause-effect relationships not only among the variables under study, but also between each of them and pasture productivity, expressed as forage dry mass accumulation. The experiment was conducted at Fazenda Areão of USP-ESALQ, in Piracicaba, SP, on a 4,8-ha pasture of Tanzania grass. Treatments consisted of three grazing intensities, represented by three post-graze forage masses (T1=1000, T2=2500, and T3=4000 kg green dry mass ha -1 ), in a randomized complete block design with four replications. During the grazing season (eight 36-d cycles; 3 d grazing followed by 33 d rest) the following measurements were taken: mean sward height, leaf area index (LAI), light interception (LI), mean leaf angles, net leaf photosynthesis (NLP), and leaf temperature (LT), all measured on four occasions (1, 11, 22, and 33 days after grazing was terminated) of each rest period. Forage mass (FM) was measured in a companion study and mass values were used to calculate forage accumulation and accumulation trates. Calibrations were done between forage mass and sward height and used to estimate mass from height during the regrowth phase. Partial correlation analysis indicated the existence of correlations between height and FM, height and LI, LAI and LI, and leaf angles and FM. As the grazing season progressed from spring-summer to autumn-winter, NLP rates, LT, and mean LAI declined. Mean critical LAI (95% LI) was 3.3 (T1), 3.8 (T2), and 4.2 (T3) and was always reached around the 22nd day after grazing. No differences were found in forage accumulation rate (mean = 88.7 kg dry matter ha -1 d -1 )or in total seasonal accumulation (mean = 21652 kg DM ha -1 ) among treatments. Over the season, hard grazing (lower residual mass) altered the sward structure causing shifts in plant architecture, as shown by reduced (more horizontal) leaf angles, as plants begun to intercept more light per unit of leaf area. Critical LAI values suggest that relatively short rest periods may be advantageous for Tanzania grass pastures managed intensively under rotational stocking and irrigation. Hard grazing (1000 kg residual green dry matter ha -1 ) also did not depress regrowth vigor, measured as mean forage accumulation rate. There is a need, however, to assess the long-term persistence of these intensively managed, heavily grazed pastures. Grazing management in these intensive systems should aim at post-graze forage masses that allow for maximum accumulation rates in early regrowth.

Para que o potencial de cultivares comumente usados como o Marandu {Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) RD Webster [syn. Urochloa brizantha (A. Rich.) Stapf]; CIAT 6297}, com alta produção como o Tifton 85 (Cynodon spp.), e recentemente lançados como o Mulato II (Convert HD 364®) (Brachiaria híbrida CIAT 36061) possa ser racionalmente e intensivamente explorado é necessário entender como as frequências de corte afetam as respostas produtivas, por meio de inferências fisiológicas. O objetivo foi avaliar e descrever o efeito de duas frequências (28 e 42 dias) sobre as características de análise de crescimento do Mulato II, Marandu, e Tifton 85, e características morfogênicas do Mulato II e Marandu. O experimento foi conduzido em Piracicaba, SP, o delineamento experimental foi de blocos completos casualizados, com quatro repetições. As respostas incluiram índice de área foliar (IAF), taxa de crescimento de cultura (TCC), taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR), taxa de assimilação líquida (TAL), razão de área foliar (RAF) e razão de peso foliar (RPF), filocrono, número de folhas vivas por perfilho (NFV), taxa de alongamento de folhas (TALF) e de colmos (TALC), taxa de aparecimento de folhas (TAPF), densidade populacional de perfilhos (DPP) e taxa de senescência de folhas (TSF). A TCC foi igual para o Mulato II e Tifton 85 mas a RPF foi maior para o Mulato II. O Tifton 85 com menor IAF residual apresentou altos valores de TAL e resultados semelhantes ao Mulato II de TCC. A TAPF e TALF foram maiores no Marandu do que no Mulato II. O filocrono foi maior no Mulato II comparado ao Marandu. Houve interação frequênca x ano para o filocrono, e aos 28 dias o menor filocrono foi no primeiro ano, e com 42 dias não houve diferença entre os dois anos. A TALF, TALC e TSF foram maiores com 42 dias. Houve interação frequência x ano e capim x frequência no NFV. Este foi maior no primeiro ano com 28 e 42 dias, e aos 42 dias nos dois anos. O NFV foi igual no Marandu e Mulato II com 28 dias e maior no Marandu com 42 dias. Tanto o Marandu quanto o Mulato II tiveram maior NFV com 42 dias. A TCC é similar no Mulato II e no Tifton 85, mas a RPF é maior no Mulato II. O Tifton 85 teve menor IAF residual, mas alta TAL e TCC similar ao Mulato II. O Mulato II e o Tifton 85 utilizaram mecanismos diferentes para alcançar a mesma TCC. 28 dias é melhor pois prioriza produção de folhas. Nas características morfogênicas, o Marandu é melhor pois apresentou maiores taxas de crescimento (TAPF, TALF ,NFV) e menor filocrono. Apesar do Marandu ser superior ao Mulato II isso não refletiu em maior acúmulo de forragem e valor nutritivo, devido à DPP ter sido maior no Mulato II. Houve maior TALC e TSF com 42 dias, portanto 28 dias é melhor para evitar altas TALC. Quando houver pluviosidade adequada é necessário a utilização de menor frequência (28 dias) para aumentar a eficiência de colheita da forragem.
For the potential of cultivars most commonly used as Marandu palisadegrass {Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) RD Webster [syn. Urochloa brizantha (A. Rich.) Stapf]; CIAT 6297}, with high forage production as Tifton 85 (Cynodon spp.), and grasses recently released as Mulato II (Convert HD 364®) (Brachiaria híbrid CIAT 36061) to be rationally and intensively explored it is necessary to understand how harvest frequency affects productive responses, under a physiological standpoint. The objective was to evaluate and describe the effect of harvest frequency on the growth characteristics of Mulato II, Marandu, and Tifton 85, as well as to study morphogenesis characteristics in Mulato II and Marandu. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replications. The trial was carried out in Piracicaba - SP. Response variables included leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), leaf area ratio (LAR) and leaf weight ratio (LWR). In addition phyllocron, number of live leaves per tiller (NLL), stem (SER) and leaf elongation rate (LER), leaf appearance rate (LApR), tiller density population (TDP) and leaf senescence (LSR). Mulato II is a option to intensify and diversify pasture grasses in tropical areas due to its high LAI, CGR, LWR and LAR. CGR was similar between Mulato II and Tifton 85 but LWR was highest to Mulato II. On the other hand, Tifton 85 starts the lowest LAI but has high NAR and reaches the same CGR to Mulato II, showing also as good forage option. The LApR and LER were higher an Marandu than Mulato II. Phyllochron was higher in Mulato II compared to Marandu. There was an interaction harvest frequency x year to phyllochron, and with 28 days the lowest phyllochron was at first year, and with 42 days there was no difference between two years. The LER, SER and LSR were higher with 42 days of harvest frequency. There was interaction harvest frequencies x year and cultivars x harvest frequencies to NLL. This was higher in the first year with 28 and 42 days, and at 42 days in both years studied. NLL was equal in Marandu and Mulato II with 28 days and higher in Marandu with 42 days. Marandu and Mulato II had higher NLL with 42 days. CGR is similar in Mulato II and Tifton 85, but the LWR is highest in Mulato II. Tifton 85 had lowest residual LAI, but high NAR and CGR similar to Mulato II. Mulato II and Tifton 85 used different mechanisms to achieve the same CGR. 28 days prioritizes leaf production. In morphogenesis, Marandu is the best because it presented the highest growth rates (LApR, LER, NLL) and lowest phyllochron. Despite Marandu was better than Mulato II, it did not reflect in greater herbage accumulation and nutritive value, due greater TDP in Mulato II. There was highest SER and LSR with 42 days, so 28 days is best to avoid high SER. When there is adequate precipitation, lowest frequency (28 days) increase harvest efficiency.

A carência de conhecimentos específicos sobre a ecofisiologia das plantas forrageiras de clima tropical limita a adequação de estratégias de manejo do pastejo que possibilitem o melhor aproveitamento possível do seu potencial de produção de forragem. Nesse contexto, o presente experimento, conduzido no Departamento de Zootecnia da USP/ESALQ, em Piracicaba, SP, de novembro de 2001 a fevereiro de 2002, teve como objetivo avaliar as características morfogênicas e os padrões de desfolhação em pastagens de Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst ex A. Rich) cultivar Marandu. Os tratamentos corresponderam a quatro alturas de dossel forrageiro (10, 20, 30 e 40 cm) mantidas constantes através de pastejo por bovinos em regime de lotação contínua com taxa de lotação variável. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos completos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Foram avaliadas as seguintes respostas: (1) características morfogênicas: taxa de aparecimento de folhas (TAF), filocrono, número de folhas vivas por perfilho e longevidade de folhas; e (2) padrões de desfolhação de perfilhos individuais: freqüência e intensidade de desfolhação e eficiência de pastejo (utilização). Pastos mantidos a 10 cm apresentaram maior TAF (0,12 folha/perfilho.dia e 0,012 folha/perfilho.graus-dia) e menor filocrono (9,0 dias/folha e 84,8 graus-dia/folha) que aqueles mantidos a 20, 30 e 40 cm (0,11, 0,10, 0,10 folha/perfilho.dia e 0,011, 0,011, 0,010 folha/perfilho.graus -dia; 10,3, 10,3, 10,9 dias/folha e 95,1, 95,1, 100,6 graus-dia/folha, respectivamente), os quais não diferiram entre si (P > 0,10). A longevidade de folhas acompanhou os resultados de filocrono (34,4, 43,1, 45,5, 48,4 dias/folha e 332,1, 441,6, 433,5, 462,0 graus-dia/folha para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente), uma vez que não houve variação no número de folhas por perfilho (4,5 folhas/perfilho) (P > 0,10). As oscilações nessas características morfogênicas ao longo do experimento deveram-se ao estádio fenológico da planta, que passou de vegetativo para reprodutivo. A freqüência (0,077 desfolhação/perfilho.dia) e intensidade (0,296 – proporção do comprimento original removido pelo pastejo) de desfolhação de perfilhos individuais foram maiores em pastos mais baixos (10 cm) (P < 0,10). Nos pastos mantidos mais altos (20, 30 e 40 cm) a intensidade de desfolhação permaneceu relativamente constante (0,173) (P > 0,10), enquanto a freqüência foi decrescente com o aumento da altura do dossel forrageiro (0,068, 0,067, 0,056 para 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente) (P < 0,10). Tendência semelhante foi obtida quando freqüência e intensidade foram calculados com base na folha do perfilho (0,043, 0,033, 0,031, 0,026 e 0,760, 0,683, 0,654, 0,665, respectivamente, para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm). Houve uma relação positiva entre a taxa de lotação utilizada para manter as condições experimentais e a freqüência e a intensidade de desfolhação resultantes. Folhas senescentes sofreram desfolhação menos severa que folhas maduras e em expansão em virtude principalmente da menor freqüência com que foram visitadas (0,009, 0,028, 0,024, respectivamente), uma vez que as variações em intensidade foram pequenas. A eficiência de utilização foi maior nos pastos mantidos a 10 cm (82,3%), conseqüência da elevada freqüência e intensidade de desfolhação, o que diminuiu a longevidade das folhas naquelas condições. Pastos mantidos em alturas de dossel crescente apresentaram eficiências de utilização decrescente (76,2, 69,4 e 68,7% para 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente). Independentemente da altura de pasto empregada, 33% da parte superior da altura do dossel foi utilizada para pastejo, revelando potenciais restrições ao consumo de forragem de bovinos pastejando pastos baixos.
The lack of information on the ecophysiology of tropical pasture species limits the adjustment of grazing management practices that allow for the best possible utilization of their forage production potential. Bearing that in mind, the present experiment, carried out at the Departamento de Zootecnia, USP/ESALQ, Piracicaba, SP, evaluated the morphogenetic characteristics and defoliation patterns of Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst ex A. Rich) cultivar Marandu from November 2001 to February 2002. Treatments corresponded to four sward state conditions (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm sward surface height) generated by cattle grazing under continuous stocking with variable stocking rate and were allocated to experimental units according to a complete randomized block design with four replications. The evaluated responses were: (1) morphogenetic characteristics: leaf appearance rate (LAR), phyllochron, number of leaves per tiller and leaf life span; (2) individual tiller defoliation patterns: frequency and intensity of defoliation and grazing efficiency (utilization). Short swards (10 cm) presented higher LAR (0.12 leaf/tiller.day and 0.012 leaf/tiller.degree-day) and smaller phyllochrone (9.0 days/leaf and 84.8 degree-days/leaf) than tall swards (20, 30 and 40 cm) (0.11, 0.10, 0.10 leaf/tiller.day and 0.011, 0.011, 0.010 leaf/tiller.degree-day; 10.3, 10.3, 10.9 days/leaf and 95.1, 95.1, 100.6 degree-days/leaf, respectively), the latter three being the same (P > 0.10). Leaf life span followed the phyllochron results (34.4, 43.1, 45.5, 48.4 days/leaf and 332.1, 441.6, 433.5, 462.0 degree-days/leaf for the 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm swards, respectively) since no variation was observed in number of leaves per tiller (4.5 leaves/tiller) (P > 0.10). Variations in morphogenetic characteristics throughout the experiment were due to the phenological state of plants, which changed from vegetative to reproductive. Frequency (0.077 defoliation/tiller.day) and intensity (0.296 – proportion of the original length removed by grazing) of defoliation of individual tillers were biggest in the 10 cm-swards (P < 0.10). In the 20, 30 and 40 cm-swards defoliation intensity remained relatively constant (0.173) (P > 0.10), while defoliation frequency decreased as sward surface height increased (0.068, 0.067, 0.056 for the 20, 30 and 40 cm-swards, respectively) (P < 0.10). A similar trend was obtained when frequency and intensity of defoliation were calculated on a per leaf basis (0.043, 0.033, 0.031, 0.026 e 0.760, 0.683, 0.654, 0.665, respectively, for the 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm-swards). There was a positive relationship between the stocking rate used to generate experimental treatments and the resulting frequency and intensity of defoliation of individual tillers. Senescing leaves were defoliated less severely than mature and expanding leaves, particularly because of the lower frequency with which they were visited (0.009, 0.028, 0.024, respectively), since corresponding variations in defoliation intensity were small. Pasture utilization efficiency was highest in the 10 cm-swards (82.3%), a consequence of their high frequency and intensity of defoliation that resulted in decreased leaf life span under those circumstances. Increasing sward surface height resulted in decreasing utilization efficiency (76.2, 69.4 and 68.7% for the 20, 30 and 40 cm-swards, respectively). Regardless of sward surface height, the top 33% of the sward height was used for grazing, indicating potential restrictions to herbage consumption of cattle grazing short pastures.

Com o objetivo de propor um modelo para estimar a produtividade potencial (pastagem manejada sob condições ótimas e de forma intensiva) de fitomassa seca total de Brachiaria brizantha, variedades cultivadas Marandu e Xaraés, em função de radiação solar e temperatura do ar, bem como: (i) obter uma curva de resposta que represente a produtividade potencial de fitomassa seca de parte aérea e do sistema radicular em relação ao desenvolvimento relativo; (ii) caracterizar a produtividade de fitomassa seca de hastes, folhas e material senescente de parte aérea; (iii) identificar o momento adequado para o corte da pastagem; e (iv) caracterizar a variação temporal do índice de área foliar; foi conduzido experimento de campo na área experimental do Departamento de Produção Vegetal da Universidade de São Paulo, em Piracicaba, no período de 22 de novembro de 2003 a 26 de janeiro de 2004. Em função dos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que: (i) o modelo proposto simula satisfatoriamente a produtividade potencial de fitomassa seca total de Brachiaria brizantha, variedades cultivadas Marandu e Xaraés, em função do período do ano (a partir da data de corte), das variáveis climáticas (médias diárias de radiação solar global e temperatura do ar) e da latitude local; (ii) é possível obter a curva de resposta, através do trabalho conjunto de modelagem e experimentação de campo, que represente a produtividade potencial de fitomassa seca de parte aérea e do sistema radicular em relação ao desenvolvimento relativo, a partir dos valores observados de fitomassa seca de parte aérea e do sistema radicular, do índice de área foliar, da temperatura média do ar e da radiação solar global; (iii) as equações empíricas caracterizam de forma satisfatória a variação temporal de a produtividade de fitomassa seca de hastes, folhas e material senescente de parte aérea; (iv) o momento ótimo de utilização da pastagem (corte) é próximo a 64% do desenvolvimento relativo; visto que após esse instante, a produtividade de fitomassa seca de parte aérea é fortemente influenciada por haste e material senescente, em detrimento da folha, a qual diminui a taxa de acúmulo após esse momento; e (v) a variação temporal do índice de área foliar pode ser caracterizada pelo modelo exponencial.
With the main goal to purpose a model to estimate the total plant biomass (dry matter) potential productivity (forage removed under cutting management intensive system and optimal conditions) of Brachiaria brizantha, cultivars Marandu and Xaraés, as a function of global solar radiation and air temperature, besides the following goals: (i) acquiring a response curve that might show the shoot and root dried biomass potential productivity regarding to the relative development; (ii) characterizing the dry-matter productivity of leaves, stems and senescing structures of shoots; (iii) identifying the optimal time to pasture cutting; and (iv) characterizing the leaf area index temporal variation; field experiments were carried in Crop Production Department experimental area of Universidade de São Paulo (Piracicaba, SP, Brazil) from November 22nd of 2003 to January 26th of 2004. According to results acquired, it is possible to conclude: (i) the purposed model greatly simulates the total plant biomass (dry matter) potential productivity of Brachiaria brizantha, cultivars Marandu and Xaraés, as a function of year season (from cutting date), climatic variables (daily mean values of global solar radiation and air temperature) and local latitude; (ii) from modeling and field experiments taken together; it is possible to obtain a response-curve reporting the biomass potential productivity of shoot and root compartments as a function of relative development from observed shoot and root dry-matter values, leaf area index (LAI), air temperature and global solar radiation; (iii) the empirical equations greatly denote the productivity temporal variation of leaves, stems and senescing structures dry matter; (iv) the optimal time to both forage utilization (cutting) is around 64% of relative development due to after this moment the shoot dry-matter productivity is strongly affected by increases in stems and senescing structures productivities, otherwise leaf productivity rates decrease as much as relative development raises; and (v) the leaf area index temporal variation of both genotypes might be characterized as a exponential-growth response.

Dissecting the soybean grain yield (GY) to approach it as a sum of its associated processes seems a viable approach to explore this trait considering its complex multigenic nature. Monteith (1972, 1977) first defined potential yield as the result of three physiological efficiencies: light interception (Ei), radiation use efficiency (RUE) and harvest index (HI). Though this rationality is not recent, few works assessing these three efficiencies as strategies to improve crops have been carried out. This thesis approaches yield from the perspective of Ei, RUE, and HI to better understand yield as the result of genetic and physiological processes. This study reveals the phenotypic variation, heritability, genetic architecture, and genetic relationships for Ei, RUE, and HI and their relationships with GY and other physiological and phenological variables. Similarly, genomic prediction is presented as a viable strategy to partially overcome the tedious phenotyping of these traits. A large panel of 383 soybean recombinant inbred lines (RIL) with significant yield variation but shrinkage maturity was evaluated in three field environments. Ground measurements of dry matter, photosynthesis (A), transpiration (E), water use efficiency (WUE), stomatal conductance (gs), leaf area index (LAI) and phenology (R1, R5, R8) were measured. Likewise, RGB imagery from an unmanned aircraft system (UAS) were collected with high frequency (~12 days) to estimate the canopy dynamic through the canopy coverage (CC). Light interception was modeled through a logistic curve using CC as a proxy and later compared with the seasonal cumulative solar radiation collected from weather stations to calculate Ei. The total above ground biomass collected during the growing season and its respective cumulative light intercepted were used to derive RUE through linear models fitting, while apparent HI was calculated through the ratio seeds dry matter vs total above-ground dry matter. Additive-genetic correlations, genome wide association (GWA) and whole genome regressions (WGR) were performed to determine the relationship between traits, their association with genomic regions, and the feasibility of predicting these efficiencies through genomic information. Our results revealed moderate to high phenotypic variation for Ei, RUE, and HI. Additive-genetic correlation showed a strong relationship of GY with HI and moderate with RUE and Ei when the whole data set was considered, but negligible contribution of HI on GY when just the top 100 yielding RILs were analyzed. High genetic correlation to grain yield (GY) was also observed for A (0.87) and E (0.67), suggesting increase in GY can be achieved through the improvement of A or E. The GWA analyses showed that Ei is associated with three SNPs; two of them located on chromosome 7 and one on chromosome 11 with no previous quantitative trait loci (QTLs) reported for these regions. RUE is associated with four SNPs on chromosomes 1, 7, 11, and 18. Some of these QTLs are novel, while others are previously documented for plant architecture and chlorophyll content. Two SNPs positioned on chromosome 13 and 15 with previous QTLs reported for plant height and seed set, weight and abortion were associated with HI. WGR showed high predictive ability for Ei, RUE, and HI with maximum correlation ranging between 0.75 to 0.80. Both directed and undirected multivariate explanatory models indicate that HI has a strong relationship with A, average growth rate of canopy coverage for the first 40 days after planting (AGR40), seed-filling (SFL), and reproductive length (RL). According to the path analysis, increase in one standard unit of HI promotes changes in 0.5 standard units of GY, while changes in the same standard unit of RUE, and Ei produce increases on GY of 0.20 and 0.19 standard units. This study presents novel genetic knowledge for Ei, RUE, HI and GY along with a set of tools that may contribute to the development of new cultivars with enhanced light interception, light conversion and optimized dry matter partitioning in soybean. This work not only complements the physiological knowledge already available with the genetic control of traits directly associated with yield, but also represents a pioneer attempt to integrate traditional physiological traits into the breeding process in the context of physiological breeding

Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), a valuable forage for ruminant livestock in temperate regions, appears highly degradable in the rumen. Fundamental reasons for the rapid breakdown of chicory cell walls in the rumen were studied. Cell walls were isolated from laminae and midribs of chicory (cv. Grasslands Puna II) leaves. The walls, which, except for the walls of xylem tracheary elements in vascular bundles, were non-lignified, were fractionated progressively with 50 mM CDTA, 50 mM Na2CO3, 1 M KOH, 4 M KOH, 4 M KOH + 3.5% H3BO3, and hot water. The polysaccharides were similar to those in nonlignified walls of other dicotyledons, but with high proportions of pectic polysaccharides (67% of the total wall polysaccharides in the laminae). These included homogalacturonans (HGs, 50% of the total wall polysaccharides in laminae) and rhamnogalacturonan I (RG I). In contrast, the proportions of cellulose, xyloglucans, heteroxylans and glucomannans were low. The locations of different pectic polysaccharides were determined using the monoclonal antibodies JIM5 and JIM7 against HGs with low and high degrees of methyl esterification, respectively, LM6 against arabinan and LM5 against galactan. All primary walls were labelled with all the antibodies used. However, the middle lamella, tricellular junctions and the corners of intercellular spaces were labelled with JIM5 and JIM7, but not with LM5. The middle lamella was labelled with LM6, but not the corners of intercellular spaces. These results support the involvement in cell adhesion of HGs with low degrees of methyl esterification. A preparation of endopolygalacturonase (endo-PG) was used to investigate cell adhesion, and its effect on forage particle breakdown was determined using weight loss, chemical analysis and immunofluorescence labelling. The preparation dramatically reduced particle size. Cell separation was accompanied by a loss of HGs with low degrees of methyl esterifcation from the middle lamella and corners of intercellular spaces. A consequential loss of cell adhesion evidently caused leaf breakdown. The degradation of fresh chicory leaves by rumen bacteria was investigated by measuring weight loss, monosaccharide release and immunocytolabelling. Two bacteria, the pectolytic Lachnospira multiparus D32 and the cellulolytic Fibrobacter succinogenes S85, effectively degraded chicory. Pectic polysaccharides were degraded faster than other wall polysaccharides, with uronic acid released faster and more completely than neutral monosaccharides. The preponderance of non-lignified primary walls and abundance of pectic polysaccharides may account, in part, for the rapid degradation of forage chicory in the rumen. The HGs in the middle lamellae and corners of intercellular spaces probably have a role in cell adhesion, and their degradation is probably responsible for the rapid reduction in the particle size of chicory leaves in the rumen.

Content removed due to copyright restrictions: Burggraaf, V.T., Kemp, P.D., Thom, E.R., Waghorn,G.C., Woodfield, D.R. & Woodward, S.L. (2004) Performance of dairy cows grazing white clover selected for increased floral condensed tannin. Preliminary report from experiments presented in Chapter 4 published in the 2004 Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association.
Legumes containing 20 to 40 g of condensed tannin (CT) per kg of dry matter (DM) can improve dairy cow milk production by reducing ruminal protein degradation to ammonia and preventing bloat. White clover (Triflium repens L.) produces CT in its flower heads. High tannin (HT) white clover, bred for increased flowering and increased floral CT concentration, was evaluated under dairy grazing in Hamilton, New Zealand. Its performance in monoculture was compared to that of Grasslands Huia white clover over two years, and five short-term grazing experiments determined its effects on Friesian dairy cows. Huia and HT had similar floral CT concentrations, ranging from 15 to 77 g/kg DM over two flowering seasons. HT clover had higher flower densities than Huia until the second summer after sowing, resulting in higher clover (leaf plus flower) CT concentrations. Clover CT peaked at 12.1 g/kg DM for HT and 5.7 g/kg DM for Huia. HT swards had lower stolon growing point densities than Huia swards and annual DM yields averaged 10.0 and 11.0 t DM/ha for the respective clovers. The ingress of non-sown white clover genotypes reduced treatment differences in the last 10 months of the experiment. Mild bloat occurred in cows grazing both clovers. Cows grazing HT white clover had rumen ammonia concentrations 5 to 26% lower than that of cows grazing Huia, indicating less proteolysis in the rumen of HT cows, but there were no consistent effects on rumen soluble protein or volatile fatty acids (VFA). Differences between treatments in dietary CT concentrations were too small to affect milk production or composition. Minced mixtures of 0, 25, 50, 75 or 100% of DM as white clover flower with the remainder as white clover leaf, were incubated in vitro and rumen metabolite concentrations determined at 0, 2 ,4, 8, 12 and 24 hours. Polyethylene glycol was added to one of the 50% flower treatments to inactivate CT. Clover flowers had less soluble protein than leaves at 0 hours, and increasing the percentage of flowers from 0 to 100% reduced the net conversion of plant-N to ammonia-N from 29 to 12%. The contribution of CT to these effects was small. Increasing percentages of clover flowers did not significantly affect total VFA production but increased acetate to propionate (A:P) ratios. White clover CT decreased A:P ratios. In another in vitro experiment perennial ryegrass leaf (Lolium perenne L.) was incubated either alone or with white clover flowers or birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Clover flowers were more effective at reducing proteolysis than birdsfoot trefoil, due largely to less release of soluble protein, but birdsfoot trefoil treatments had the lowest A:P ratios. In conclusion, HT clover had higher forage CT concentrations than Huia because of increased flowering. Increased flowering reduced the agronomic performance of HT and lowered rumen ammonia concentrations, but did not increase milk production or prevent bloat. White clover flowers reduced rumen proteolysis in vitro, but this was mainly a result of their low protein concentration. White clover CT and birdsfoot trefoil forage benefited the molar percentages of VFA, but increasing the proportion of clover flowers did not. Further increases in white clover CT concentrations may benefit ruminant performance, but this should not be implemented through increased flowering.

Wheat is a major source of calories and protein for humans worldwide. Wheat is the most widely grown crop, with cultivation areas and production systems on every continent. The cultivated land area is vast because of its importance and adaptability to various environmental conditions. Global wheat production has not kept up with the growing population, provoking the need to develop new methods and techniques to increase genetic gains. The first research chapter of this Ph.D. dissertation involves performing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify and examine transferability of marker-trait associations (MTAs) across environments. I evaluated yield and yield components traits among 270 soft red winter (SRW) wheat varieties. The population consists of experimental breeding lines adapted to the Midwestern and eastern United States and developed by public university breeding programs. Phenotypic data from a two-year field study and a 45K-SNP marker dataset were analyzed by FarmCPU model to identify MTAs for yield related traits. Grain yield was positively correlated with thousand kernel weight, biomass, and grain weight per spike while negatively correlated with days to heading and maturity. Sixty-one independent loci were identified for agronomic traits, including a region that with –logP of 16.35, which explained 18% of the variation in grain yield. Using 12 existing datasets from other states and seasons, in addition to my own data, I examined the transferability of significant MTAs for grain yield and days to heading across homogenous environments. For grain yield and days to heading, I only observed 6 out of 28 MTAs to hold up across homogenous environments. I concluded that not all marker-trait associations can be detected in other environments.

In the second research chapter of this Ph.D. dissertation, I dissected yield component traits under contrasting nitrogen environments by using field-based low-throughput phenotyping. I characterized grain yield formation and quality attributes in soft red winter wheat. Using a split-block design, I studied responses of 30 experimental lines, as sub-plot, to high nitrogen and low nitrogen environment, as main-plot, for two years. Differential N environments were imposed by the application, or lack thereof, of spring nitrogen application in a field, following a previous corn harvest. In this study, I measured agronomic traits, in-tissue nitrogen concentrations, nitrogen use efficiency, nitrogen harvest index and end-use quality traits on either all or subset of the germplasm. My data showed that biomass, number of spikes and total grain numbers per unit area were most sensitive to low nitrogen while kernel weight remained stable across environments. Significant genotype x N-environment interaction allowed me to select N-efficient germplasm, that can be used as founding parents for a potential breeding population specifically for low-N environments. I did this selection on the basis of superior agronomic traits and the presence of the desirable gluten quality alleles such as Glu-A1b (2*) and Glu-D1d (5+10).