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Journal articles on the topic 'Passivated contact'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 25 May 2024

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1

Ullah, Hayat, Stanislaw Czapp, Seweryn Szultka, Hanan Tariq, Usama Bin Qasim, and Hassan Imran. "Crystalline Silicon (c-Si)-Based Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) Solar Cells: A Review." Energies 16, no. 2 (January 7, 2023): 715. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16020715.

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Contact selectivity is a key parameter for enhancing and improving the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based solar cells. Carrier selective contacts (CSC) are the key technology which has the potential to achieve a higher PCE for c-Si-based solar cells closer to their theoretical efficiency limit. A recent and state-of-the-art approach in this domain is the tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) approach, which is completely different from the existing classical heterojunction solar cells. The main and core element of this contact is the tunnel oxide, and its main role is to cut back the minority carrier recombination at the interface. A state-of-the-art n-type c-Si-based TOPCon solar cell featuring a passivated rear contact was experimentally analyzed, and the highest PCE record of ~25.7% was achieved. It has a high fill factor (FF) of ~83.3%. These reported results prove that the highest efficiency potential is that of the passivated full area rear contact structures and it is more efficient than that of the partial rear contact (PRC) structures. In this paper, a review is presented which considers the key characteristics of TOPCon solar cells, i.e., minority carrier recombination, contact resistance, and surface passivation. Additionally, practical challenges and key issues related to TOPCon solar cells are also highlighted. Finally, the focus turns to the characteristics of TOPCon solar cells, which offer an improved and better understanding of doping layers and tunnel oxide along with their mutual and combined effect on the overall performance of TOPCon solar cells.

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Edzards, Frank, Lukas Hauertmann, Iris Abt, Chris Gooch, Björn Lehnert, Xiang Liu, Susanne Mertens, David C. Radford, Oliver Schulz, and Michael Willers. "Surface Characterization of P-Type Point Contact Germanium Detectors." Particles 4, no. 4 (October 20, 2021): 489–511. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/particles4040036.

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P-type point contact (PPC) germanium detectors are used in rare event and low-background searches, including neutrinoless double beta (0νββ) decay, low-energy nuclear recoils, and coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering. The detectors feature an excellent energy resolution, low detection thresholds down to the sub-keV range, and enhanced background rejection capabilities. However, due to their large passivated surface, separating the signal readout contact from the bias voltage electrode, PPC detectors are susceptible to surface effects such as charge build-up. A profound understanding of their response to surface events is essential. In this work, the response of a PPC detector to alpha and beta particles hitting the passivated surface was investigated in a multi-purpose scanning test stand. It is shown that the passivated surface can accumulate charges resulting in a radial-dependent degradation of the observed event energy. In addition, it is demonstrated that the pulse shapes of surface alpha events show characteristic features which can be used to discriminate against these events.

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Bruynzeel, D. P., G. Hennipman, and W. G. van Ketel. "Irritant contact dermatitis and chrome-passivated metal." Contact Dermatitis 19, no. 3 (September 1988): 175–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1988.tb02889.x.

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4

Chaudhary, Aditya, Jan Hos, Jan Lossen, Frank Huster, Radovan Kopecek, Rene van Swaaij, and Miro Zeman. "Screen Printed Fire-Through Contact Formation for Polysilicon-Passivated Contacts and Phosphorus-Diffused Contacts." IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 12, no. 2 (March 2022): 462–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jphotov.2022.3142135.

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5

Chembath, Manju, J. N. Balaraju, and M. Sujata. "In Vitro Corrosion Studies of Surface Modified NiTi Alloy for Biomedical Applications." Advances in Biomaterials 2014 (November 20, 2014): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/697491.

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Electropolishing was conducted on NiTi alloy of composition 49.1 Ti-50.9 Ni at.% under potentiostatic regime at ambient temperature using perchloric acid based electrolyte for 30 sec followed by passivation treatment in an inorganic electrolyte. The corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of the electropolished and passivated alloys were evaluated and compared with mechanically polished alloy. Various characterization techniques like scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were employed to analyze the properties of surface modified and mechanically polished alloys. Water contact angle measurements made on the passivated alloy after electropolishing showed a contact angle of 35.6°, which was about 58% lower compared to mechanically polished sample, implying more hydrophilicity. The electrochemical impedance studies showed that, for the passivated alloy, threefold increase in the barrier layer resistance was obtained when compared to electropolished alloy due to the formation of compact titanium oxide. The oxide layer thickness of the passivated samples was almost 18 times higher than electropolished samples. After 14 days immersion in Hanks’ solution, the amount of nickel released was 315 ppb which was nearly half of that obtained for mechanically polished NiTi alloy, confirming better stability of the passive layer.

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6

Fellmeth, Tobias, Frank Feldmann, Bernd Steinhauser, Henning Nagel, Sebastian Mack, Martin Hermle, Frank Torregrosa, et al. "A round Robin-Highliting on the passivating contact technology." EPJ Photovoltaics 12 (2021): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjpv/2021011.

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The aim of this work is to demonstrate the maturity of the TOPCon technology by conducting a round-robin on symmetrically processed lifetime samples in the leading European PV institutes EPFL, ISC, CEA-INES, ISFH, IMEC and Fraunhofer ISE within the H2020 funded project called HighLite. For all layers, dark saturation current-densities ranging between 2 and 10 fA/cm2 can be reported. Simultaneously, no metal induced recombination for the two lower sintering temperatures have been observed pointing towards a true passivated contact. Furthermore, contact resistivities below 10 mΩcm2 have been achieved. It seems that the industrial passivating contact matured to a fully passivated and conducting contact enabling full efficiency potential. The fact that this can be realized using either PECVD or LPCVD from various manufacturer is expected to drive costs down and contribute to the increased adoption of the TOPCon technology.

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7

Ditshego, Nonofo M. J., and Suhana Mohamed Sultan. "Top-Down Fabrication Process of ZnO NWFETs." Journal of Nano Research 57 (April 2019): 77–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/jnanor.57.77.

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ZnO NWFETs were fabricated with and without Al2O3passivation. This was done by developing a new recipe for depositing the thin film of ZnO. By using a high donor concentration of 1.7 x 1018cm-3for the thin film, contact resistance values were lowered (passivated device had Rcon= 2.5 x 104Ω; unpassivated device had Rcon= 3.0 x 105Ω). By depositing Zn first instead of O2, steep subthreshold slopes were obtained. The passivated device had a subthreshold slope of 225 mV/decade and the unpassivated device had a slope of 125 mV/decade. Well-behaved electrical characteristics have been obtained and the passivated device shows field effect mobility of 10.9 cm2/Vs and the un-passivated device shows a value of 31.4 cm2/Vs. To verify the results, 3D simulation was also carried out which shows that the obtained values of sub-threshold slope translate into interface state number densities of-1.86 x 1013cm-2for the unpassivated device and 3.35 x 1014cm-2for the passivated device. The passivated device is suitable for biosensing applications.

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8

Kashyap, Savita, Nikhil Shrivastav, Rahul Pandey, Jaya Madan, and Rajnish Sharma. "Double POLO Carrier Selective Contact Based PERC Solar Cell for 25.5% Conversion Efficiency: A Simulation Study." ECS Transactions 107, no. 1 (April 24, 2022): 6365–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/10701.6365ecst.

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Polycrystalline Silicon on Oxide (POLO) passivating contacts have emerged as a carrier selective contact for high-efficiency Si-based photovoltaic (PV) devices. In this paper, double POLO PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact) device is designed by employing POLO contacts on both contact sides to reduce the contact recombination losses through Silvaco-TCAD tool. The performance of the double POLO PERC device has been studied by using the PV parameters and current-density (J-V) curve. The impact of tunnel oxide thickness variation (1 nm, 1.25 nm, 1.5 nm) in the tunnel oxide layer is also analyzed. The performance of textured double POLO PERC solar cell is optimized at 1.5 nm thickness (TOX), which reflects optimum conversion efficiency of 25.5%. Reported study of double POLO PERC device may open up a door for further improvement in PERC device performance.

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9

Mitra, Suchismita, Hemanta Ghosh, Hiranmay Saha, and Kunal Ghosh. "Recombination Analysis of Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact Solar Cells." IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 66, no. 3 (March 2019): 1368–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ted.2018.2890584.

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10

Almeida, E., M. R. Costa, N. De Cristofaro, N. Mora, R. Catalá, J. M. Puente, and J. M. Bastidas. "Titanium passivated lacquered tinplate cans in contact with foods." Corrosion Engineering, Science and Technology 40, no. 2 (June 2005): 158–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/174327805x29859.

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11

Ernst, Marco, Urs Zywietz, and Rolf Brendel. "Point contact openings in surface passivated macroporous silicon layers." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 105 (October 2012): 113–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2012.05.033.

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12

Bradley, Keith, Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel, Alexander Star, and George Grüner. "Short-channel effects in contact-passivated nanotube chemical sensors." Applied Physics Letters 83, no. 18 (November 3, 2003): 3821–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1619222.

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13

徐, 嘉玉. "Research Progress in Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact Solar Cells." Material Sciences 14, no. 05 (2024): 556–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.12677/ms.2024.145062.

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14

Liu, Cheng, Yi Yang, Hao Chen, Jian Xu, Ao Liu, Abdulaziz S. R. Bati, Huihui Zhu, et al. "Bimolecularly passivated interface enables efficient and stable inverted perovskite solar cells." Science 382, no. 6672 (November 17, 2023): 810–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adk1633.

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Compared with the n-i-p structure, inverted (p-i-n) perovskite solar cells (PSCs) promise increased operating stability, but these photovoltaic cells often exhibit lower power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) because of nonradiative recombination losses, particularly at the perovskite/C 60 interface. We passivated surface defects and enabled reflection of minority carriers from the interface into the bulk using two types of functional molecules. We used sulfur-modified methylthio molecules to passivate surface defects and suppress recombination through strong coordination and hydrogen bonding, along with diammonium molecules to repel minority carriers and reduce contact-induced interface recombination achieved through field-effect passivation. This approach led to a fivefold longer carrier lifetime and one-third the photoluminescence quantum yield loss and enabled a certified quasi-steady-state PCE of 25.1% for inverted PSCs with stable operation at 65°C for >2000 hours in ambient air. We also fabricated monolithic all-perovskite tandem solar cells with 28.1% PCE.

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15

Dou, Bingfei, Rui Jia, Zhao Xing, Xiaojiang Yao, Dongping Xiao, Zhi Jin, and Xinyu Liu. "Enhanced Performance of Nanotextured Silicon Solar Cells with Excellent Light-Trapping Properties." Photonics 8, no. 7 (July 9, 2021): 272. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics8070272.

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Light-trapping nanostructures have been widely used for improving solar cells’ performance, but the higher surface recombination and poor electrode contact introduced need to be addressed. In this work, silicon nanostructures were synthesized via silver-catalyzed etching to texturize solar cells. Atomic-layer-deposited Al2O3 passivated the nanotextured cells. A surface recombination velocity of 126 cm/s was obtained, much lower than the 228 cm/s of the SiNX-passivated one. Additionally, the open-circuit voltage (VOC) of the nanotextured cells improved significantly from 582 to 610 mV, as did the short-circuit current (JSC) from 25.5 to 31 mA/cm2. Furthermore, the electrode contact property was enhanced by light-induced plating. A best efficiency of 13.3% for nano-textured cells was obtained, which is higher than the planar cell’s 12%.

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16

Hlinka, Josef, and Stanislav Lasek. "Influence of Passivation on Wettability of AISI 304 Steel and its Corrosion Properties in Solution of Sodium Hypochlorite." Key Engineering Materials 810 (July 2019): 58–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.810.58.

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The contribution is aimed at corrosion propertied and wettability of basic graded of stainless steel commonly used in medicine as a standard for construction of instruments and other applications. Samples of AISI 304 (1.4301) steel were chemical passivated by nitric acid and tested for corrosion resistance in environment of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), which is commonly used for basic disinfection of surfaces or devices in hospital facilities. It was found that chemical passivation of stainless steel surface increases its corrosion resistance and lower corrosion rate. Passivation layer also shows more polarization resistance. The wettability of passivated surface was measured by sessile drop method. Wettability itself determinates effectivity of disinfection process as the surfaces with lower contact angle may be cleaned and disinfected with more efficiency. It was proofed that chemical passivation increases wettability by lowering contact angle of treated surface.

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17

Wu, Guang, Yuan Liu, Mengxue Liu, Yi Zhang, Peng Zhu, Min Wang, Genhua Zheng, Guangwei Wang, and Deliang Wang. "High-Efficiency p-Type Si Solar Cell Fabricated by Using Firing-Through Aluminum Paste on the Cell Back Side." Materials 12, no. 20 (October 17, 2019): 3388. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12203388.

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Firing-through paste used for rear-side metallization of p-type monocrystalline silicon passivated emitter and rear contact (PERC) solar cells was developed. The rear-side passivation Al2O3 layer and the SiNx layer can be effectively etched by the firing-through paste. Ohmic contact with a contact resistivity between 1 to 10 mΩ·cm2 was successfully fabricated. Aggressive reactive firing-through paste would introduce non-uniform etching and high-density recombination centers at the Si/paste interface. Good balance between low resistive contact formation and relatively high open-circuit voltage can be achieved by adjusting glass frit and metal powder content in the paste. Patterned dot back contacts formed by firing-through paste can further decrease recombination density at the Si/paste interface. A P-type solar cell with an area of 7.8 × 7.8 cm2 with a Voc of 653.4 mV and an efficiency of 19.61% was fabricated.

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18

Battaglia, Corsin, Silvia Martín de Nicolás, Stefaan De Wolf, Xingtian Yin, Maxwell Zheng, Christophe Ballif, and Ali Javey. "Silicon heterojunction solar cell with passivated hole selective MoOx contact." Applied Physics Letters 104, no. 11 (March 17, 2014): 113902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4868880.

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19

Tyagi, Astha, Kunal Ghosh, Anil Kottantharayil, and Saurabh Lodha. "Performance Evaluation of Passivated Silicon Carrier-Selective Contact Solar Cell." IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 65, no. 1 (January 2018): 176–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ted.2017.2771816.

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20

Cesar, I., A. A. Mewe, P. Manshanden, I. G. Romijn, L. Janßen, and A. W. Weeber. "Effect of Al Contact Pitch on Rear Passivated Solar Cells." Energy Procedia 8 (2011): 672–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.06.200.

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21

Vanzetto, A. B., A. Moehlecke, T. Crestani, J. V. Z. Britto, and I. Zanesco. "Revisão sistemática de células solares de silício base n: estruturas e eficiências." Cerâmica 68, no. 388 (December 2022): 450–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0366-69132022683883369.

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Resumo Células solares com emissor e face posterior passivada (PERC, passivated emitter and rear cell) vêm dominando o mercado fotovoltaico em razão de seu processo de fabricação ser compatível com as linhas industriais que vinham sendo utilizadas e pela produção de dispositivos de alta eficiência. Atualmente o silício tipo p é o mais utilizado pela indústria de células solares, mas o silício tipo n deve ganhar mercado nos próximos anos juntamente com o emprego de lâminas de espessura reduzida. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma revisão sistemática dos principais estudos na área de células solares base n, sendo elas do tipo PERC, PERT (passivated emitter-rear totally diffused) e TOPCon (tunnel oxide passivated contact), com ênfase para a abordagem de contatos seletivos, emissores seletivos e nos processos utilizados, bem como na análise de células solares de espessura reduzida em relação ao padrão da indústria atual.

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22

Richard, Olivier, Artur Turala, Vincent Aimez, Maxime Darnon, and Abdelatif Jaouad. "Low-Cost Passivated Al Front Contacts for III-V/Ge Multijunction Solar Cells." Energies 16, no. 17 (August 26, 2023): 6209. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16176209.

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Improving the performances and reducing costs of III-V multijunction solar cells are crucial in aerospatial energy systems and in terrestrial concentrator modules. We attempted to achieve both objectives by implementing non-ohmic metal/semiconductor interface contacts on the front surface of III-V/Ge triple-junction solar cells. We demonstrate the feasibility of this concept for this type of solar cell by a simple evaporation of Al only either on the GaAs contact layer or the AlInP window. The best results were obtained when sulfur passivation by (NH4)2Sx was conducted on the GaAs contact layer. This allowed for a reduction in reverse saturation dark current density by one order of magnitude and a slight increase in Voc of almost 20 mV under 1 sun illumination relative to a reference device with Pd/Ge/Ti/Pd ohmic contacts. However, poor performances were observed at first under concentrated sunlight. Further annealing the solar cells with Al front metallization resulted in the reduction of Voc to the same level as the reference solar cell but allowed for good performances under high illumination. Indeed, an efficiency over 34% was observed at 500 suns light intensity both for Al and Pd/Ge/Ti/Pd contacted solar cells.

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23

Lee, Yu-Tsu, Fang-Ru Lin, and Zingway Pei. "Solution-Processed Titanium Oxide for Rear Contact Improvement in Heterojunction Solar Cells." Energies 13, no. 18 (September 7, 2020): 4650. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13184650.

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In this work, we demonstrated a heterojunction Si solar cell utilizing chemically grown titanium oxide (TiOx) as an electron-selective contact layer at its rear surface. With TiOx, the rear surface was passivated to reduce carrier recombination. The reverse saturation current, which is an indicator of carrier recombination, exhibited a 4.4-fold reduction after placing a TiOx layer on the rear surface. With reduced recombination, the open-circuit voltage increased from 433 mV to 600 mV and consequently, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) increased from 9.57 to 14.70%. By X-ray photoemission spectroscopy, the surface passivation was attributed to a silicon oxide interfacial layer formed during the chemical growth process. This passivation results in a 625 cm/s surface recombination velocity for the TiOx-passivated Si surface, which is 2.4 times lower than the sample without TiOx, ensuring the carriers pass through the rear contact without extensive recombination. According to these results, the band alignment for the heterojunction solar cell with and without a TiOx rear contact layer was plotted, the reduced interfacial recombination and the electron and hole blocking structure are the main reasons for the observed efficiency enhancement.

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Choi, P. H., D. H. Baek, H. J. Kim, K. S. Kim, H. S. Park, J. H. Lee, J. S. Yi, and B. D. Choi. "Localised back contact to ONO passivated c‐Si solar cells using laser fired contact method." Electronics Letters 49, no. 4 (February 2013): 290–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/el.2012.4465.

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25

Zeng, Linyi, Lun Cai, Zilei Wang, Nuo Chen, Zhaolang Liu, Tian Chen, Yicong Pang, et al. "A High-Quality Dopant-Free Electron-Selective Passivating Contact Made from Ultra-Low Concentration Water Solution." Nanomaterials 12, no. 23 (December 5, 2022): 4318. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano12234318.

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Crystalline silicon solar cells produced by doping processes have intrinsic shortages of high Auger recombination and/or severe parasitic optical absorption. Dopant-free carrier-selective contacts (DF-CSCs) are alternative routines for the next generation of highly efficient solar cells. However, it is difficult to achieve both good passivating and low contact resistivity for most DF-CSCs. In this paper, a high-quality dopant-free electron-selective passivating contact made from ultra-low concentration water solution is reported. Both low recombination current (J0) ~10 fA/cm2 and low contact resistivity (ρc) ~31 mΩ·cm2 are demonstrated with this novel contact on intrinsic amorphous silicon thin film passivated n-Si. The electron selectivity is attributed to relieving of the interfacial Fermi level pinning because of dielectric properties (decaying of the metal-induced gap states (MIGS)). The full-area implementation of the novel passivating contact shows 20.4% efficiency on a prototype solar cell without an advanced lithography process. Our findings offer a very simple, cost-effective, and efficient solution for future semiconductor devices, including photovoltaics and thin-film transistors.

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26

Mojrová, Barbora. "Investigation of Contact Formation during Silicon Solar Cell Production." Journal of Electrical Engineering 67, no. 3 (May 1, 2016): 231–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jee-2016-0034.

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Abstract This article deals with the investigation of the influence of sintering conditions on the formation process of screen printed contacts on passivated boron doped P+ emitters. The experiment was focused on measuring of resistance changes of two thick film pastes during firing processes with different conditions. Two different temperature profiles were compared at an atmospheric concentration of O2. The influence of the O2 concentration on resistance was investigated for one profile. A rapid thermal processing furnace modified for in-situ resistance measurements was used. The change of resistance was measured simultaneously with the temperature.

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27

Sharbaf Kalaghichi, Saman, Jan Hoß, Renate Zapf-Gottwick, and Jürgen H. Werner. "Laser Activation for Highly Boron-Doped Passivated Contacts." Solar 3, no. 3 (July 12, 2023): 362–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/solar3030021.

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Passivated, selective contacts in silicon solar cells consist of a double layer of highly doped polycrystalline silicon (poly Si) and thin interfacial silicon dioxide (SiO2). This design concept allows for the highest efficiencies. Here, we report on a selective laser activation process, resulting in highly doped p++-type poly Si on top of the SiO2. In this double-layer structure, the p++-poly Si layer serves as a layer for transporting the generated holes from the bulk to a metal contact and, therefore, needs to be highly conductive for holes. High boron-doping of the poly Si layers is one approach to establish the desired high conductivity. In a laser activation step, a laser pulse melts the poly Si layer, and subsequent rapid cooling of the Si melt enables electrically active boron concentrations exceeding the solid solubility limit. In addition to the high conductivity, the high active boron concentration in the poly Si layer allows maskless patterning of p++-poly Si/SiO2 layers by providing an etch stop layer in the Si etchant solution, which results in a locally structured p++-poly Si/SiO2 after the etching process. The challenge in the laser activation technique is not to destroy the thin SiO2, which necessitates fine tuning of the laser process. In order to find the optimal processing window, we test laser pulse energy densities (Hp) in a broad range of 0.7 J/cm2 ≤ Hp ≤ 5 J/cm2 on poly Si layers with two different thicknesses dpoly Si,1 = 155 nm and dpoly Si,2 = 264 nm. Finally, the processing window 2.8 J/cm2≤ Hp ≤ 4 J/cm2 leads to the highest sheet conductance (Gsh) without destroying the SiO2 for both poly Si layer thicknesses. For both tested poly Si layers, the majority of the symmetric lifetime samples processed using these Hp achieve a good passivation quality with a high implied open circuit voltage (iVOC) and a low saturation current density (J0). The best sample achieves iVOC = 722 mV and J0 = 6.7 fA/cm2 per side. This low surface recombination current density, together with the accompanying measurements of the doping profiles, suggests that the SiO2 is not damaged during the laser process. We also observe that the passivation quality is independent of the tested poly Si layer thicknesses. The findings of this study show that laser-activated p++-poly Si/SiO2 are not only suitable for integration into advanced passivated contact solar cells, but also offer the possibility of maskless patterning of these stacks, substantially simplifying such solar cell production.

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Tsai, Chieh-Wa, Tung-Kuan Liu, and Po-Wen Hsueh. "Patent Analysis of High Efficiency Tunneling Oxide Passivated Contact Solar Cells." Energies 13, no. 12 (June 12, 2020): 3060. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13123060.

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High efficiency tunneling oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) solar cell is the traditional PN junction structure, combined the advantages of using a thin film of the passivated silicon surface to separate the metal from the silicon wafer. In this study, the patent analysis of high efficiency TOPCon solar cell is presented. The structure and process technology of TOPCon solar cell were analyzed first, which is used as the basis for the key words of the patent search. The patent management chart analysis is provided, and then the patent portfolio of the main research countries and important manufacturers on the research subject can be recognized. Moreover, the technology-function matrix analysis is used to comprehend the technical development trend of the research topic. The results indicate the TOPCon solar cell technology currently entered into the maturity stage in 2019, and the companies with the top three number of patents are LG Electronics, SunPower, and SolarCity (which was acquired by Tesla in 2016). SunPowern is the earliest patent assignee, and LG Electronics is the follower, while its patent outputs are heavily concentrated after 2014. Patent technology-function matrix found the development focus of the device-related technologies are tunneling oxide and polycrystalline silicon, with a total of 21 patents, and the development focus of process-related technologies are the process of tunneling oxide layers and the process of polysilicon film. Based on the analysis results, the future development prospects of the research topic and the direction of patent portfolio are evaluated.

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29

Young, David L., William Nemeth, Vincenzo LaSalvia, Robert Reedy, Stephanie Essig, Nicholas Bateman, and Paul Stradins. "Interdigitated Back Passivated Contact (IBPC) Solar Cells Formed by Ion Implantation." IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 6, no. 1 (January 2016): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jphotov.2015.2483364.

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30

Mao, Jinyue. "Enhancement of efficiency in monocrystalline silicon solar cells." Theoretical and Natural Science 25, no. 1 (December 20, 2023): 173–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-8818/25/20240953.

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As the representative of the first generation of solar cells, crystalline silicon solar cells still dominate the photovoltaic market, including monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon cells. With the development of silicon materials and cut-silicon wafer technologies, monocrystalline products have become more cost-effective, accelerating the replacement of polycrystalline products. In addition, the conversion efficiency of monocrystalline products increases gradually through high-efficiency cell technologies such as Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC). This paper will start with the solar cell efficiency and combine cost factor, the P-type PERC cell and additional four types of high-efficiency N-type cell technologies to improve the conversion efficiency for exploration, and will analyze and predict the future solar cell industrialization technologies. The study finally concludes that the N-type Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact solar cell technology has a large industrial potential and could become a mainstream technology after the perc cell technology. At the same time, Interdigitated back contact cell structure and selective all-passive contact technologies are reliable paths to obtain solar cells with high conversion efficiency, integrated cost, and efficiency, depending on the advantages and compatibility of various cells. It can create conditions for the industrialization of low- cost and high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon solar cells.

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31

Thaidigsmann, Benjamin, Christopher Kick, Andreas Drews, Florian Clement, Andreas Wolf, and Daniel Biro. "Fire-through contacts—a new approach to contact the rear side of passivated silicon solar cells." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 108 (January 2013): 164–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2012.09.029.

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32

Kim, Se-Yun, Sanghun Hong, Seung-Hyun Kim, Dae-Ho Son, Young-Ill Kim, Sammi Kim, Young-Woo Heo, Jin-Kyu Kang, and Dae-Hwan Kim. "Effect of Al2O3 Dot Patterning on CZTSSe Solar Cell Characteristics." Nanomaterials 10, no. 9 (September 18, 2020): 1874. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10091874.

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In this study, a 5-nm thick Al2O3 layer was patterned onto the Mo electrode in the form of a dot to produce a local rear contact, which looked at the effects of this contact structure on Cu2ZnSn(S1-xSex)4 (CZTSSe) growth and solar cell devices. Mo was partially exposed through open holes having a square dot shape, and the closed-ratios of Al2O3 passivated areas were 56%, 75%, and 84%. The process of synthesizing CZTSSe is the same as that of the previous process showing 12.62% efficiency. When the 5-nm-Al2O3 dot patterning was applied to the Mo surface, we observed that the MoSSe formation was well suppressed under the area coated of 5-nm-Al2O3 film. The self-alignment phenomenon was observed in the back-contact area. CZTSSe was easily formed in the Mo-exposed area, while voids were formed near the Al2O3-coated area. The efficiency of the CZTSSe solar cell decreased when the Al2O3 passivated area increased. The exposure area and pitch of Mo, the collecting path of the hole, and the supplying path of Na seemed to be related to efficiency. Thus, it was suggested that the optimization of the Mo-exposed pattern and the additional Na supply are necessary to develop the optimum self-aligned CZTSSe light absorber.

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33

Zhang, Jiefeng, Hui Li, Hua Tong, Shenghu Xiong, Yunxia Yang, Xiao Yuan, Hongbo Li, and Cui Liu. "Influence of Glass Phase in Silver Paste on Metallized Contact Resistance between Rear Silver and Aluminum Electrodes of Crystalline Silicon PERC Cells." Applied Sciences 9, no. 5 (March 2, 2019): 891. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9050891.

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In the back-side metallization process of the passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC), the contact between the Ag rear electrode and Al rear electrode is an important factor for cell efficiency. In this paper, we report on the effect of Ag paste containing two types of oxide glass frit, V-B-Te and Pb-B-Si, on the Ag/Al contact, owing to their remarkable contrast with regard to the Ag/Al contact resistance. By combining the observation of the Ag/Al interface structure with the investigation on the interaction between glass and Al, glass transition temperature, and the distribution of glass phase in the Ag electrode, the influence of the glass phase on the contact resistance between rear Ag and Al electrodes was clearly elucidated.

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34

Ling, Zhi Peng, Zheng Xin, Cangming Ke, Kitz Jammaal Buatis, Shubham Duttagupta, Jae Sung Lee, Archon Lai, Adam Hsu, Johannes Rostan, and Rolf Stangl. "Comparison and characterization of different tunnel layers, suitable for passivated contact formation." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 56, no. 8S2 (July 3, 2017): 08MA01. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.56.08ma01.

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35

Kim, Y. K., Sehun Kim, J. M. Seo, S. Ahn, K. J. Kim, T. H. Kang, and B. Kim. "Metal-dependent Fermi-level movement in the metal/sulfur-passivated InGaP contact." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 15, no. 3 (May 1997): 1124–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.580441.

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36

Kim, Hyunho, Soohyun Bae, Kwang-sun Ji, Soo Min Kim, Jee Woong Yang, Chang Hyun Lee, Kyung Dong Lee, et al. "Passivation properties of tunnel oxide layer in passivated contact silicon solar cells." Applied Surface Science 409 (July 2017): 140–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.02.195.

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37

Chen, Yizhan, Yang Yang, Guanchao Xu, Jason K. Marmon, Zhiqiang Feng, and Hui Shen. "Optimization of micron size passivated contact and doping level for high efficiency interdigitated back contact solar cells." Solar Energy 178 (January 2019): 308–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.12.049.

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38

Fırat, Meriç, Hariharsudan Sivaramakrishnan Radhakrishnan, Sukhvinder Singh, Filip Duerinckx, María Recamán Payo, Loic Tous, and Jef Poortmans. "Industrial metallization of fired passivating contacts for n-type tunnel oxide passivated contact (n-TOPCon) solar cells." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 240 (June 2022): 111692. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111692.

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39

Molla, Md Zaman, Minobu Kawano, Ajay K. Baranwal, Shyam S. Pandey, Yuhei Ogomi, Tingli Ma, and Shuzi Hayase. "Enhancing the performance of transparent conductive oxide-less back contact dye-sensitized solar cells by facile diffusion of cobalt species through TiO2 nanopores." RSC Advances 6, no. 40 (2016): 33353–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6ra04894c.

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TCO-less DSSC using cobalt electrolyte in a novel device structure is proposed. Dye surface passivation of TiO₂ nanoparticle (TN) spacer boosts bulky Co³⁺ ion diffusion. Dramatic enhancement in DSSC performance for dye surface passivated TN spacer.

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40

Sharbaf Kalaghichi, Saman, Jan Hoß, Jonathan Linke, Stefan Lange, and Jürgen H. Werner. "Three-Step Process for Efficient Solar Cells with Boron-Doped Passivated Contacts." Energies 17, no. 6 (March 9, 2024): 1319. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en17061319.

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Crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells with passivation stacks consisting of a polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) layer and a thin interfacial silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer show high conversion efficiencies. Since the poly-Si layer in this structure acts as a carrier transport layer, high doping of the poly-Si layer is crucial for high conductivity and the efficient transport of charge carriers from the bulk to a metal contact. In this respect, conventional furnace-based high-temperature doping methods are limited by the solid solubility of the dopants in silicon. This limitation particularly affects p-type doping using boron. Previously, we showed that laser activation overcomes this limitation by melting the poly-Si layer, resulting in an active concentration beyond the solubility limit after crystallization. High electrically active boron concentrations ensure low contact resistivity at the (contact) metal/semiconductor interface and allow for the maskless patterning of the poly-Si layer by providing an etch-stop layer in an alkaline solution. However, the high doping concentration degrades during long high-temperature annealing steps. Here, we performed a test of the stability of such a high doping concentration under thermal stress. The active boron concentration shows only a minor reduction during SiNx:H deposition at a moderate temperature and a fast-firing step at a high temperature and with a short exposure time. However, for an annealing time tanneal = 30 min and an annealing temperature 600 °C ≤ Tanneal≤ 1000 °C, the high conductivity is significantly reduced, whereas a high passivation quality requires annealing in this range. We resolve this dilemma by introducing a second, healing laser reactivation step, which re-establishes the original high conductivity of the boron-doped poly-Si and does not degrade the passivation. After a thermal annealing temperature Tanneal = 985 °C, the reactivated layers show high sheet conductance (Gsh) with Gsh = 24 mS sq and high passivation quality, with the implied open-circuit voltage (iVOC) reaching iVOC = 715 mV. Therefore, our novel three-step process consisting of laser activation, thermal annealing, and laser reactivation/healing is suitable for fabricating highly efficient solar cells with p++-poly-Si/SiO2 contact passivation layers.

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Lenio, Martha A. T., James Howard, Doris (Pei Hsuan) Lu, Fabian Jentschke, Yael Augarten, Alison Lennon, and Stuart R. Wenham. "Series Resistance Analysis of Passivated Emitter Rear Contact Cells Patterned Using Inkjet Printing." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2012 (2012): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/965418.

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For higher-efficiency solar cell structures, such as the Passivated Emitter Rear Contact (PERC) cells, to be fabricated in a manufacturing environment, potentially low-cost techniques such as inkjet printing and metal plating are desirable. A common problem that is experienced when fabricating PERC cells is low fill factors due to high series resistance. This paper identifies and attempts to quantify sources of series resistance in inkjet-patterned PERC cells that employ electroless or light-induced nickel-plating techniques followed by copper light-induced plating. Photoluminescence imaging is used to determine locations of series resistance losses in these inkjet-patterned and plated PERC cells.

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42

Wang, Lei, Likai Li, Youbo Liu, Shuxian Wang, Hui Cai, Hao Jin, Qingwen Tang, Wei Sun, and Deren Yang. "The preparation and characterization of uniform nanoporous structure on glass." Royal Society Open Science 7, no. 7 (July 2020): 192029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.192029.

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A novel fabrication method of uniform porous structures on the glass surface is proposed. The hydrofluoric acid fog formed by air-jet atomization etches the glass surface to fabricate nanoporous structure (NPS) on glass surface. This NPS shows the enhanced average light transmittance of approximately 92.9% and the superhydrophilic property with a contact angle less than 1° which presents an excellent anti-fog property. Passivated by fluorosilane, the NPS shows nearly the superhydrophobic property with a contact angle of 141.2°. This fabrication method has shown promising application prospects due to its simplicity, low cost and efficiency, which can be easily applied to large-scale industrial production.

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43

Zhou, Jiakai, Chengchao Ren, Xianglin Su, Xiaoning Liu, Qian Huang, Xiaodan Zhang, Guofu Hou, and Ying Zhao. "Computational Exploration Toward Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) Solar Cells: Tailoring Higher Efficiency." Advanced Theory and Simulations 5, no. 4 (January 25, 2022): 2100570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adts.202100570.

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44

Mattmann, Moritz, Thomas Helbling, Lukas Durrer, Cosmin Roman, Christofer Hierold, Roland Pohle, and Maximilian Fleischer. "Sub-ppm NO2 detection by Al2O3 contact passivated carbon nanotube field effect transistors." Applied Physics Letters 94, no. 18 (May 4, 2009): 183502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3125259.

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45

Ju, Minkyu, Kumar Mallem, Sanchari Chowdhury, Young Hyun Cho, Eun-Chel Cho, and Junsin Yi. "Passivated emitter and rear contact (PERC) approach for small-scale laboratory industrial applications." Solar Energy 194 (December 2019): 167–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.10.079.

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46

Wang, S. J., G. J. Jin, L. L. Wang, Z. Zuo, Y. L. Meng, Y. Zhao, and S. Z. Jin. "Realization of point contact for stacks Al2O3/SiNx rear surface passivated solar cells." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 283 (December 2017): 012030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/283/1/012030.

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47

Quan, Cheng, Hui Tong, Zhenhai Yang, Xiaoxing Ke, Mingdun Liao, Pingqi Gao, Dan Wang, et al. "Electron-Selective Scandium−Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact for n-Type Silicon Solar Cells." Solar RRL 2, no. 8 (June 12, 2018): 1800071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/solr.201800071.

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48

Yamaguchi, Noboru, Ralph Müller, Christian Reichel, Jan Benick, and Shinsuke Miyajima. "Plasma immersion ion implantation for tunnel oxide passivated contact in silicon solar cell." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 268 (May 2024): 112730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.112730.

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49

Zhu, Peng, Yuan Liu, Chengjiang Cao, Juan Tian, Aichuang Zhang, and Deliang Wang. "Low Recombination Firing-Through Al Paste for N-Type Solar Cell with Boron Emitter." Materials 14, no. 4 (February 6, 2021): 765. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14040765.

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A kind of low recombination firing-through screen-printing aluminum (Al) paste is proposed in this work to be used for a boron-diffused N-type solar cell front side metallization. A front side fire-through contact (FTC) approach has been carried out for the formation of local contacts for a front surface passivated solar cell. With a low contact resistivity (ρc) of 1.0 mΩ·cm2, good ohmic contact between the boron-doped front surface of the silicon sample and the Al paste was realized. To obtain a good energy conversion efficiency, a balance can be achieved between the open circuit voltage (Voc) and contact resistivity (ρc) of the cell by combining suitable Al powders and appropriate additives. The detailed micro-contact difference in Si/metallization between the firing-through Al paste and silver-aluminum (Ag-Al) paste was analyzed. The dark saturation current density beneath the metal contact (J0, metal) of the Si/metallization region using our firing-through Al paste was discussed, which was proven to be 61% lower than using Ag-Al paste. The pseudo energy conversion efficiency of the cell using Al paste measured by Suns-VOC was also higher than using Ag-Al paste. The role of Al paste in low surface metal recombination is discussed. The utilization of this new kind of Al paste was much cheaper and more convenient, compared to the traditional process using Ag or Ag-Al paste.

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50

Bhatlawande, Aishwarya, Genzhi Hu, Jason Nicholas, and Timothy Hogan. "Temperature-Dependent Sheet and Contact Resistivity Measurements on Ag and Ag-Ni Circuit Pastes." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154366mtgabs.

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The metal circuits and brazes used in electronic, energy conversion, and/or energy storage devices often have difficulty wetting and adhering to ceramic and/or ceramic-passivated metal substrates. Here, a novel Particle Interlayer Directed Wetting and Spreading (PIDWAS) technique is demonstrated that utilizes screen printing, the low wetting angle of silver on nickel, and the high work of adhesion between nickel and various ceramics to produce well-adhered, self-assembled silver patterns on ceramic and/or stainless-steel substrates not normally wet by silver. The resulting Ag-Ni circuits have higher sapphire adhesion strengths (up to 30 MPa on sapphire), higher densities (>97% on sapphire), and similar high-temperature electronic resistivities to those made using commercially-available Heraeus C8710 or DAD-87 silver circuit pastes. Similarly, Ag-Ni brazes between a variety of ceramic and/or stainless-steel substrates have better microstructural stability with rapid thermal cycling, reduction-oxidation cycling, and dual atmosphere isothermal aging than conventional Ag-CuO brazes. In addition, the residual Ni in these Ag-Ni circuits and brazes can be used to chemically getter surface segregated Al, ensuring low contact resistances on a variety of chromia- and/or alumina-passivated stainless steels. Reference: [1] Hu G, Zhou Q, Bhatlawande A, Park J, Termuhlen R, Ma Y, Bieler TR, Yu HC, Qi Y, Hogan T & Nicholas JD. Patterned Nickel Interlayers for Enhanced Silver Wetting, Spreading and Adhesion on Ceramic Substrates. Scripta Materialia, 2021; 196, 113767. 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2021.113767 [2] Park J, Phongpreecha T, Nicholas JD & Qi Y. Enhanced Liquid Metal Wetting on Oxide Surfaces via Patterned Particles. Acta Materialia, 2020; 199, 551-560. 10.1016/j.actamat.2020.08.037

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