Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Palladium electrocatalyst'

Le captage et la réduction électrochimique du CO2 (CCU) est une solution pour décarboniser le secteur industriel. Cette technologie valorise la source de carbone peu chère en molécules carbonées à forte valeur ajoutée. Des nombreuses méthodes de valorisation du CO2 existent pour limiter la libération de ce gaz à effet de serre dans l’atmosphère. Pendant cette thèse, nous proposons le captage du CO2 complété par la conversion électrochimique en différentes molécules carbonées dans une cellule électrochimique. L’électroconversion de dioxyde de carbone est une méthode prometteuse grâce à des conditions réactionnelles douces en température et pression et la possibilité d’alimenter la cellule électrochimique avec de l’électricité produite par des énergies renouvelables. Ce procédé nécessite le développement de solvants de captage qui peuvent également jouer le rôle d’électrolyte pendant la réduction électrochimique du CO2. En même temps, le choix d’un matériau catalytique est indispensable pour la conversion sélective du CO2 en molécule(s) d’intérêt. Le choix du solvant de captage est souvent basé sur la capacité d’absorption du CO2, les stabilités chimique et électrochimique, les enjeux environnementaux et le coût. Les solvants eutectiques profonds (DESs) apparaissent comme des candidats très intéressants puisqu’ils répondent aux différents critères de sélection. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous focalisons sur le développement de ces nouveaux solvants émergents pour le captage et l’électroconversion du CO2 avec des catalyseurs à base de palladium. Le palladium est d’ailleurs connu pour être un électrocatalyseur effectif pour la transformation sélective du dioxyde de carbone en molécules type C1 tel que le monoxyde de carbone.Pendant cette thèse, nous avons synthétisé et testé électrochimiquement des nombreux DESs et des catalyseurs à base de palladium en vue de permettre la compréhension des mécanismes réactionnels de la réduction du CO2 en molécule de type C1. Les différentes techniques de caractérisation ont permis d’étudier les structures des matériaux catalytiques (morphologie et tailles des particules) et des solvants eutectiques profonds, d’analyser les produits et les intermédiaires réactionnels ainsi que de comprendre les verrous du système utilisé. Dans sa globalité, le projet a permis de faire un pas vers la séquestration et la valorisation du dioxyde de carbone par la méthode électrochimique pour décarboniser le secteur industriel et empêcher ainsi le dérèglement climatique
Carbon dioxide capture and utilization (CCU) is a way to decarbonize industrial sector. This technology provides a valorization of cheap carbon feedstock by its transformation to carbonaceous value-added chemicals. Multiple CO2 capture and utilization techniques exist to prevent the release of the greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. Here, we propose an integrated process of CO2 capture sequenced by electroconversion to C-based products in electrochemical cell. Electrochemical CO2 conversion is a promising method due to mild reaction conditions and possibility to power the reaction with electricity produced by renewable energy sources. This process necessitates the development of solvents capable to capture CO2 and to play a role of electrolyte during electrochemical reduction reaction. At the same time, efficient catalytic materials are vital for selective CO2 conversion to targeted product(s). The choice of capture solvent is usually based on CO2 capture ability, chemical and electrochemical stabilities, environmental issue and cost. Economically affordable deep eutectic solvent (DES) electrolytes seem to be promising candidates for CO2 capture and electroreduction because of good thermal and electrochemical stabilities, competitive CO2 uptake and large electrochemical windows. In this work, we focused on the development of novel deep eutectic solvent electrolytes for CO2 electroreduction with Pd-based electrocatalysts. Palladium proved its efficiency for selective conversion of carbon dioxide to C1 molecules such as carbon monoxide.During the thesis, we synthesized and electrochemically tested multiple DESs and Pd-based electrocatalysts with different morphologies and particle sizes to get more insights into reaction mechanism of CO2 electroreduction to C1 molecules. The implementation of different characterization techniques helped to study catalytic materials and DESs structures, to analyze gaseous and liquid reaction intermediates and products, and to understand main challenges of the studied system. Overall, this study is a one step forward the application of CO2ER (carbon dioxide electrochemical reduction) for valorisation of carbon dioxide and climate change mitigation

Ce travail porte sur la synthèse, la caractérisation et l’évaluation en catalyse de réduction des protons en dihydrogène, de nouveaux complexes de Ni(II), Co(III), Cu(II) et Pd(II) basés sur des ligands de type thiosemicarbazone. La nature de l’espèce catalytique active a été étudiée par voltampérométrie cyclique et des propositions de mécanisme ont été formulés sur la base de calcul quantique de type DFT.Le premier chapitre introduit le contexte scientifique. Le second chapitre concerne la synthèse et la caractérisation des ligands de type N2S2 et des complexes mononucléaires associés de Ni, Cu et Pd. Le troisième chapitre présente la synthèse et la caractérisation de complexes binucléaires de Co et trinucléaire de Ni.Les études électrochimiques de ces complexes dans le DMF en présence d’une source de protons, nous a permis d’évaluer leur efficacité catalytique. Nos résultats montrent que les complexes du Cu et du Pd présentent une vague irréversible spécifique pour la réduction des protons, mais une décomposition est observée durant l’électrolyse. Par contre, les complexes de Ni et de Co ont montré une stabilité électrochimique ainsi que de bonnes performances catalytiques. En particulier, le nouveau complexe mononucléaire de Ni présente des propriétés catalytiques remarquables qui le classent parmi les meilleurs catalyseurs de la réduction des protons décrits dans la littérature. L’ensemble de ce travail fourni une description complète du comportement électrochimique des ligands de type N2S2 complexés à des métaux de transition. Il permet d’envisager des développements futurs dans l’amélioration des propriétés catalytiques de ces complexes
This work focuses on the synthesis, the characterization and the catalytic evaluation in the reduction of protons into dihydrogen, of new complexes of Ni(II), Co(III), Cu(II) and Pd(II) based ligands Type thiosemicarbazone. The catalytically active species during the process of the proton reduction was studied by cyclic voltammetry and mechanisms were formulated on the basis quantum chemical calculation.The first chapter introduces the scientific context, the goals and the main objectives of this work. The second chapter concerns the synthesis and the characterization of the N2S2 ligands and their associated mononuclear complexes, Ni, Cu and Pd. The third chapter presents the synthesis and the characterization of binuclear Co and trinuclear Ni based on N2S2 ligand.Electrochemical studies of these complexes in DMF in the presence of a proton source (trifluoroacetic acid), allowed us to evaluate their catalytic efficiency. Our results show that Cu and Pd complexes have a specific irreversible wave for the reduction of protons, but decomposition is observed during electrolysis, which makes these uninteresting complexes for the reduction of protons.On the contrary, Ni and Co complexes showed an electrochemical stability and good catalytic performances. In particular, the new mononuclear Ni complex exhibits remarkable catalytic properties that rank it among the best catalysts for the reduction of protons reported in the literature. All this work provided a complete description of the electrochemical behavior of N2S2 thiosemicarbazone ligands complexed to transition metals. It allows considering future developments in improving the catalytic properties of these complexes

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Chemistry)
The anode catalyst is one of the important parts of the direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC); it is responsible for the alcohol oxidation reaction (AOR) takes place at the anode side. Pd has been reported to have good alcohol oxidation reactions and good stability in alkaline solution. Better stability and activity has been reported for Pd alloyed catalysts when compared to Pd. Choosing a suitable alcohol also has an effect on the activity and stability of the catalyst. This study investigates the best catalyst with better AOR and the best stability and also looks at the better alcohol to use between glycerol and ethanol for the five in-house catalysts (20% Pd, PdNi, PdNiO, PdMn3O4 and PdMn3O4NiO on multi walled carbon nanotubes) using cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), electrochemical impedance spectrometry (EIS) and chronoamperometry. HR-TEM and XRD techniques were used to determine the particle size and average particle size, respectively while EDS used to determine elemental composition and ICP was used to determine catalyst loading. It was observed from LSV that PdNiO was the most active catalyst for both ethanol and glycerol oxidation, and it was the most stable in ethanol while PdMn3O4 proved to be the most stable catalyst in glycerol observed using chronoamperometry. The best alcohol in this study was reported to be glycerol having given the highest current densities for all the inhouse catalysts compared to ethanol observed using LSV. From XRD and HR-TEM studies, particle sizes were in the range of 0.97 and 2.69 nm for XRD 3.44 and 7.20 nm for HR-TEM with a little agglomeration for PdMn3O4 and PdMn3O4NiO.

Le réchauffement climatique est dû principalement à l'émission anthropique du dioxyde de carbone (CO2) dans l'atmosphère. Une réduction électrocatalytique et sélective de cette molécule a été proposée au cours de ce projet comme une solution prometteuse pour synthétiser des produits à valeur ajoutée. Une telle réaction requiert l'utilisation de matériaux efficaces et bas coût. Pour ce faire, les travaux de cette thèse ont porté sur la préparation de catalyseurs à base de cuivre dispersés sur différents substrats carbonés tels que le Vulcan XC-72R, les carbones mésoporeux CMK-3 et FDU-15, et des tanins à base d'IS2M pour réduire le CO2 en milieu aqueux. Les matériaux d'électrode ont été préparés à l'aide de la méthode polyol assistée par micro-ondes. Leurs caractérisations physiques et l'analyse élémentaire confirment des compositions atomiques et des taux de charge métallique proches de celles théoriquement envisagées. L'acide formique et le monoxyde de carbone sont les deux produits carbonés issus de la réduction du CO2 (2 bar) réalisée par chronoampérométrie en milieu NaHCO3. La détection et l'identification des produits de réaction ont été effectuées par des méthodes chromatographiques (µ-GC et HPLC), spectrométrique (DEMS) et spectroscopique (RMN). Une sélectivité de la réaction vis-à-vis de HCOOH (62 %) a été obtenue sur une cathode de Cu50Pd50/C. Cette conversion sélective du CO2 en HCOOH s'explique par une conjugaison d'effets électroniques et géométriques dans la structure de surface du catalyseur bimétallique et aussi celui de la texture du substrat carboné
The anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) are the major cause of global warming. The selective CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) of has been proposed as a promising, convenient and efficient method for sustainable energy conversion systems. The reduction of CO2 to energetically valuable products requires the use of an appropriate electrode material. This study focuses on the preparation of Cu-based electrocatalysts supported on different types of carbon materials such as Vulcan XC-72R, mesoporous carbon CMK-3, mesoporous carbon FDU-15 and tannin based mesoporous carbon IS2M for the CO2RR under mild conditions. Besides, Vulcan XC-72R carbon supported bimetallic copper/palladium alloy materials were prepared for increasing the Faradaic yield. These copper-based catalysts were electrochemically characterized and preparative electrolyses set at constant potential were carried out in order to investigate the reduction products distribution and Faradaic yields as a function of the applied potential and catalyst loading. Chemicals such as HCOOH, CO and H2 issued from the CO2RR, were determined with in-situ and ex-situ complementary (electro)analytical and spectroscopic techniques. The significant difference in the product distribution is probably due to the ensemble (geometry and ligand) effects in the bimetallic CuPd materials, and textural structure of the supporting substrates. Selective CO2 to-HCOOH conversion has been successfully undertaken on Cu50Pd50/C with 62 % Faradaic efficiency

Les polyoxométallates (POMs) sont aujourd'hui reconnus pour leurs diverses architectures et applications. Nous nous en sommes ici servis afin de synthétiser des nanoparticules de palladium puisque le POM va jouer à la fois le rôle de réducteur du cation métallique mais aussi de surfactant des nanoparticules.Après avoir fait, dans un premier temps, l'étude électrochimique d'une série de POMs issus de la même famille, deux d'entre-eux ont été utilisés pour la synthèse de nanoparticules de palladium. D'une taille moyenne comprise entre 15 et 20 nm, ces nanoparticules ont été entièrement caractérisées et se sont avérées stables un intervalle de temps d'au moins un mois.Enfin, divers matériaux hybrides à base de palladium et/ou de cuivre ont été caractérisés par électrochimie à l'état solide et leur pouvoir catalytique vis-à-vis de la réduction des ions nitrate et de l'oxygène a été évalué
Polyoxometalates (POMs) are known for their high diversification in terms of architectures and applications. POMs are used in this work for the synthesis of palladium nanoparticles since they act both as a reducer of metallic cation and as surfactant of nanoparticles.At first, we studied the electrochemical properties of several POMs belonging in the same family, then among this family, we chose to use two particular POMs to synthesize palladium nanoparticles. From an average size between 15 and 20 nm, these nanoparticles have been fully characterized and are stable over a month.Finally, various hybrid materials based on palladium and/or copper have been characterized by electrochemistry in solid state and their catalytic capacity towards the reduction of nitrate ions and dioxygene has been assessed

Ce travail porte sur la synthèse, la caractérisation et l’évaluation en catalyse de réduction des protons en dihydrogène, de nouveaux complexes de Ni(II), Co(III), Cu(II) et Pd(II) basés sur des ligands de type thiosemicarbazone. La nature de l’espèce catalytique active a été étudiée par voltampérométrie cyclique et des propositions de mécanisme ont été formulés sur la base de calcul quantique de type DFT.Le premier chapitre introduit le contexte scientifique. Le second chapitre concerne la synthèse et la caractérisation des ligands de type N2S2 et des complexes mononucléaires associés de Ni, Cu et Pd. Le troisième chapitre présente la synthèse et la caractérisation de complexes binucléaires de Co et trinucléaire de Ni.Les études électrochimiques de ces complexes dans le DMF en présence d’une source de protons, nous a permis d’évaluer leur efficacité catalytique. Nos résultats montrent que les complexes du Cu et du Pd présentent une vague irréversible spécifique pour la réduction des protons, mais une décomposition est observée durant l’électrolyse. Par contre, les complexes de Ni et de Co ont montré une stabilité électrochimique ainsi que de bonnes performances catalytiques. En particulier, le nouveau complexe mononucléaire de Ni présente des propriétés catalytiques remarquables qui le classent parmi les meilleurs catalyseurs de la réduction des protons décrits dans la littérature. L’ensemble de ce travail fourni une description complète du comportement électrochimique des ligands de type N2S2 complexés à des métaux de transition. Il permet d’envisager des développements futurs dans l’amélioration des propriétés catalytiques de ces complexes
This work focuses on the synthesis, the characterization and the catalytic evaluation in the reduction of protons into dihydrogen, of new complexes of Ni(II), Co(III), Cu(II) and Pd(II) based ligands Type thiosemicarbazone. The catalytically active species during the process of the proton reduction was studied by cyclic voltammetry and mechanisms were formulated on the basis quantum chemical calculation.The first chapter introduces the scientific context, the goals and the main objectives of this work. The second chapter concerns the synthesis and the characterization of the N2S2 ligands and their associated mononuclear complexes, Ni, Cu and Pd. The third chapter presents the synthesis and the characterization of binuclear Co and trinuclear Ni based on N2S2 ligand.Electrochemical studies of these complexes in DMF in the presence of a proton source (trifluoroacetic acid), allowed us to evaluate their catalytic efficiency. Our results show that Cu and Pd complexes have a specific irreversible wave for the reduction of protons, but decomposition is observed during electrolysis, which makes these uninteresting complexes for the reduction of protons.On the contrary, Ni and Co complexes showed an electrochemical stability and good catalytic performances. In particular, the new mononuclear Ni complex exhibits remarkable catalytic properties that rank it among the best catalysts for the reduction of protons reported in the literature. All this work provided a complete description of the electrochemical behavior of N2S2 thiosemicarbazone ligands complexed to transition metals. It allows considering future developments in improving the catalytic properties of these complexes

2011/2012
Fossil energy sources are non-renewable being an irreplaceable endowment produced from millennia of biological and geological processes, which means that on the human time-scale they cannot be naturally regenerated and are only available in a finite amount on earth. Scientific and technological data concerning renewable fuels are exponentially growing and in parallel the governments are more and more attracted by these more sustainable energy sources. Overall, solar energy is the most abundant and easily available renewable resource which, however, has its own problems such as neither constantly available nor distributed equally over the surface of the globe. Hydrogen and various bio-fuels, such as bio-ethanol, biodiesel or biogas, have the potentiality to store the solar energy, playing a crucial role in the development of future renewable energy strategies. Nevertheless, as a general comment, it is very difficult and expensive to harness enough power from them to match the effectiveness of non-renewable resources. Thus, it is a big challenge to develop new and high efficient approach to improve the efficiency in production and use of these renewable resources. Nanotechnology is a key area that can help solving this issue. In fact, by using the tools offered by nanotechnology, it is possible to obtain tailored nanostructured catalytic materials that show remarkably better performance than that currently achievable even with state-of- the-art materials. The fields of catalysis, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis and photoelectron- catalysis are all examples of where nanotechnology is deeply impacting on current science, and in particular in energy related applications. The main focus of this PhD thesis is on nanotechnology applied to material science to enhance the performances of various on two important energy-related processes: namely the Fuel Cells (especially the Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell - DAFC) and the hydrogen production process. The H2 production processes include the electrochemical H2 production approach (the water electrolysis technique) and the photocatalytical H2 production approach (the photocatalytic decomposition of water into H2 technique). In the both the energy conversion processes, TiO2 nanotube arrays (TNTA) architectures were used as substrates and the Palladium (Pd) nanoparticles (NPs) were used as supported nanocatalysts. Therefore the most important results in this thesis are the design, realization, functional testing and characterization of supported Pd nanocatalysts on various TiO2 substrates with tailored and well-defined structures, in addition their use for energy-related applications, which are organized as follows: In the Chapter 1, the general principles of the fuel cells technique; the electrolysis technique; the TNTA substrate architecture and the principles of photocatalytic processes for H2 production are outlined or described in details. In addition, the development status and the preparation strategies of catalysts for the alcohol electrochemical oxidation are introduced in this chapter. In the chapter 2, an overview of the main characterization techniques is reported, all of which have been used in this thesis, in order to study the reactivity and the morphological and chemical properties of the samples. The aim of the present chapter is not that of providing exhaustive information about all the techniques. Rather, it is expected to furnish to the reader the main elements to better appreciate the results obtained and described in the following chapters of this thesis. Since the catalytic performance of the nanocatalysts can be finely turned by their shape, which determines surface atomic arrangement and coordination. In the chapter 3,we report a novel method of metal NPs modification, denoted as Electrochemical Milling and Faceting (ECMF), by which large supported Pd NPs (35 nm) of low-index facets supported on TNTA substrate can be milled into many small NPs (7 nm) with some HIF or high density of step atoms. By this approach, the catalytic activity of supported Pd NPs was enhanced by an order of magnitude to the ethanol electrooxidation, and was even 3 times higher than the highest value reported so far. This new approach to the synthesis of HIF-Pd NPs allows one to control metal loading, particle size and surface structure, independently from each other. Furthermore, in a practical catalytic system, such as the DAFC; the electrolysis system and the photocatalytical H2 production system, the electrochemical activity of the supported catalysts is not the only one parameter which needs to be concerned about, the other parameters for the whole test system’s establishment such as the selection and preparation of the substrate material also need to the carefully optimize. In the chapter 4, a new type of Ti network substrate with the TNTA on top was prepared and introduced into the DAFC test system and also used in the electrolysis and photocatalytical H2 production process. This kind of substrate solved the typical problems of the DAFC such as the fuel solution diffusion limitation and the stability of the as supported catalysts drop during the large current density discharge. It was also proved to be a good choice as the substrate for the Photocatalytic decomposition of alkaline ethanol aqueous into H2, which showed good performances of the H2 photochatalytic evolution. Chapter 5 is the conclusion of my PhD thesis. The results clearly demonstrate the novelty and the advantage of the present approach for the obtainment of active and stable electrochemical catalysts for the DAFC and the electrolysis system, and also represent an important step forward in the exploration of new active nanosystems for the conversion of solar light into storable chemical energy. All the findings greatly contributed to the development of catalytic materials for energy-related applications.
XXV Ciclo
1983

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Tese (Doutoramento)
IPEN/T
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

La biomasse lignocellulosique est une ressource renouvelable et un réservoir presque inépuisable de carbone et d’hydrogène pour de nombreuses applications énergétiques et/ou de chimie fine. La biomasse lignocellulosique est composée principalement de biopolymères (la cellulose, l’hémicellulose et la lignine), dont deux (la cellulose et l’hémicellulose) sont composés de sucres (glucose, xylose, mannose, galactose, etc.). L’oxydation de ces sucres, notamment le glucose et le xylose, permettent la production de molécules plateformes à haute valeur ajoutée comme les acides gluconique, glucarique, xylonique, etc. Avec un catalyseur adéquat, il est possible d’orienter dans un réacteur électrochimique l’oxydation de ces sucres vers les molécules désirées avec la co-production de dihydrogène.Des nanoparticules mono- et bi-métalliques de palladium et d’or supportées sur du carbone (PdxAu10-x/C, avec x = 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10) ont été synthétisées par la méthode colloïdale appelée « water-in-oil ». Ces catalyseurs ont été caractérisés par des méthodes physico-chimiques et électrochimiques afin de connaître les relations entre composition, structure et réponse électrochimique. La réactivité du glucose et du xylose en milieu alcalin a été évaluée pour déterminer le catalyseur offrant la meilleure conversion. Une étude de la sélectivité de ces catalyseurs a été réalisée par spectroscopie infrarouge in-situ. Le meilleur catalyseur en termes d’activité et de sélectivité a été utilisé à l’anode d’une cellule d’électrolyse de 25cm² et des électrolyses de solutions alcalines de glucose ou de xylose ont été menées à différentes tensions et concentrations en sucres afin d’évaluer la distribution de produits de réaction par HPLC et RMN 1H à haut taux de conversion des réactifs. Après étude de l’influence de la composition de catalyseurs PdxAu10-x/C, l’influence de la structure de surface a été étudiée avec des nanoparticules de palladium synthétisées par méthode colloïdale permettant d’obtenir des nanosphères, des nanocubes et des nanooctaèdres non supportés. Ces nanoparticules présentent différentes orientations de surface majoritaires associées à leur forme. De plus, l’étude de la composition de surface en relation avec l’orientation de surface a été menée par dépôt d’adatomes d’or sur ces particules en les plongeant dans des solutions d’acide aurique à différentes concentrations. Les caractérisations des particules par MET et par voie électrochimique permettent de corréler les réponses électrochimiques et la structure/composition des surfaces. L’activité du glucose et du xylose ont été évaluées sur ces différentes particules.Les résultats montrent que les catalyseurs bimétalliques de palladium et d’or peuvent oxyder le glucose et le xylose de façon très sélective vers les acides gluconique et xylonique à très bas potentiels (inférieur à 0.4 V / ERH). L’étude de l’effet de la composition de surface a révélé que le catalyseur le plus actif et sélectif vers les acides sans rupture de liaison C-C est le Pd3Au7/C. Dans le cas des nanoparticules de forme contrôlée, les nanocubes, présentant préférentiellement une surface d’orientation (100), conduisent à la meilleure activité catalytique. Cette activité est accrue par l’adsorption d’or à un fort taux de recouvrement
Lignocellulosic biomass is a renewable resource and an almost inexhaustible reservoir of carbon and hydrogen for many energy applications and / or fine chemicals. Lignocellulosic biomass is mainly composed of biopolymers (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), two of which (cellulose and hemicellulose) are composed of sugars (glucose, xylose, mannose, galactose, etc.). The oxidation of these sugars, particularly glucose and, allows the production of high added value platform molecules such as gluconic, glucaric and xylonic acids, etc. With a suitable catalyst, it is possible to orient in an electrochemical reactor the oxidation of these sugars to the desired molecules with the co-production of dihydrogen. Mono- and bi-metallic palladium and gold nanoparticles supported on carbon (PdxAu10-x / C, with x = 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10) were synthesized by the colloidal method called "Water-in-oil". These catalysts have been characterized by physico-chemical and electrochemical methods in order to know the relationships between composition, structure and electrochemical response. The reactivity of glucose and xylose in alkaline medium was evaluated to determine the catalyst with the best conversion. A study of the selectivity of these catalysts was carried out by infrared spectroscopy in situ. The best catalyst in terms of activity and selectivity was used at the anode of a 25 cm² electrolysis cell and electrolyses of alkaline solutions of glucose or xylose were carried out at different voltages and concentrations of sugars in order to evaluate the distribution of reaction products by HPLC and 1H NMR at high conversion rate of reagents. After studying the influence of the PdxAu10-x / C catalyst composition, the influence of the surface structure was studied with palladium nanoparticles synthesized by a colloidal method making possible to obtain unsupported nanospheres, nanocubes and nanooctahedrons. These nanoparticles have different major surface orientations associated with their shape. In addition, the study of the surface composition in relation to the surface orientation was carried out by depositing gold adatoms on these particle surface by immersing them in solutions of tetrachloroauric acid at different concentrations. The characterizations of particles by TEM and electrochemically means, allowed the correlation of the electrochemical responses and the structure / composition of surfaces. The activity for glucose and xylose oxidation reaction was evaluated on these different particles

Orientador: Hebe de las Mercedes Villullas
Banca: Rodrigo Fernando Costa Marques
Banca: Leandro Martins
Banca: Elisabete Inacio Santiago
Banca: Joelma Perez
Abstract: Carbon supported PdAu nanoparticles with different Au contents (20-50% in atoms) were synthesized using a procedure carried out in a liquid two-phase system. As-prepared materials presented similar average particle diameter (~3nm) with narrow distribution over the carbon support, as shown by Transmission Electronic Microscopy (TEM). The combined data from X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) suggest that nanoparticles had Pd-enriched surfaces and Au-rich interiors. Cyclic Voltammetry (CVs) studies in H2SO4 further reinforced these findings, confirming that the nanoparticle surfaces were enriched with Pd. Moreover, XPS results show that increasing the Au content of PdAu alloys leads to varying amounts of surface-like and bulk-like Pd oxide, with a significant increase of metallic Pd. This result is consistent with data of X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) around Pd L3 edge, which revealed that Au promotes an increase in the electronic occupancy of the Pd 4d band. Therefore, this whole set of characterizations suggests that the presence of Au in PdAu nanoalloys decreases the Pd affinity for oxygen, giving Pd a more noble-like character. In addition, the influence of ligand and ensemble effects on electrochemical surface processes, such as oxide formation/reduction, CO oxidation and hydrogen adsorption were also investigated. This was also a necessary step in order to determine the best technique to measure the Electrochemical Active Area (EAA) of... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Resumo: Nanopartículas de PdAu suportadas em carbono com diferentes frações de Au (20-50% em átomos) foram sintetizadas em um sistema líquido de duas fases. As nanopartículas preparadas apresentaram diâmetro médio próximo a 3 nm, com uma distribuição homogênea sobre o suporte de carbono, o que foi demonstrado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (TEM). O conjunto dos dados coletados por difração de raios X (XRD) e por espetroscopia de fotoelétrons excitados por raios X (XPS) demonstrou que o interior das nanopartículas é enriquecido por Au, enquanto a superfície é mais rica em Pd. A análise por XPS também demonstrou que o aumento da fração de Au nas ligas de PdAu leva a uma variação na fração de diferentes espécies de óxidos de Pd e um aumento na quantidade total de Pd metálico. Este resultado é consistente com aquele obtido por espectroscopia de absorção de raios-X (XAS), realizada na borda L3 do Pd, a qual revelou que o Au promove um preenchimento eletrônico na banda 4d do Pd. Ou seja, a presença do Au parece diminuir a afinidade do Pd pelo oxigênio. Ademais, foram estudados a influência de efeitos eletrônicos e do arranjo superficial de átomos sobre os processos eletroquímicos de formação/redução de óxidos, oxidação de CO adsorvido e adsorção de hidrogênio. Estes estudos também permitiram a determinação da área eletroquímica ativa de Pd. Por meio de todas estas caracterizações foi possível traçar correlações entre a composição no cerne das nanopartículas de PdAu e suas propri... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Doutor

Le développement de générateurs d'énergie pour alimenter des micro-appareils électroniques implantés est devenu une option inéluctable. L'objectif général qui a orienté ces recherches était l'élaboration et les études approfondies des propriétés nanomatériaux métalliques utilisables comme électrocatalyseurs afin de convertir l'énergie chimique en énergie électrique. Les nanomatériaux sont obtenus par la méthode de synthèse : Bromide Anion Exchange (BAE) qui a été scrupuleusement revisitée puis optimisée avec un agent réducteur faible (AA) et fort (NaBH4). Cette voie de synthèse a permis d'obtenir (rendement ≥ 90 %) des matériaux plurimétalliques composés d'or, de platine et de palladium. Un prétraitement des supports commerciaux des nanoparticules a permis d’augmenter leurs surfaces, spécifique et active respectivement de 48 et 120 %. Les études (électro)analytiques ont permis d'identifier les intermédiaires et produits de réaction du combustible. Le glucose s'oxyde sans rupture de la liaison C-C pour donner majoritairement du gluconate avec une sélectivité ≥ 88 %. Les tests réalisés en biopile hybride (cathode enzymatique) indiquent que les catalyseurs Au/C-AA et Au60Pt40/C-NaBH4 sont les meilleures anodes abiotiques (Pmax = 125 µW·cm-2 à 0,4 V). Par ailleurs, les piles sans membrane séparatrice et sans enzyme ont été réalisées avec succès pour activer un stimulateur cardiaque et un système de transmission d'information en mode "Wifi". Ces dispositifs, rapportés pour la première fois, ouvrent une ère nouvelle pour la conception de convertisseurs d'énergie pour alimenter les implants médicaux ou des appareils sans fil de détection et de surveillance
The development of energy converters to power implanted micro-electronic devices has become a cornerstone item. The whole target which has governed this research was the design of advanced nanostructures metals used as electrocatalysts for converting chemical energy into electrical one. These nanomaterials were obtained by the synthesis method: Bromide Anion Exchange (BAE) that has been carefully revisited and optimized, using a weak reducing agent (AA) and strong one (NaBH4). It allowed to prepare efficiently various plurimetallic nanomaterials composed of gold, platinum and palladium (yield ≥ 90%). A thermal pretreatment of commercial carbon supports of nanoparticles has highly boosted their specific and active surface areas with a gain of 48 and 120%. Based on in situ and ex-situ (electro)analytical methods, the intermediates and final reaction products of the fuel oxidation were identified. Glucose electrooxidation occurs without C-C bond cleavage and gives predominantly gluconate with a selectivity ≥ 88 %. Results from the hybrid biofuel cell tests (with an enzyme as cathode catalyst) indicate that Au/C-AA and Au60Pt40/C-NaBH4 are the best abiotic anodes (Pmax = 125 µW cm-2 at 0.4 V cell voltage). A fuel cell without separating membrane and enzyme has been successfully constructed and used to activate a pacemaker and an information transmission system based on "wireless" mode. These last experiments, reported for the first time as using nanomaterials in membrane-less configuration, open a new approach in the design of advanced energy converters to power medical implants or remote systems for detection and electronic monitoring

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Tese (Doutoramento)
IPEN/T
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

>Magister Scientiae - MSc
This study explores the use of UV-assisted reduction method to synthesise the catalysts, aiming at reducing synthesis time. The Pd and Au catalyst loading is kept at 5 wt% in order to reduce the cost associated with high loading (20 wt%) of platinum group metals. The synthesised catalysts have SnO2 incorporated in them for two purposes, one being to activate the chemical reaction by absorbing UV-light and the second one is to serve as a promoter for binary and ternary catalysts. All the synthesised electrocatalysts in this study were denoted as Au/10wt%SnO2-C, Au/15wt%SnO2-C, Au/20wt%SnO2-C, Au/40wt%SnO2-C, Au/60wt%SnO2-C, Pd/10wt%SnO2-C, Pd/15wt%SnO2-C, Pd/20wt%SnO2-C, Pd/40wt%SnO2-C, Pd/60wt%SnO2-C and PdAu/10wt%SnO2-C respectively. The UV-assisted reduction method was proved to be effective with the obtained results from TEM, SEM, XRD and electrochemical studies. TEM micrographs revealed nanoparticles of Pd, Au and SnO2 which were proved by the measured d-spacing values corresponding to the element’s structures. The measured average particle size ranged from 3.05 to 14.97 nm for the electrocatalysts. The XRD profiles confirmed the face centred cubic of Pd, Au and tetragonal structures of SnO2. These electrocatalysts showed varied activity towards the oxidation of alcohols namely, methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycol and glycerol in alkaline electrolyte The cyclic voltammetry results showed improved performance towards the oxidation of glycerol on Au-based electrocatalysts, highest current density of 22.08 mA cm-2 than on Pd-based electrocatalysts. Pd-based electrocatalysts were more active towards the oxidation of ethanol than Au-based electrocatalysts with the highest current density of 19.96 mA cm-2. The co-reduced PdAu on 10wt%SnO2-C electrocatalysts showed the lowest current density of 6.88 mA cm-2 for ethanol oxidation when compared to Pd/10wt%SnO2-C and Au/10wt%SnO2-C. Linear sweep voltammograms showed more negative onset potentials on Pd-based electrocatalysts than Au-based electrocatalysts. The more negative onset potential obtained on Pd-based electrocatalysts was observed for ethanol oxidation. These results correspond to the trend observed in literature for ethanol oxidation being more favoured on Pd-based electrocatalysts whereas the polyalcohol oxidation is more favoured on Au-based electrocatalysts. The best performing and most stable electrocatalyst among the Au-based electrocatalysts is Au/10wt%SnO2-C and Pd/10wt%SnO2-C for the Pd-based electrocatalysts.

La pile à combustible directe à borohydrures (DBFC en anglais), qui est une sous-catégorie des piles à combustible alcalines, bénéficie des avantages de son combustible, le borohydrure de sodium (NaBH4), qui confère à ce système des caractéristiques thermodynamiques et énergétiques très intéressantes. Cependant, la réaction d’électrooxydation de NaBH4 (BOR en anglais) est très complexe et reste à ce jour encore peu étudiée et mal comprise sur la majorité des électrocatalyseurs (la plupart étant sous forme de nanoparticules métalliques supportées sur des noirs de carbone). De plus, de récentes études ont montré l’agressivité du milieu alcalin sur la durabilité des électrocatalyseurs conventionnels, révélant une grande perte de surface catalytique active, due principalement à un détachement des nanoparticules du support carboné. Dans ce contexte, ces travaux de thèse se sont orientés vers trois axes d’étude : (i) l’étude de la BOR sur des électrocatalyseurs à base de palladium dans des conditions proches des conditions réelles de fonctionnement de la DBFC ; (ii) l’étude de l’impact de la structure de l’anode sur les performances globales de la DBFC, et (iii) l’étude du mécanisme de dégradation d’électrocatalyseurs à base de métaux nobles dans un environnement alcalin. Les expérimentations ont été réalisées en étroite collaboration avec le U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (Washington, USA).Les résultats obtenus ont montré qu’une grande concentration en NaBH4 entraine un ralentissement de la cinétique de la réaction, due en partie à un fort empoisonnement de la surface catalytique. Par ailleurs, des marqueurs d’activité pour la BOR ont été proposés. Ensuite, l’utilisation d’électrodes à gradient de catalyseurs s’est avérée être une solution prometteuse pour mieux valoriser l’hydrogène produit via des réactions secondaires à la BOR. Enfin, l’utilisation de la spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier couplée à de la microscopie électronique en transmission à localisation identique a permis de détecter la formation de carbonates au cours d’un test de vieillissement accéléré d’électrocatalyseurs à base de métaux nobles en milieu alcalin. Ce mécanisme explique, en partie, le détachement des nanoparticules observé au cours du test
The direct borohydride fuel cell (DBFC), a subclass of alkaline fuel cells, benefits from the advantages of its fuel, sodium borohydride (NaBH4), which exhibits very interesting thermodynamic and energetic characteristics. However, the NaBH4 electrooxidation reaction (BOR) is very complex; to date it remains poorly studied and understood on many electrocatalysts (most of them are in the form of metal nanoparticles supported on carbon black). In addition, recent studies reported the aggressiveness of the alkaline medium on the durability of conventional carbon-supported electrocatalysts, revealing a large loss of the active catalytic surface, mainly due to the detachment of nanoparticles from the carbon support. In this context, this thesis focused on three main areas of study: (i) the study of the BOR on palladium-based electrocatalysts in conditions close to the real operating conditions of the DBFC; (ii) the study of the impact of the anode structure on the overall performance of the DBFC, and (iii) the study of the degradation mechanism of noble metal electrocatalysts in alkaline environment. The experiments were carried out in close collaboration with the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (Washington, USA).The results obtained showed that a high concentration of NaBH4 leads to a decrease of the reaction kinetics, due in part to poisoning of the catalytic surface. In addition, activity markers for the BOR have been proposed. Then, the use of catalysts-gradient electrodes proved to be a promising solution to better valorize the hydrogen produced via side reactions of the BOR. Finally, the use of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy coupled with identical-location transmission electron microscopy enabled to detect the formation of carbonates during the accelerated stress test of carbon-supported noble metal electrocatalysts in alkaline medium, explaining, in part, the detachment of nanoparticles observed during the test

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PtBi/C e PdBi/C foram preparados em diferentes razões atômicas (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 e 50:50) pelo método de redução via borohidreto de sódio (com adição total da solução de borohidreto em uma única etapa) utilizando H2PtCl6.6H2O, Pd(NO3)2, (BiNO3)3.5H2O como fonte de metais, Vulcan® (XC72-Cabot) como suporte de carbono e com uma carga metálica correspondente a 20% em massa. Os eletrocatalisadores obtidos foram caracterizados por difração de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) e voltametria cíclica (VC). A atividade dos diferentes materiais preparados para a oxidação eletroquímica do ácido fórmico foi realizada em eletrólito ácido e alcalino utilizando-se as técnicas de voltametria cíclica, e cronoamperometria. Para estes estudos foi utilizado a técnica do eletrodo de camada fina porosa. A caracterização eletroquímica permitiu comparar o desempenho eletroquímico da platina e paládio, além de avaliar o benefício da presença do bismuto nas razões atômicas propostas. Os difratogramas de raio-X (DRX) confirmaram para todos os compostos de PtBi/C e PdBi/C a formação da estrutura cúbica de face centrada (cfc) característicos da rede cristalina da platina e do Paládio respectivamente. Outros picos encontrados foram associados a presença de fases de óxido de bismuto em ambos os compostos, PtBi/C e PdBi/C. A microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) indicou que a presença de maiores teores de bismuto não acarretaram em aumento do tamanho médio da partícula. Os resultados eletroquímicos em meio alcalino indicaram que ainda é necessário uma otimização da concentração de ácido fórmico para que possamos observar melhores resultados quanto à adição de bismuto na platina ou paládio, no entanto os estudos em meio ácido mostraram o efeito benéfico da adição de bismuto tanto para platina quanto para o paládio.
Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear)
IPEN/D
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

Preparation d'electrodes de platine, palladium et rhodium modifiees par des films de polypyrrole et de poly (pyrrole-crologene). Application a la reduction electrochimique en milieu acetonitrile du dibromo-1,2 diphenyl-1,2 ethane

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Os catalisadores eletroquímicos binários de PtSn/C, PdSn/C e PtPd/C foram sintetizados em diferentes proporções pelo método da redução via borohidreto, posteriormente estes foram caracterizados por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, difração de raios X, espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (PtSn/C e PdSn/C) e energia dispersiva de raios X. As atividades eletroquímicas dos diferentes materiais preparados foram avaliadas por intermédio de voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria e curvas de polarização em célula a combustível alimentada diretamente por etileno glicol em eletrólito alcalino. As curvas de densidade de potência indicaram que os catalisadores eletroquímicos contendo Sn e Pd são mais ativos para a reação de oxidação do etileno glicol, especialmente a composição 70%:30% - relação molar entre os metais suportados em carbono - dos catalisadores PtSn/C, PdSn/C e PtPd/C todos superando as medidas de potência do Pt/C. Este resultado indica que a adição de Sn e Pd favorece a oxidação do etileno glicol em meio alcalino. O melhor desempenho observado para os catalisadores eletroquímicos PtSn/C, PdSn/C e PtPd/C (70%:30%) poderia estar associado à sua maior seletividade quanto a formação de oxalato, ou seja , a formação deste produto resulta em um maior número de elétrons, por consequência em maiores valores de corrente.
Tese (Doutorado em Tecnologia Nuclear)
IPEN/T
Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

Ce travail est relatif a l'etude de deux reactions d'electrocatalyse. La premiere partie concerne la mise au point de cathodes moleculaires, realisees par l'inclusion de microparticules de metaux nobles dans des films de polypyrrole fonctionnalise et a leur application en hydrogenation electrocatalytique. L'etude de l'hydrogenation de deux substrats test, le limonene et la carvone, a montre qu'il est possible d'orienter la selectivite de ces electrodes modifiees selon la nature du metal incorpore (pt, pd ou rh). Le resultat le plus significatif est que l'incorporation dans le meme film de polymere de deux metaux d'activite catalytique differente (pt + pd ou rh + pd) conduit a des cathodes dont l'efficacite et la selectivite sont largement superieures a celle des cathodes basees sur un seul metal. La deuxieme partie de ce travail est consacree a l'etude de l'activation electrochimique de l'oxygene par des complexes mn (iii) - bases de schiff. Il apparait que le complexe mn (ii) - salen substitue en 5,5 par des atomes de chlore est le catalyseur le plus stable et le plus efficace pour la reaction test d'epoxydation du cyclooctene. D'autre part, la rigidification du complexe par l'utilisation d'un pont 1,2-cyclohexylidene ou 1,2-phenylene reliant les deux motifs salicylaldehyde du ligand, a la place du groupe ethylidene ligand salen, entraine une forte diminution de l'activite catalytique des complexes correspondants. Ce systeme electrocatalytique a egalement ete applique a l'oxydation de la tetraline et de la triphenylphosphine

碩士
國立交通大學
材料科學與工程學系
98
In this thesis, we successfully synthesized various palladium (Pd) nanocrystals including nanoplates, octahedrons, porous nanocrystals, and hollow nanocrystals in the PVP-assisted chemical reduction process. The synthesis involved only the use of PdCl2 as the precursor, PVP as the reducing and stabilizing agents, and a specific salt like NaCl or NH4OH as the additive. By modulating the relevant reaction conditions such as the amount of PdCl2, the amount of additive, and the reaction temperature, we were able to obtain Pd nanocrystals with controllable morphologies. The four types of Pd nanocrystals exhibited notable electrocatalytic activities toward formic acid oxidation and hydrogen adsorption/desorption. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for the anisotropically-shaped Pd of nanoplates and octahedrons was also investigated to demonstrate their potential as an active substrate for Raman-sensitive analyte molecules.

碩士
國立中央大學
化學工程與材料工程學系
105
In recent years, the fuel cells are considered to be very important green energy devices. Most of the commercial fuel cells are platinum-based electrocatalyst. This kind electrocatalyst has high oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity, but they also show many obvious disadvantages like scarcity, high cost and low tolerance toward methanol. To overcome this problem, we fabricate the palladium-iron-based alloy type of electrocatalysts. We developed a method to fabricate this catalysts by preparing poly(styrene-b-2-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P2VP) block copolymer (BCP) with Na2PbCl4 and FeCl3 metal precursor. Before pyrolysis, we conduct the cross-linked process with UV radiation under nitrogen (UVIN) for 6 hours. The UVIN-treated sample was pyrolyzed in a furnace for 1 hour with argon (Ar) gas to form carbon nanostructures. The morphologies, structure, composition, and elecreocatalytic activities of the material were characterized by atomic force microscope (AFM), field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), cyclic voltammetry (CV) and rotating disk electrode (RDE). We can get high values for both the electron transfer number (n) and kinetic current density (jk). The onset potential for our sample is close to -0.1V. From these experimental results, we find that our palladium-iron-based electrocatalysts have good catalyst activities.

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest on renewable energy sources as substitute to fossil fuels. Among various processes of energy generation, electrochemical methods such as storage and conversion systems, electrolysis of water (production of H2 and O2), fuel cells, batteries, supercapacitors and solar cells have received great attention. The core of these energy technologies is a series of electrochemical processes, which directly depend on the nature of ‘electro catalyst’. The design and preparation of an electro catalyst is based on new concepts such as controlled surface roughness, atomic topographic profiles, defined catalytic sites, atomic rearrangements, and phase transitions during electrochemical reactions. Good electro catalysts should possess low over potential, high exchange current density, high stability, low cost and high abundance. The most fundamental reactions in the area of electrochemistry are hydrogen evolution (HER) and oxygen reduction (ORR) reactions. They are important in different energy systems such as fuel cells and batteries. Platinum has been a favoured electro catalyst due to its high activity, favourable density of states at Fermi level and chemical inertness. The low abundance, however, limits its large scale applications. Alternate materials with high catalytic activities are always required. In this particular direction, metal chalcogenides such as sulphides and selenides have attracted attention in recent years. The present thesis describes the synthesis of different phases of palladium and nickel chalcogenides and their applicability in various electrochemical reactions, both in aqueous and organic media. First part includes the synthesis of highly crystalline palladium selenide phases namely Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pd4Se by employing facile single source molecular precursor method. Pure palladium selenide phases are prepared by thrombolysis of highly processable intermediate complexes formed from metal and selenium precursors. Continuous films of different dimensions on various substrates (glass, ITO, FTO etc.) could be prepared (figure 1). This is one of the requirements for processing any new material. Thickness of the films could be altered by changing the volume of precursor complex coated on the substrate. All the phases are found to be metallic in nature with resistivity values in the range of 30 to 180 µΩ.cm. Figure 1. (a) Scanning electron micrograph and (b) photographic image of Pd17Se15 prepared on different substrates glass (1), Si (2), fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) (3) and DSSC solar cell fabricated using FTO coated Pd17Se15 as the counter electrode (4). Other components of DSSC are given in the experimental section. All the palladium selenides phases are shown to be catalytically active towards electrochemical reactions such as HER and ORR. It is observed that the activities of the phases depend on the stoichiometric ratio of palladium to selenium. Higher the palladium content in the phase, higher is the catalytic activity observed. Therefore, the activities of the chalcogenides can be easily tuned by varying the ratio of metal to chalcogen. Tafel slopes of 50–60 mV/decade are observed for all three phases towards HER indicating that Volmer- Heyrovsky mechanism is operative. The exchange current densities are in the range of 2.3 x 10-4 A cm-2 to 6.6 x 10-6 A cm-2 (figure 2a). Figure 2. (a) Linear sweep voltammograms of Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pd4Se in 0.5 M H2SO4 (HER) and (b) 0.1 M KOH (ORR) at a scan rate of 2 mVs-1. These phases are found to be highly robust and stable under different pH conditions. Stability of the phases is confirmed by characterizing the catalysts post-HER process, using various techniques such as XPS, XRD and SEM. High activities observed for Pd4Se is explained based on electrochemically active surface area values determined from under potential deposition studies and also based on DFT calculations. Computational studies reveal the presence of different charge distribution on palladium in all the three phases which is likely to be another reason for varied activities. Palladium selenides are also explored as catalysts towards ORR in alkaline medium. Kinetic parameters and reaction mechanism are determined using RDE studies. All the three phases are found to be active and Pd4Se shows the highest activity, following a direct 4 electron reduction pathway (figure 2b). Other two phases follow 2 electron pathway terminating at hydrogen peroxide stage. Catalytic activity of Pd17Se15 is further improved by Nano structuring of the material and by synthesizing the material on active supports such as rGO, acetylene black and today carbon. ORR plays an important role in metal-air batteries. The palladium chalcogenides are used as electrodes in metal-air batteries. Specific energy density observed in the case of Mg-air primary batteries is higher for Pd4Se than the other two phases (figure 3a). Figure 3. (a) Discharge curves of Mg-O2 battery with different phases of palladium selenides as cathodes. Constant current density of 0.5 mA cm-2 is used for discharge. (b) Characteristic J–V curves of DSSCs with Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pt as counter electrodes. Versatility of these phases is further studied towards redox reaction in non-aqueous medium (I3-/I-). This reaction plays a crucial role in the regeneration of the dye in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). Palladium selenide phases prepared on FTO plates are employed as counter electrodes in DSSC. The solar light conversion efficiencies are found to be 7.45 and 6.8% for Pd17Se15 and Pd7Se4 respectively and are comparable to that of platinum (figure 3b). The reason for high activities may be attributed to high electronic conductivity and low work function of the phases. The following chapter deals with the synthesis of palladium sulphide phases (Pd4S and Pd16S7) using both hydrothermal and single source precursor methods. Electro catalytic activities of the phases are shown towards HER and ORR and Pd4S exhibits better catalytic activities than that of Pd16S7 phase. Direct electrochemistry of cytochrome c is achieved on Pd4S with ∆E of ~64 mV (figure 4a). Electrochemical oxidation of ethanol, ethylene glycol (EG) and glycerol are also studied on the Pd4S phase and the activity is found to follow the order, glycerol > ethylene glycol > ethanol (figure 4b). Figure 4. (a) Cyclic voltammograms of Pd4S in (1) 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.0) and (2) in presence of 0.2 mM cytochrome c at a scan rate of 50 mVs-1 and (b) Voltammograms of Pd4S in presence of different alcohols (ethanol, EG and glycerol) in 1 M KOH solution at sweep rate of 50 mVs-1. Concentration of alcohols used is 0.1 M. The effect of dimensionality on the electro catalytic activity of nickel selenide phases forms part of the next chapter. Nickel selenide (NiSe) nanostructures possessing different morphologies of wires, spheres and hexagons are synthesized by varying the selenium precursors namely, selenourea, selenium dioxide (SeO2) and potassium selenocyanate (KSeCN), respectively using hydrothermal method. The different selenium precursors result in morphologies that are probably dictated by the by-products as well as relative rates of amorphous selenium formation and dissolution. The three different morphologies are used as catalysts for HER, ORR and glucose oxidation reactions. The wire morphology is found to be better than that of spheres and hexagons for all the reactions. Among the reactions studied, NiSe is found to be good for HER and glucose oxidation while ORR seems to terminate at the peroxide stage. In alkaline medium, nickel forms hydroxides and oxy-hydroxides and these oxyhydroxides are catalytically active towards the oxidation of glucose. Therefore, nickel selenides are employed as highly selective non-enzymatic glucose sensors and detection limit of 5 µM is observed. Electrical measurements on a single nanowire and a hexagon morphology of NiSe are carried out on devices fabricated by focused ion beam (FIB) technique (figure 5). The semiconducting nature of NiSe is revealed in the I-v measurements. The band gap of the material is found to be 1.9 eV and hence the single nanowire and hexagon are shown to act as visible light photodetector. Figure 5. SEM images of (a) single NiSe nanowire and (b) single NiSe hexagon with Pt contacts fabricated by FIB technique. Figure 6. Cyclic voltammograms of NiSe nanowires in 0.5 M aqueous NaOH in the (i) absence and (ii) the presence of 0.5 mM glucose, at a scan rate of 20 mVs-1 and (b) Galvanostatic discharge performance of Ni3Se2 with different morphologies (A, B and C represent Ni3Se2 prepared from SeO2, selenourea and KSeCN respectively). The next chapter includes the synthesis of different morphologies of Ni3Se2 using three different selenium precursors (SeO2, KSeCN and selenourea) and the study of their activities towards electrochemical reactions such as HER and glucose oxidation (figure 6a). Electrical measurements demonstrated the metallic behaviour of the material. These are also shown to be efficient electrode materials in energy storage devices such as supercapacitors with high specific capacitance of 2200 F/g (figure 6b). The studies are summarized in the last chapter with scope for further work. The appendixes show preliminary studies on electrooxidation of glycerol and propanol on Pd supported on TiN, synthesis of other selenides of Ni, Cu, Ag and Ti, and electro synthesis of metal-organic frameworks. (For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest on renewable energy sources as substitute to fossil fuels. Among various processes of energy generation, electrochemical methods such as storage and conversion systems, electrolysis of water (production of H2 and O2), fuel cells, batteries, supercapacitors and solar cells have received great attention. The core of these energy technologies is a series of electrochemical processes, which directly depend on the nature of ‘electro catalyst’. The design and preparation of an electro catalyst is based on new concepts such as controlled surface roughness, atomic topographic profiles, defined catalytic sites, atomic rearrangements, and phase transitions during electrochemical reactions. Good electro catalysts should possess low over potential, high exchange current density, high stability, low cost and high abundance. The most fundamental reactions in the area of electrochemistry are hydrogen evolution (HER) and oxygen reduction (ORR) reactions. They are important in different energy systems such as fuel cells and batteries. Platinum has been a favoured electro catalyst due to its high activity, favourable density of states at Fermi level and chemical inertness. The low abundance, however, limits its large scale applications. Alternate materials with high catalytic activities are always required. In this particular direction, metal chalcogenides such as sulphides and selenides have attracted attention in recent years. The present thesis describes the synthesis of different phases of palladium and nickel chalcogenides and their applicability in various electrochemical reactions, both in aqueous and organic media. First part includes the synthesis of highly crystalline palladium selenide phases namely Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pd4Se by employing facile single source molecular precursor method. Pure palladium selenide phases are prepared by thrombolysis of highly processable intermediate complexes formed from metal and selenium precursors. Continuous films of different dimensions on various substrates (glass, ITO, FTO etc.) could be prepared (figure 1). This is one of the requirements for processing any new material. Thickness of the films could be altered by changing the volume of precursor complex coated on the substrate. All the phases are found to be metallic in nature with resistivity values in the range of 30 to 180 µΩ.cm. Figure 1. (a) Scanning electron micrograph and (b) photographic image of Pd17Se15 prepared on different substrates glass (1), Si (2), fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) (3) and DSSC solar cell fabricated using FTO coated Pd17Se15 as the counter electrode (4). Other components of DSSC are given in the experimental section. All the palladium selenides phases are shown to be catalytically active towards electrochemical reactions such as HER and ORR. It is observed that the activities of the phases depend on the stoichiometric ratio of palladium to selenium. Higher the palladium content in the phase, higher is the catalytic activity observed. Therefore, the activities of the chalcogenides can be easily tuned by varying the ratio of metal to chalcogen. Tafel slopes of 50–60 mV/decade are observed for all three phases towards HER indicating that Volmer- Heyrovsky mechanism is operative. The exchange current densities are in the range of 2.3 x 10-4 A cm-2 to 6.6 x 10-6 A cm-2 (figure 2a). Figure 2. (a) Linear sweep voltammograms of Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pd4Se in 0.5 M H2SO4 (HER) and (b) 0.1 M KOH (ORR) at a scan rate of 2 mVs-1. These phases are found to be highly robust and stable under different pH conditions. Stability of the phases is confirmed by characterizing the catalysts post-HER process, using various techniques such as XPS, XRD and SEM. High activities observed for Pd4Se is explained based on electrochemically active surface area values determined from under potential deposition studies and also based on DFT calculations. Computational studies reveal the presence of different charge distribution on palladium in all the three phases which is likely to be another reason for varied activities. Palladium selenides are also explored as catalysts towards ORR in alkaline medium. Kinetic parameters and reaction mechanism are determined using RDE studies. All the three phases are found to be active and Pd4Se shows the highest activity, following a direct 4 electron reduction pathway (figure 2b). Other two phases follow 2 electron pathway terminating at hydrogen peroxide stage. Catalytic activity of Pd17Se15 is further improved by Nano structuring of the material and by synthesizing the material on active supports such as rGO, acetylene black and today carbon. ORR plays an important role in metal-air batteries. The palladium chalcogenides are used as electrodes in metal-air batteries. Specific energy density observed in the case of Mg-air primary batteries is higher for Pd4Se than the other two phases (figure 3a). Figure 3. (a) Discharge curves of Mg-O2 battery with different phases of palladium selenides as cathodes. Constant current density of 0.5 mA cm-2 is used for discharge. (b) Characteristic J–V curves of DSSCs with Pd17Se15, Pd7Se4 and Pt as counter electrodes. Versatility of these phases is further studied towards redox reaction in non-aqueous medium (I3-/I-). This reaction plays a crucial role in the regeneration of the dye in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). Palladium selenide phases prepared on FTO plates are employed as counter electrodes in DSSC. The solar light conversion efficiencies are found to be 7.45 and 6.8% for Pd17Se15 and Pd7Se4 respectively and are comparable to that of platinum (figure 3b). The reason for high activities may be attributed to high electronic conductivity and low work function of the phases. The following chapter deals with the synthesis of palladium sulphide phases (Pd4S and Pd16S7) using both hydrothermal and single source precursor methods. Electro catalytic activities of the phases are shown towards HER and ORR and Pd4S exhibits better catalytic activities than that of Pd16S7 phase. Direct electrochemistry of cytochrome c is achieved on Pd4S with ∆E of ~64 mV (figure 4a). Electrochemical oxidation of ethanol, ethylene glycol (EG) and glycerol are also studied on the Pd4S phase and the activity is found to follow the order, glycerol > ethylene glycol > ethanol (figure 4b). Figure 4. (a) Cyclic voltammograms of Pd4S in (1) 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.0) and (2) in presence of 0.2 mM cytochrome c at a scan rate of 50 mVs-1 and (b) Voltammograms of Pd4S in presence of different alcohols (ethanol, EG and glycerol) in 1 M KOH solution at sweep rate of 50 mVs-1. Concentration of alcohols used is 0.1 M. The effect of dimensionality on the electro catalytic activity of nickel selenide phases forms part of the next chapter. Nickel selenide (NiSe) nanostructures possessing different morphologies of wires, spheres and hexagons are synthesized by varying the selenium precursors namely, selenourea, selenium dioxide (SeO2) and potassium selenocyanate (KSeCN), respectively using hydrothermal method. The different selenium precursors result in morphologies that are probably dictated by the by-products as well as relative rates of amorphous selenium formation and dissolution. The three different morphologies are used as catalysts for HER, ORR and glucose oxidation reactions. The wire morphology is found to be better than that of spheres and hexagons for all the reactions. Among the reactions studied, NiSe is found to be good for HER and glucose oxidation while ORR seems to terminate at the peroxide stage. In alkaline medium, nickel forms hydroxides and oxy-hydroxides and these oxyhydroxides are catalytically active towards the oxidation of glucose. Therefore, nickel selenides are employed as highly selective non-enzymatic glucose sensors and detection limit of 5 µM is observed. Electrical measurements on a single nanowire and a hexagon morphology of NiSe are carried out on devices fabricated by focused ion beam (FIB) technique (figure 5). The semiconducting nature of NiSe is revealed in the I-v measurements. The band gap of the material is found to be 1.9 eV and hence the single nanowire and hexagon are shown to act as visible light photodetector. Figure 5. SEM images of (a) single NiSe nanowire and (b) single NiSe hexagon with Pt contacts fabricated by FIB technique. Figure 6. Cyclic voltammograms of NiSe nanowires in 0.5 M aqueous NaOH in the (i) absence and (ii) the presence of 0.5 mM glucose, at a scan rate of 20 mVs-1 and (b) Galvanostatic discharge performance of Ni3Se2 with different morphologies (A, B and C represent Ni3Se2 prepared from SeO2, selenourea and KSeCN respectively). The next chapter includes the synthesis of different morphologies of Ni3Se2 using three different selenium precursors (SeO2, KSeCN and selenourea) and the study of their activities towards electrochemical reactions such as HER and glucose oxidation (figure 6a). Electrical measurements demonstrated the metallic behaviour of the material. These are also shown to be efficient electrode materials in energy storage devices such as supercapacitors with high specific capacitance of 2200 F/g (figure 6b). The studies are summarized in the last chapter with scope for further work. The appendixes show preliminary studies on electrooxidation of glycerol and propanol on Pd supported on TiN, synthesis of other selenides of Ni, Cu, Ag and Ti, and electro synthesis of metal-organic frameworks. (For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

Low temperature fuel cells like proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are expected to play a crucial role in the future hydrogen economy, especially for transportation applications. These electrochemical devices offer significantly higher efficiency compared to conventional heat engines. However, use of exotic and expensive platinum as the electrocatalyst poses serious problems for commercial viability. In this regard, there is an urgent need to develop low-platinum or non-platinum electrocatalysts with electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) superior or comparable to that of platinum. This dissertation first investigates non-platinum, palladium-based alloy electrocatalysts for ORR. Particularly, Pd-M (M = Mo and W) alloys are synthesized by a novel thermal decomposition of organo-metallic precursors. The carbon-supported Pd-M (M = Mo, W) electrocatalyts are then heat treated up to 900 oC in H2 atmosphere and investigated for their phase behavior. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and rotating disk electrode (RDE) measurements reveal that the alloying of Pd with Mo or W significantly enhances the catalytic activity for ORR as well as the stability (durability) of the electrocatalysts. Additionally, both the alloy systems exhibit high tolerance to methanol, which is particularly advantageous for direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC). The dissertation then focuses on one-pot synthesis of carbon-supported multi-metallic Pt-Pd-Co nanoalloys by a rapid microwave-assisted solvothermal (MW-ST) method. The multi-metallic alloy compositions synthesized by the MW-ST method show much higher catalytic activity for ORR compared to their counterparts synthesized by the conventional borohydride reduction method. Additionally, a series of Pt encapsulated Pd-Co nanoparticle electrocatalysts are synthesized by the MW-ST method and characterized to understand their phase behavior, surface composition, and electrocatalytic activity for ORR. Finally, the dissertation focuses on carbon-supported binary Pt@Cu and ternary PtxPd1-x@Cu “core-shell” nanoparticles synthesized by a novel galvanic displacement of Cu by Pt4+ and Pd2+ at ambient conditions. Structural characterizations suggest that the Pt@Cu nanoparticles have a Pt-Cu alloy layer sandwiched between a copper core and a Pt shell. The electrochemical data clearly point to an enhancement in the activity for ORR for the Pt@Cu “core-shell” nanoparticle electrocatalysts compared to the commercial Pt electrocatalyst, both on per unit mass of Pt and per unit active surface area basis. The increase in activity for ORR is ascribed to electronic modification of the outer Pt shell by the Pt-Cu alloy core. However, incorporation of Pd to obtain PtxPd1-x@Cu deteriorates the activity for ORR.
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碩士
大同大學
材料工程學系(所)
98
This study synthesizes the novel hybrid catalytic nanomaterials and investigates their structures and catalytic properties in electrocatalytic reaction. The purified multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have acid functional groups and defects on their surface where metals or oxides are easy to attach. Because of the high thermal conductivity and specific surface area of MWCNTs, we are used MWCNTs as supporters in this study to support nano Pd or Au-Pd particles that synthesize by polyol process using PdCl2 and HAuCl4.4H2O as precursors. In this research, the effects of weight ratios of Pd and Au to purified MWCNTs on electrocatalytic activity for the oxidation of formic acid are investigated. The structures of nano hybrid catalysts are analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns. Thermogravimetry Analyzer (TGA) is used to determine the contents of metal catalyst in the nano hybrid materials. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) are applied to observe the morphologies, structures, sizes and dispersion of nano catalysts. According to the TEM images, the synthesized metal nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed on the surfaces of MWCNTs, and the diameter of these nanoparticles in nano hybrids is about 5~20 nm. The electrochemical analyses illustrate that Au(10wt%)/[Pd/MWCNTs(1:9)] catalyst exhibits higher activity and better stability than that of Pd/MWCNTs catalyst in formic acid electrooxidation. It indicates that the added Au improves dramatically on the performance of Pd-based catalysts in electrochemical reaction. Thus, hybrid Au-Pd/MWCNTs materials have potentially to be used in the direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFCs) in the future.

碩士
大同大學
材料工程學系(所)
97
The motivation of this study is to synthesis catalytic nanomaterials and to explore the structure and catalytic properties of the these materials used in electrocatalytic reaction. The purified multi-walled carbon nanotubes have the acid functional groups and defects on the surface that makes easy to attach metals or oxides on carbon nanotubes. High thermal conductivity and surface area of the multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have been used as supporter to support nano Pd and Au-Pd particles by polyol process using PdCl3 and HAuCl4.4H2O as precursors. The preparation and characterization of palladium/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Pd/MWCNTs) and gold/palladium/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Au-Pd/MWCNTs) hybrid materials towards formic acid oxidation are examined in this research. The structures of the resulting nano-catalyst composite materials are analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns. Thermogravimetry Analyzer (TGA) is used to determine the contents of metal catalyst in the hybrid materials. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and High Resolution Transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) are applied to image the morphologies, structures, sizes and the dispersion of nano catalysts. For the results of electrochemical oxidation reaction, the multi-walled carbon nanotubes supported palladium-based materials have the better electro-oxidation behavior and suppress the poison of CO on catalysts. From the saturation to the steady-state current experiment, it indicates the Au-Pd/MWCNTs catalyst has better catalytic performance with high steady state reaction current.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are attractive power sources as they offer high conversion efficiencies with low or no pollution. However, several challenges, especially the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the high cost of Pt catalysts, impede their commercialization. With an aim to search for more active, less expensive, and more stable ORR catalysts than Pt, this dissertation focuses on the development of non-platinum or low-platinum Pd-based nanostructured electrocatalysts and a fundamental understanding of their structure-property-performance relationships. Carbon-supported Pd–Ni nanoalloy electrocatalysts with different Pd/Ni atomic ratios have been synthesized by a modified polyol reduction method, followed by heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere at 500–900 oC. The Pd–Ni sample with a Pd:Ni atomic ratio of 4:1 after heat treatment at 500 °C exhibits the highest electrochemical surface area and catalytic activity. The enhanced activity of Pd80Ni20 compared to that of Pd is attributed to Pd enrichment on the surface and the consequent lattice-strain effects. To improve the catalytic activity and long-term durability of the Pd–Ni catalysts, Pd–Pt–Ni nanoalloys have been synthesized by the same method and evaluated in PEMFC. The Pt-based mass activity of the Pd–Pt–Ni catalysts exceeds that of commercial Pt by a factor of 2, and its long-term durability is comparable to commercial Pt within the testing duration of 180 h. Both the favorable and detrimental effects of Pd and Ni dissolution on the performance of the membrane-electrode assembly (MEA) have been investigated by compositional analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the MEAs before and after the fuel cell test. The MEAs of the Pd–Pt–Ni catalyst have then been characterized in-situ by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) to better understand the performance changes during cell operation. The surface state change from Pd-enrichment to Pt-enrichment and the consequent decrease in the charge transfer resistance during cell operation is believed to contribute to the activity enhancement. To further improve the MEA performance and durability, the as-synthesized Pd–Pt–Ni catalysts have been pre-leached in acid and Pd–Pt alloy catalysts have been synthesized to alleviate contamination from dissolved metal ions. Compared to the pristine Pd–Pt–Ni catalyst, the preleached catalyst shows improved performance and the Pd–Pt catalyst exhibits similar performance in the entire current density range. Finally, the catalytic activities for ORR obtained from the rotating disk electrode (RDE) and PEMFC single-cell measurements of all the catalysts are compared. The improvement in the activities of the Pd-Pt-based catalysts compared to that of Pt measured by the RDE experiments is much lower than that obtained in single cell test. In other words, RDE tests underestimate the value of the Pd-Pt-based electrocatalysts for real fuel cell applications. Also, based on the RDE data, the Pd–Pt–Cu catalyst exhibits the highest catalytic activity among all the Pd–Pt–M (M = Fe, Ni, Cu) catalysts studied.
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碩士
大同大學
材料工程學系(所)
106
Due to the shortage of fossil fuels and the serious environmental pollution, the development of excellent green alternative energy has become the current trend. The direct formic acid fuel cells (DFAFCs) have the characteristics of being non-toxic, non-flammable, convenient for storage and transportation, and so on. It becomes an important subject for current research and development. For a practical fuel cell, it requires low cost, high catalyst activity, and high stability. Therefore, in this study, the development of a good anode catalyst for direct formic acid fuel cells is the main research target. In order to improve the efficiency of the catalyst, this study does not use noble metals in alone, but also adds oxides to reduce the adsorption of carbon monoxide and avoid poisoning of the catalyst. This study prepared titanium dioxide (TiO2) by sol-gel method was carried out on the purified carbon nanotubes, and the conductivity of the TiO2 was enhanced by doping nitrogen using nitriding. Finally, the reduced metal platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd) nanoparticles were supported on N-TiO2/MWCNTs and AO-MWCNTs by synchrotron radiation X-ray synthesis. Proposed two kinds of electrocatalytic catalyst support materials (AO-MWCNTs and N-TiO2/MWCNTs) to compare the electrocatalytic effects of noble metals of different support materials. For testing, we used the instruments of XRD, SEM, TEM, ICP and CV, etc. The XRD, SEM and TEM showed that the metal nanoparticles were successfully loaded on the modified carbon tube and the metal particles were about 4~6 nm in size; the electrochemical analysis showed that the 1.6Pt/18.4Pd/80MWCNTs and Pd/N-TiO2/MWCNTs has the best electrocatalytic stability.

博士
大同大學
材料工程學系(所)
99
For the application of direct formic acid fuel cell, Pd catalyst with some modification attracts the study attention for its electrocatalytic advantages. To benefit the catalytic performance and prevent the catalyst poison problem, this study develops Pd basis catalysts, which have solid solution phase with Au and ceria/ceria-zirconia modified MWCNTs substrate, by impregnation and polyol methods. The composition, structure and morphology are analyzed by ICP, XRD and FETEM, respectively. For Au-Pd bimetal catalysts, the formation of solid solution phase and the compositions of the catalysts are proved to be consistent with the initial designation. For MWCNTs modified by ceria or ceria-zirconia, both mesoporous structure of ceria/ceria-zirconia and the advanced breaking of MWCNTs in the impregnation process may cause the surface area increasing of MWCNTs. Zr doping may decrease the temperature of lattice oxygen desorption. The addition of metal can fill the defect of the substrate and decrease the surface area. Pd is the main dominant to promote the reaction and lower the reaction temperature in the TPD helium process. In electrocatalysis, Au-Pd solid solution can prevent the leaching of Pd in formic acid, while the oxide modified support can prevent catalyst poison. The prepared catalysts can totally convert CO between 150~250oC. More Pd can convert 100% CO at lower temperature. It can be considered that, both the formation of solid solution, Au-Pd, and the oxide modification of MWCNTs can decrease the activation energy of the catalyzing reaction and have better catalytic performance.

Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) are being investigated as a portable energy conversion device for military and commercial applications. DMFCs offer the potential to efficiently extract electricity from a dense liquid fuel. However, improvements in materials properties and lowering the cost of the electrocatalysts used in a DMFC are necessary for commercialization of the technology. The cathode electrocatalyst is a critical issue in DMFC because the state-of-the-art catalyst, platinum, is very expensive and rare, and its performance is diminished by methanol that crosses over from the anode to the cathode through the Nafion membrane. This thesis investigates the addition of platinum to a palladium-cobalt nanoalloy electrocatalyst supported on carbon black in order to improve catalyst activity for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and catalyst stability against dissolution in acidic environment without significantly reducing the methanol-tolerance of the catalyst. Platinum was added to the palladium-cobalt nanoalloy catalyst using two synthesis methods. In the first method, platinum was directly alloyed with palladium and cobalt using a polyol reduction method, followed by heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere to form catalysts with 11 and 22 atom % platinum. In the second method, platinum was added to a palladium-cobalt alloy by galvanic displacement reaction to form catalysts with 10 and 22 atom % platinum. The palladium cobalt alloy was synthesized using a polyol method, followed by heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere to alloy the nanoparticles before the Pt displacement. It was found that both methods significantly improve catalyst activity and stability, with the displaced catalysts showing a higher activity than the corresponding alloy catalyst. However the alloy catalysts showed similar resistance to dissolution as the displaced catalysts, and the alloyed catalysts were more tolerant to methanol. The displaced catalyst with 22 atom % platinum (8 wt. % Pt overall) performed similar to a 20 wt. % commercial platinum catalyst in both RDE and single cell DMFC tests. The 10 and 22 atom % Pt displaced catalysts and 22 atom % Pt alloyed all showed higher Pt mass specific activities than a commercial Pt catalyst.
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Research on new, environment-friendly, clean and efficient energy sources have contributed immensely to the development of new technologies for the generation and storage of electrical energy. Heterogeneous ‘electrocatalysis’ involves catalysis of redox reactions where the electrode material, termed as ‘electrocatalyst’ reduces the overpotential and maximizes the current for the processes occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interface. Efficient catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) are of paramount importance for electrochemical energy generation and storage applications in water splitting, fuel cells and batteries. However, high cost of Pt catalysts that are commonly used for such applications restricts their commercial viability. In addition, there are issues related to poisoning of the surface under certain conditions. One particular case of direct methanol fuel cells involves problems of methanol tolerance as well. Hence, the on-going search in this direction, is to search for alternate catalysts that can match the performance of Pt. There is a quest for the development of stable and durable electrocatalysts/ supports for various electrochemical redox reactions particularly based on energy storage and conversion. The present thesis is structured in exploring the multi-functional aspects of ternary palladium phosphochalcogenides (PdPS and PdPSe) that possess layer-type structure with high crystallinity. They are semiconducting in nature and possess favorable electrochemical, electrical and optical properties. The chalcogenide compounds crystallize in orthorhombic symmetry with an indirect band gap close to 1.5 eV. The current study shows the versatility of ternary phosphochalcogenides in the bulk phase as well as in small sizes. The electrocatalytic activities of the chalcoenides are found to be dramatically improved by increasing the electrical conductivity by way of forming composites with reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The average crystallite size of the PdPS and PdPSe are 30 μm ±10 μm (figure 1). The composites are prepared by simple hydrothermal methods without use of any reducing agent and are characterized using various physico-chemical techniques. Figure 1. FESEM images of (a) PdPSe and (b) PdPS. In the present investigations, PdPS and its reduced graphene oxide composite (rGO-PdPS) are shown to be very efficient hydrogen evolution electrocatalysts (figure 2a). The bulk form of PdPS is found to be very active and the composite of PdPS with reduced graphene oxide improves the hydrogen evolution performance dramatically, even superior to state of the art, MoS2-based catalysts. Figure 2. (a) Linear sweep voltammograms of rGO, bulk PdPS, rGO-PdPS composite and 40 % Pt-C in 0.5 M H2SO4 solution (pH 0.8). Scan rate used is 1 mV s-1. (b) Tafel plots for PdPS, rGO, rGO-PdPS and 40 wt% Pt-C in 0.5 M H2SO4 at 1 mVs-1 scan rate. The Tafel slope and the exchange current density values associated with hydrogen evolution reaction are 46 mV dec-1 and 1.4 x 10-4 A cm-2 respectively (figure 2b). The stability of the PdPS-based catalyst is found to be excellent retaining same current densities even after thousand cycles. Moreover, post-HER characterization reveals the durability of the material even after cycling for a long time. Preliminary spectroelectrochemical investigations are attempted to gain further insight in to the HER. Subsequently, the PdPS and its composite are explored as ORR catalysts in alkaline medium. The composite of PdPS with rGO is formed to enhance the catalytic activity of pure PdPS and the electron transfer kinetics is found to be very favorable. The kinetics of the oxygen reduction reactions are followed by RDE/RRDE measurements. It is experimentally verified that the composite eletrocatalyst is very stable, efficient and methanol tolerant in alkaline medium. The characteristics of the composite catalyst are comparable with widely used standard Pt-C for ORR (figure 3a). Moreover, ternary phophochalcogenide, PdPS, combined with rGO shows good catalytic activity towards OER and it affords a current density of 10 mA cm-2 at an overpotential of η = 570 mV (figure 3b). Figure 3. (a) Comparative voltammograms for rGO, bulk PdPS, rGO-PdPS and 40 % Pt-C in 1M KOH at 1600 rpm. The potential is swept at a rate of 5 mVs-1. (b) Linear sweep voltammograms of oxygen evolution reaction on rGO-PdPS, PdPS and 40 % Pt-C in 1 M KOH electrolyte. Scan rate 5 mV s-1. Apart from its tri-functional electrocatalytic behavior, PdPS and its rGO composite act as an anode material for Li-ion batteries showing high storage capacity of lithium (figure 4). The capacity fading of bulk PdPS is analyzed using XRD and SEM. The introduction of rGO, a well-known conducting matrix, improves the performance. Palladium phosphorous selenide (PdPSe) and its composite with rGO (rGO-PdPSe) are also explored as electrocatalysts for HER, ORR and OER. They show the tri¬functional electrocatalytic behavior as well. Figure 4. Discharge capacity as a function of number of cycles for PdPS, rGO rGO-PdPS electrode at current density of 35 mAg-1 in rechargeable lithium ion battery. The next chapter deals with single or few layer PdPS where layer-type PdPS is exfoliated by several methods such as ultra-sonication and solvent exfoliation. Various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have been used to characterize the material. These sheets show significantly improved electrocatalytic activity towards ORR and HER with notably low onset potential and low Tafel slopes. The charge storage capacity also increases by an order from its bulk counterpart. The catalyst shows excellent stability for HER and good methanol tolerance behavior towards ORR is also observed. This opens up possibilities for applications of few-layer ternary phosphosulphides in energy conversion and storage. However, one should be cautious since the exfoliation results in a slightly different composition of the material. Different aspects of electrodeposition of gallium nanoparticles on exfoliated graphite surfaces from aqueous acidic solution forms part of the next study. The electrodeposited surface is characterized by various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. The presence of surface plasmon peak in the visible region has led us to explore the use of Ga on EG for SERS studies. This preliminary work shows that the Raman signal of R6G is enhanced in the presence of Ga deposited on EG surface. The research work presented in the next part of the thesis deals with the preparation, physicochemical, spectroscopic characterization of room temperature molten electrolytes based on amides. Room temperature ternary molten electrolyte involving a combination of acetamide, urea and gallium nitrate salt is prepared and the molten eutectic is characterized. An electrochemical process is developed for depositing gallium nitride from the ternary molten electrolyte on Au electrode. Gallium ion is reduced at low potentials while nitrate ion is reduced to produce atomic nitrogen, forming gallium nitride under certain conditions. Au coated TEM grid is used for patterning gallium nitride (figure 5). The deposited gallium nitride is further annealed at high temperature to increase the crystalinity and improve the stoichiometry of gallium nitride. Figure 5. The FESEM image of patterned gallium nitride deposited on Au coated TEM grid. Elemental mapping of Ga and N from the same region is given. The last chapter explores the prepration and uses of textured GaN tubes synthesized from GaOOH rod-like morphology. The precursor material is prepared by simple hydrothermal technique, maintaining certain value for the pH of the solution. The thermal treatment under ammonia atmosphere leads to highly crystalline, single phase textured tube- like morphology. The as-prepared material is explored as photoanodes in photoelectrochemical water splitting, dye sensitized solar cells and active substrate for SERS. The appendix-I discusses the Na-ion storage capacity by rGO-PdPS composite whereas appendix-II deals with the synthesis of InN and FeN from ternary molten electrolyte. (For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

Research on new, environment-friendly, clean and efficient energy sources have contributed immensely to the development of new technologies for the generation and storage of electrical energy. Heterogeneous ‘electrocatalysis’ involves catalysis of redox reactions where the electrode material, termed as ‘electrocatalyst’ reduces the overpotential and maximizes the current for the processes occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interface. Efficient catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) are of paramount importance for electrochemical energy generation and storage applications in water splitting, fuel cells and batteries. However, high cost of Pt catalysts that are commonly used for such applications restricts their commercial viability. In addition, there are issues related to poisoning of the surface under certain conditions. One particular case of direct methanol fuel cells involves problems of methanol tolerance as well. Hence, the on-going search in this direction, is to search for alternate catalysts that can match the performance of Pt. There is a quest for the development of stable and durable electrocatalysts/ supports for various electrochemical redox reactions particularly based on energy storage and conversion. The present thesis is structured in exploring the multi-functional aspects of ternary palladium phosphochalcogenides (PdPS and PdPSe) that possess layer-type structure with high crystallinity. They are semiconducting in nature and possess favorable electrochemical, electrical and optical properties. The chalcogenide compounds crystallize in orthorhombic symmetry with an indirect band gap close to 1.5 eV. The current study shows the versatility of ternary phosphochalcogenides in the bulk phase as well as in small sizes. The electrocatalytic activities of the chalcoenides are found to be dramatically improved by increasing the electrical conductivity by way of forming composites with reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The average crystallite size of the PdPS and PdPSe are 30 μm ±10 μm (figure 1). The composites are prepared by simple hydrothermal methods without use of any reducing agent and are characterized using various physico-chemical techniques. Figure 1. FESEM images of (a) PdPSe and (b) PdPS. In the present investigations, PdPS and its reduced graphene oxide composite (rGO-PdPS) are shown to be very efficient hydrogen evolution electrocatalysts (figure 2a). The bulk form of PdPS is found to be very active and the composite of PdPS with reduced graphene oxide improves the hydrogen evolution performance dramatically, even superior to state of the art, MoS2-based catalysts. Figure 2. (a) Linear sweep voltammograms of rGO, bulk PdPS, rGO-PdPS composite and 40 % Pt-C in 0.5 M H2SO4 solution (pH 0.8). Scan rate used is 1 mV s-1. (b) Tafel plots for PdPS, rGO, rGO-PdPS and 40 wt% Pt-C in 0.5 M H2SO4 at 1 mVs-1 scan rate. The Tafel slope and the exchange current density values associated with hydrogen evolution reaction are 46 mV dec-1 and 1.4 x 10-4 A cm-2 respectively (figure 2b). The stability of the PdPS-based catalyst is found to be excellent retaining same current densities even after thousand cycles. Moreover, post-HER characterization reveals the durability of the material even after cycling for a long time. Preliminary spectroelectrochemical investigations are attempted to gain further insight in to the HER. Subsequently, the PdPS and its composite are explored as ORR catalysts in alkaline medium. The composite of PdPS with rGO is formed to enhance the catalytic activity of pure PdPS and the electron transfer kinetics is found to be very favorable. The kinetics of the oxygen reduction reactions are followed by RDE/RRDE measurements. It is experimentally verified that the composite eletrocatalyst is very stable, efficient and methanol tolerant in alkaline medium. The characteristics of the composite catalyst are comparable with widely used standard Pt-C for ORR (figure 3a). Moreover, ternary phophochalcogenide, PdPS, combined with rGO shows good catalytic activity towards OER and it affords a current density of 10 mA cm-2 at an overpotential of η = 570 mV (figure 3b). Figure 3. (a) Comparative voltammograms for rGO, bulk PdPS, rGO-PdPS and 40 % Pt-C in 1M KOH at 1600 rpm. The potential is swept at a rate of 5 mVs-1. (b) Linear sweep voltammograms of oxygen evolution reaction on rGO-PdPS, PdPS and 40 % Pt-C in 1 M KOH electrolyte. Scan rate 5 mV s-1. Apart from its tri-functional electrocatalytic behavior, PdPS and its rGO composite act as an anode material for Li-ion batteries showing high storage capacity of lithium (figure 4). The capacity fading of bulk PdPS is analyzed using XRD and SEM. The introduction of rGO, a well-known conducting matrix, improves the performance. Palladium phosphorous selenide (PdPSe) and its composite with rGO (rGO-PdPSe) are also explored as electrocatalysts for HER, ORR and OER. They show the tri¬functional electrocatalytic behavior as well. Figure 4. Discharge capacity as a function of number of cycles for PdPS, rGO rGO-PdPS electrode at current density of 35 mAg-1 in rechargeable lithium ion battery. The next chapter deals with single or few layer PdPS where layer-type PdPS is exfoliated by several methods such as ultra-sonication and solvent exfoliation. Various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have been used to characterize the material. These sheets show significantly improved electrocatalytic activity towards ORR and HER with notably low onset potential and low Tafel slopes. The charge storage capacity also increases by an order from its bulk counterpart. The catalyst shows excellent stability for HER and good methanol tolerance behavior towards ORR is also observed. This opens up possibilities for applications of few-layer ternary phosphosulphides in energy conversion and storage. However, one should be cautious since the exfoliation results in a slightly different composition of the material. Different aspects of electrodeposition of gallium nanoparticles on exfoliated graphite surfaces from aqueous acidic solution forms part of the next study. The electrodeposited surface is characterized by various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. The presence of surface plasmon peak in the visible region has led us to explore the use of Ga on EG for SERS studies. This preliminary work shows that the Raman signal of R6G is enhanced in the presence of Ga deposited on EG surface. The research work presented in the next part of the thesis deals with the preparation, physicochemical, spectroscopic characterization of room temperature molten electrolytes based on amides. Room temperature ternary molten electrolyte involving a combination of acetamide, urea and gallium nitrate salt is prepared and the molten eutectic is characterized. An electrochemical process is developed for depositing gallium nitride from the ternary molten electrolyte on Au electrode. Gallium ion is reduced at low potentials while nitrate ion is reduced to produce atomic nitrogen, forming gallium nitride under certain conditions. Au coated TEM grid is used for patterning gallium nitride (figure 5). The deposited gallium nitride is further annealed at high temperature to increase the crystalinity and improve the stoichiometry of gallium nitride. Figure 5. The FESEM image of patterned gallium nitride deposited on Au coated TEM grid. Elemental mapping of Ga and N from the same region is given. The last chapter explores the prepration and uses of textured GaN tubes synthesized from GaOOH rod-like morphology. The precursor material is prepared by simple hydrothermal technique, maintaining certain value for the pH of the solution. The thermal treatment under ammonia atmosphere leads to highly crystalline, single phase textured tube- like morphology. The as-prepared material is explored as photoanodes in photoelectrochemical water splitting, dye sensitized solar cells and active substrate for SERS. The appendix-I discusses the Na-ion storage capacity by rGO-PdPS composite whereas appendix-II deals with the synthesis of InN and FeN from ternary molten electrolyte. (For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

Niniejsza rozprawa doktorska została poświęcona tematyce poszukiwania układów elektrokatalitycznych zdolnych do szybkiego przeniesienia elektronu w parze redoks jod/jodki i ich wykorzystania do przygotowania elektrolitów redoks zdolnych do szybkiej propagacji ładunku, co ma niezwykle istotne znaczenie w funkcjonowaniu barwnikowych sensybilizowanych ogniw słonecznych (DSSC), baterii przepływowych (RFB) czy superkondensatorów hybrydowych. Przedstawiona praca ma układ klasyczny, współtworzony przez część literaturową i eksperymentalną. Rozpoczyna się ona od ogólnej charakterystyki elektrochemicznej jodu w rozworach wodnych i organicznych. Następnie porusza tematykę DSSC, gdzie omówiono poszczególne komponenty ogniwa, w tym przede wszystkim elektrolity redoks zawierające jako mediator parę redoks jod/jodki. Energia elektryczna wytwarzana przez alternatywne źródła energii (w tym DSSC) może być magazynowana poprzez jej konwersję w inną formę energii, np. w energię chemiczną – co możliwe jest np. dzięki RFB lub bezpośrednio jako ładunki elektryczne, do czego wykorzystywane są superkondensatory. W kolejnych dwóch rozdziałach pracy skupiono się więc na obu tych technologiach. Wskazano główne cechy różniące RFB od tradycyjnych baterii, ich główne wady i zalety oraz typowy podział i przykłady ogniw, w których jako katolit wykorzystano parę redoks jod/jodki. Z kolei tematyka kondensatorów elektrochemicznych obejmowała szczegółową charakterystykę kondensatorów warstwy podwójnej (EDL), pseudokondensatorów oraz kondensatorów hybrydowych, w tym ich szczególny rodzaj obejmujący kondensatory hybrydowe z aktywnym elektrochemicznie elektrolitem (znane pod nazwą REHES, ang. redox electrolyte-aided hybrid energy storage), najczęściej opartym o jodki metali alkalicznych, które dzięki odwracalnym procesom redoks jonów Ina granicy faz elektroda dodatnia/elektrolit z wytworzeniem jodu i polijodków pozwalają na zwiększoną zdolność do magazynowania ładunku w tego typu urządzeniach. W pracy zwrócono również szczególną uwagę na kwestie podstawowe związane z mechanizmem przeniesienia ładunku w cienkich warstwach elektrodowych oraz materiałach stałych i półstałych typu ang. bulk posiadających mieszane stopnie utlenienia. W celu rozszerzenia tych zagadnień przedstawiono także szczegółową charakterystykę elektrochemii ciała stałego bez kontaktu z zewnętrzną fazą elektrolitu podstawowego oraz wskazano na możliwości diagnostyczne i analityczne pomiarów elektrochemicznych ciał stałych przy wykorzystaniu mikroelektrod. W kolejnym rozdziale zajęto się kwestią zwiększenia stałej szybkości reakcji poprzez wprowadzenie do układu katalizatora, co umożliwia konwersję energii w sposób maksymalnie wydajny, odwracalny i opłacalny. Poruszono również temat szczególnego rodzaju elektrokatalizy, a więc mediacji elektrokatalitycznej. Natomiast ostatni rozdział części teoretycznej uwzględnia opis stosowanych technik badawczych. Badania opisane w części eksperymentalnej podzielone zostały na cztery główne rozdziały. W pierwszym z nich w celu zwiększenia szybkości propagacji ładunku zaproponowano wykorzystanie nanocząstek Pt rozdrobnionych „trójwymiarowo” w półstałej cieczy jonowej zawierającej parę redoks jod/jodki. Pozwoliło to na indukowanie etapu chemicznego, a więc rozerwania wiązania jod-jod w cząsteczce I3 - odpowiedzialnego za ograniczenie przeniesienia elektronu w układzie. Powyższa koncepcja została zademonstrowana zarówno w pomiarach diagnostycznych z wykorzystaniem elektrochemii ciała stałego jak i pomiarach praktycznych w DSSC. Aby ograniczyć koszty związane z zastosowaniem nanocząstek Pt w kolejnym rozdziale pracy zaproponowano zastąpienie ich przez nanocząstki Pd przy wykorzystaniu tego samego elektrolitu redoks opartego o ciecz jonową. W ich przypadku do obliczeń efektywnego współczynnika dyfuzji wykorzystano trzy różne metody elektrochemiczne oparte na technikach: woltamperometrii cyklicznej, chronoamperometrii i chronokulometrii. Uprzednio, zarówno modyfikatory oparte na nanocząstkach Pt, jak i Pd zostały poddane charakterystyce fizykochemicznej (SEM, TEM, EDX, potencjał zeta) i rozszerzonej charakterystyce elektrochemicznej. Dalszą część pracy badawczej poświęcono wprowadzeniu opisanych modyfikatorów do elektrolitu na bazie rozpuszczalnika organicznego (acetonitrylu) o możliwie jak najprostszym składzie. Takie podejście miało na celu porównanie mechanizmu propagacji ładunku w dwóch różnych roztworach, charakteryzujących się odmienną lepkością. Jako alternatywę dla nanocząstek metali szlachetnych zaproponowano również wykorzystanie szeroko opisywanych w literaturze polimerów przewodzących (a dokładniej poli(3,4-etyleno-1,4-dioksytiofenu), PEDOT) i materiałów węglowych (węgla aktywnego). Ostatnia część rozprawy doktorskiej dotyczyła mechanizmu działania kondensatorów hybrydowych zawierających parę redoks jod/jodki świeżo po zmontowaniu układu, jak i po przeprowadzeniu testów stabilności. Do konstrukcji tych urządzeń wykorzystano dwa rodzaje materiałów elektrodowych charakteryzujących się zupełnie odmienną morfologią: węgiel aktywny i PEDOT, które scharakteryzowano przy pomocy najnowszych technik fizykochemicznych. Analiza procesów zachodzących w trakcie testów przyspieszonego starzenia wykonanych dla skonstruowanych w ten sposób kondensatorów pozwoliła na zdiagnozowanie przyczyn różnic w szybkości ich samorozładowania będącego wynikiem reakcji pasożytniczych zachodzących przede wszystkim na elektrodzie ujemnej.
Electrochemical systems characterized by fast (reversible) charge transfer have a practical significance, particularly in electrochemical storage and conversion systems such as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), redox flow batteries (RFB) and redox electrolyte-aided hybrid energy storage (REHES)). Moreover, development of above-mentioned, alternative energy technologies have crucial importance of protecting the environment. One of the most commonly used redox couples responsible for efficient electron transfer in energy storage and conversion systems is the iodine/iodide. Therefore, the first Chapter of this doctoral dissertation is focused on the general electrochemical properties of iodine and its electrochemical characterization in aqueous and organic solutions. The next part is dedicated to DSSC, where its individual components are discussed and particular attention is paid to the redox electrolytes containing iodine/iodide redox mediator. In addition, it should be emphasized that the energy generated by alternative energy sources, including DSSC, can be stored by converting it into chemical energy for example by using RFB or can be directly stored as electrical charge in electrochemical capacitors. Consequently, the next two Chapters of my dissertation focus on these two energy storage technologies. The main differences between RFB and traditional batteries and the resulting pros and cons of these devices are indicated. Farther the typical classification of flow batteries and the examples of the cells where the iodine/iodide redox couple is used as the catholyte are presented. The next part of the dissertation is devoted to the electrochemical capacitors. These include the detailed characteristics of double-layer-type systems, pseudocapacitors and hybrid capacitors, i.e. combining the electrochemical signature of batteries and conventional supercapacitors. A specific class of hybrid capacitors containing electrochemically active electrolyte (widely known as REHES - redox electrolyte-aided hybrid energy storage) is also characterized. These systems are often based on alkali metal iodides and exhibit an increased charge storage capacity as a result of reversible redox reactions of iodide ions occurring at the positive electrode/electrolyte interface. This PhD thesis also does not omit the basic issues related to the mechanism of charge transfer in thin electrode layers, bulk solid and semi-solid materials having mixed oxidation states. In order to submit a more complete study, detailed characterization of solid electrochemistry without contact with the external phase of the supporting electrolyte is also given. Moreover the emphasis is put on the utilization of microelectrodes in electrochemical characterization of solids. The following Chapter is focused on the increment of the reaction rate constant by inserting the catalyst into the system which allows the conversion of energy in the most efficient, reversible and cost-effective way. Next an electrocatalytic mediation as a specific kind of electrocatalysis is also discussed. The theoretical part of this PhD thesis is finished by brief description of the research methods used in the experimental part. The research described in the experimental part has been divided into four main Chapters. In order to enhance charge propagation within the system, firstly the utilization of Pt nanoparticles "three-dimensionally" distributed in a semi-solid ionic liquid containing iodine/iodide redox pair is described. It allows the induction of a chemical stage, breaking of the iodine-iodine bond in the I3 - molecule, which is responsible for limiting electron transfer in the system. The above mentioned concept has been demonstrated in both, diagnostic measurements which utilized solid-state electrochemistry and a practical set-up in a DSSC. Pd nanoparticles, as a cheaper alternative to Pt nanoparticles, are also proposed with the same redox electrolyte based on the ionic liquid to enhance charge transfer within the system. With reference to Pd nanoparticles three different electrochemical methods based on cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and chronoculometry were used to calculate the effective diffusion coefficient and apparent concentration of redox centers. The used modifiers based on Pt and Pd nanoparticles have been subjected to physicochemical (SEM, TEM, EDS, zeta potential) and extended electrochemical characterization). The subsequent part of the research involves introducing the aforementioned modifiers into the electrolyte based on organic solvent (acetonitrile) with the possible simplest composition. The aim of such approach is to compare the mechanism of charge propagation in two different solutions with different viscosities. As an alternative to noble metal nanoparticles, the use of conductive polymers (more specifically poly (3,4-ethylene-1,4-dioxythiophene), PEDOT)) and carbonaceous materials (activated carbon) have also been proposed. The last part of the doctoral dissertation refers to the operation mechanism of hybrid capacitors containing iodine/iodide redox-based electrolyte by addressing their performance changes in time and with a type of stability test used. Two types of electrode materials with different morphology and charge storage mechanism were used in the construction of these devices, i.e. activated carbon and PEDOT. Both of these materials were characterized using different physicochemical techniques. Analysis of processes occurring during potentiostatic accelerating-ageing stability tests allowed to diagnose the causes of differences in the rate of self-discharge as well as to describe the parasitic reactions responsible for high internal leakage by proposing a new mechanism of charge/self-discharge in the halogene-based electrolytes used in supercapacitors.