Academic literature on the topic 'Pacific area, description and travel'
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Journal articles on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Lasarte, Emy S. "Travel Decision and Destination Experiences in the Islands of Caramoan, Philippines: A Visitors’ Descriptive Evaluation." International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology 5, no. 7 (July 16, 2020): 24–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt20jul022.
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An understanding of visitors’ travel desires and experiences are vital in two ways- to adjust destination’s marketing strategies in order to meet the expectation and demand of the travel market and to ensure sustainability of both physical and social attributes of the place. In this sense, this paper evaluated the travel decision and experiences of visitors in the islands of Caramoan considered as one of the Philippines’ uncontaminated and unspoiled natural areas branding it as a “Hidden paradise in the Pacific”. Using a questionnaire-based survey administered to onsite visitors in a descriptive method of research, the islands are visited by tourists due to their desire for nature-based and eco-adventure tour. Their experiences with the destination’s products, services, and hospitality were generally good with emphasis on the accessibility to natural attractions and religious sites, friendliness of the people service providers, suitable weather condition, and organized excursions. With its continued growth, provision of additional nature-based sports activities, and other tourism products and themes should be designed and developed to create diverse recreational participation. In the same way, improving the frontline tourist facilities as well as tourism frontline services is needed to deliver more meaningful visitor experience.
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Rowell, Maura, and Anne Goodchild. "Effect of Tsunami Damage on Passenger and Forestry Transportation in Pacific County, Washington." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2604, no. 1 (January 2017): 88–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2604-11.
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The outer coast of Washington State is exposed to significant seismic and tsunami hazards. A Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) event is expected to cause high earthquake intensities and tsunami inundation, resulting in considerable infrastructure loss, inundation of developed land, and degraded functioning of coastal communities. One area of particular concern is Pacific County, in southwest Washington, where more than 85% of the population is expected to experience severe shaking intensities. This paper establishes the predisaster passenger and freight transportation patterns and the predicted damaged postdisaster road network in Pacific County. The hazard used in the analysis was a CSZ magnitude 9.1 earthquake with Washington asperity and resulting tsunami. The anticipated change in trip distance and the percentage of trips that could no longer be completed were used to compare passenger travel and forestry freight travel. Because passenger and freight travel have different purposes and patterns, understanding how they are affected differently can serve as a foundation for community-based disaster recovery planning to increase community resilience in earthquakes and tsunamis.
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Martín-Cao-Romero, Carolina, Francisco Alonso Solís-Marín, Alfredo Laguarda-Figueras, and Blanca Estela Buitrón Sánchez. "Phataria unifascialis (Valvatida: Ophidiasteridae) from the Eastern Pacific: Redescription and skeletal morphology." Revista de Biología Tropical 65, no. 1-1 (December 8, 2017): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v65i1-1.31694.
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The starfish Phataria unifascialis is widely distributed in the eastern cost of the Pacific Ocean, found on rocky bottoms, at depths between 0 and 50 m. The original description of P. unifascialis made by Gray in 1840 was brief and inaccurate in some important aspects, such as distribution area, plate arrangement and ambulacral spines. Here, we improve the description of P. unifascialis with SEM images and description of its mesodermal skeleton on the basis of a large sample. Rev. Biol. Trop. 65(Suppl. 1): S258-S271. Epub 2017 November 01.
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Mauch, Michael, and Brian D. Taylor. "Gender, Race, and Travel Behavior: Analysis of Household-Serving Travel and Commuting in San Francisco Bay Area." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1607, no. 1 (January 1997): 147–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1607-20.
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Detailed trip diary data from a 1990 survey of San Francisco Bay Area residents were used to examine the effects of race/ethnicity on the differences in commuting and household-serving travel among men and women. With respect to travel behavioral differences between men and women, the findings suggest that women do more child chauffeuring and make more household-serving trips than men. This analysis further reveals that these gender differences in commuting behavior extend to household-serving travel and can vary significantly by race/ethnicity in addition to income and household structure. It was found, for example, that commute time differences are highest among whites (4.5 min) and lowest among Hispanics (1.8 min), whereas observed gender differences in average travel time for all trips do not vary much by race or ethnicity. Furthermore, the gender variation in child-serving trips was lowest among Asians and Pacific Islanders (women are 60 percent more likely to make such trips) and highest among whites (women are 223 percent more likely to make such trips). Finally, and in contrast to child-serving travel, women make about 75 percent more grocery trips than men, regardless of race/ethnicity. The analysis suggests, however, that much, although not all, of the racial/ethnic variation in the travel behavior of men and women is probably explained by factors—such as income, employment status, metropolitan location, and automobile availability—that tend to vary systematically by race ethnicity. In general, it was found that gender is a far more robust predictor of child-serving and grocery shopping trips than either race or ethnicity.
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Lin, Hongyang, Keith R. Thompson, and Jianyu Hu. "A Frequency-Dependent Description of Propagating Sea Level Signals in the Kuroshio Extension Region." Journal of Physical Oceanography 44, no. 6 (May 28, 2014): 1614–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-13-0185.1.
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Abstract Hilbert empirical orthogonal function analysis is used to provide a frequency-dependent description of observed sea level variability in the Kuroshio Extension region, 1993–2012 inclusive. The dominant high-frequency mode (periods between 140 and 350 days) describes signals that propagate westward with the largest amplitudes in the vicinity of the Shatsky Rise and Emperor Seamounts. Based on the close correspondence between the variance of the high-frequency variability and the underlying bathymetry, it is speculated that this mode is driven by jet–bathymetry interactions. The dominant low-frequency mode (periods longer than 350 days) is explained in terms of wind-forced, jet-trapped Rossby waves that propagate along the mean Kuroshio Extension jet. One of the most surprising findings of this study is that sea level changes north of the jet in the meander region anticipate changes south of the jet by about 3 yr. Based on correlations of observed sea level with the Pacific decadal oscillation, and western boundary transport variability estimated from the Global Ocean Reanalysis and Simulations (GLORYS), it is speculated that this anticipation is due to the differences in time taken for (i) Rossby waves to travel from the eastern North Pacific to the meander region and (ii) the much faster barotropic response of western boundary transport, and sea level north of the jet, to large-scale forcing by the wind stress curl.
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CORSINI-FOKA, M., M. A. PANCUCCI-PAPADOPOULOU, G. KONDILATOS, and S. KALOGIROU. "Gonioinfradens paucidentatus (A. Milne Edwards, 1861) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Portunidae): a new alien crab in the Mediterranean Sea." Mediterranean Marine Science 11, no. 2 (November 11, 2010): 331. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/mms.80.
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The first record for the Mediterranean Sea of the Red Sea/Indo-Pacific portunid Gonioinfradens paucidentatus (red swimming crab) is documented. A detailed description of the specimens collected at Rodos Island (southeastern Aegean Sea) is given, while possible introduction vectors of the species in the area are discussed.
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Vannini, Phillip, Nanny Kim, Lisa Cooke, Giovanna Mascheroni, Jad Baaklini, Ekaterina Fen, Elisabeth Betz, et al. "Book Reviews." Transfers 3, no. 2 (June 1, 2013): 136–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/trans.2013.030211.
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Tim Ingold, Being Alive: Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description; Tim Ingold (ed.), Redrawing Anthropology: Materials, Movements, Lines; Tim Ingold and Jo Lee Vergunst (eds.), Ways of Walking: Ethnography and Practice on Foot Phillip VanniniTom Standage, A History of the World in 6 Glasses Nanny KimSimone Fullagar, Kevin W. Markwell, and Erica Wilson (eds.), Slow Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities Lisa CookeJennie Germann Molz, Travel Connections: Tourism, Technology and Togetherness in a Mobile World Giovanna MascheroniHazel Andrews and Les Roberts (eds.), Liminal Landscapes: Travel, Experience and Spaces In-between Jad BaakliniLes Roberts, Film, Mobility and Urban Space: A Cinematic Geography of Liverpool Ekaterina FenHelen Lee and Steve Tupai Francis (eds.), Migration and Transnationalism: Pacific Perspectives Elisabeth BetzDavid Pedersen, American Value: Migrants, Money and Meaning in El Salvador and the United States Federico HelfgottLeopoldina Fortunati, Raul Pertierra and Jane Vincent (eds.), Migration, Diaspora, and Information Technology in Global Societies Giuseppina PellegrinoDaniel Flückinger, Strassen für alle: Infrastrukturpolitik im Kanton Bern 1790-1850 Reiner RuppmannRichard Vahrenkamp, The Logistic Revolution: The Rise of Logistics in the Mass Consumption Society Alfred C. Mierzejewski
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Kühne, Reinhart D., Karin Langbein-Euchner, Martin Hilliges, and Norbert Koch. "Evaluation of Compliance Rates and Travel Time Calculation for Automatic Alternative Route Guidance Systems on Freeways." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1554, no. 1 (January 1996): 153–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198196155400119.
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This study outlines the concept of extending an available simulation model for evaluation of freeway route guidance systems using the compliance rates of drivers with alternative route recommendations based on measurements from the freeway subnetwork near Munich, Germany. The system works with variable direction signs that automatically display routing instructions to prevent congestion on the main road. The effectiveness of the system is assessed by calculating the travel times with and without an alternative route guidance system in operation. The result is a decrease in individual travel times on the main road and overall travel time savings for all traffic participants of the system. The simulation indicates a high sensitivity of diverting portions of traffic that allows an exact validation. The diverted traffic affects not only travel time and the congested area but also the destinations, which permits the use of the compliance rate as an accurate fit parameter for exact description of traffic patterns from measurement data.
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MALYUTINA, MARINA V. "Description of two new species of munnopsid isopods (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellota) from manganese nodules area of the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Pacific Ocean." Zootaxa 2783, no. 1 (March 4, 2011): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2783.1.1.
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Two new species of deep sea asellotes of the family Munnopsidae, Rectisura slavai sp. nov. and Storthyngura yuzhmorgeo sp. nov. are described from the manganese nodules area in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone of the Pacific Ocean. The discovery of these new species allowed re-examination of the taxonomic position of two similar species, Storthyngura ? intermedia (Beddard, 1885) from the Northeastern Basin of the Pacific Ocean and Ilyarachna defecta Menzies & George, 1972 from the Peru-Chile Trench, eastern Pacific Ocean. The species are moved to the genera Rectisura Malyutina, 2003 and Storthyngura Vanhöffen, 1914, respectively. Additional composition and distribution of the species of the genera are presented.
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Cardillo, Emanuele, and Alina Caddemi. "Insight on Electronic Travel Aids for Visually Impaired People: A Review on the Electromagnetic Technology." Electronics 8, no. 11 (November 4, 2019): 1281. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics8111281.
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This review deals with a comprehensive description of the available electromagnetic travel aids for visually impaired and blind people. This challenging task is considered as an outstanding research area due to the rapid growth in the number of people with visual impairments. For decades, different technologies have been employed for solving the crucial challenge of improving the mobility of visually impaired people, but a suitable solution has not yet been developed. Focusing this contribution on the electromagnetic technology, the state-of-the-art of available solutions is demonstrated. Electronic travel aids based on electromagnetic technology have been identified as an emerging technology due to their high level of achievable performance in terms of accuracy, flexibility, lightness, and cost-effectiveness.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Becker, Anne Lynn. "The layout of the land : the Canadian Pacific Railway's photographic advertising and the travels of Frank Randall Clarke, 1920-1929." Thesis, McGill University, 2005. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=83171.
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This thesis examines the role of photography in making the Canadian Pacific Railway company (CPR) an integral part of Canadian mythology. It focuses on the company's photographic advertising in the 1920s, and the ways in which its increasingly nationalistic transcontinental brochures framed the country, and equated the act of travelling with nation-building and national identity.The CPR's tourist brochures established a visual vocabulary of the travelling experience, which was readily employed by individuals such as Montreal journalist Frank Randall Clarke. Clarke was sponsored by the CPR to travel across the country in the summer of 1929. His journalistic writing and personal photograph album allow for a rich analysis of the visual culture of the period, and they will be used to illustrate the ways in which the CPR represented Canadian progress, immigration, and tourism.
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Ramukumba, Takalani. "An integrated strategy for community participation in tourism in the Garden Route Area." Thesis, 2009. http://encore.tut.ac.za/iii/cpro/DigitalItemViewPage.external?sp=1000581.
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Thesis (MTech. degree in Adventure Tourism Management)--Tshwane University of Technology, 2009.The purpose of the study was to develop an integrated strategy for community participation in tourism in the Garden Route region. The study contributes to the existing body of community participation in tourism knowledge domain. It adds value as this strategy can be applied to other regions in South Africa.
Books on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Ian, Cameron. Lost paradise: The exploration of the Pacific. Topsfield, Mass: Salem House, 1987.
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Ian, Cameron. Lost paradise: The exploration of the Pacific. London: Century, 1987.
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1830-1901, Nordhoff Charles, ed. Nordhoff's West Coast: California, Oregon, and Hawaii. London: KPI, 1987.
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Douglass, Don. Exploring the Pacific Coast: San Diego to Seattle. 2nd ed. Anacortes, WA: Fine Edge, 2009.
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Peggy, Bauer, ed. Baja to Barrow: A Pacific Coast wildlife odyssey. Minocqua, Wis: Willow Creek Press, 1995.
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Joyce, Alice. Gardenwalks in the Pacific Northwest: Beautiful gardens from Oregon to British Columbia. Guilford, CT: Insiders', 2006.
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1953-, Spring Vicky, ed. Bicycling the Pacific Coast. 2nd ed. Seattle, Wash: Mountaineers, 1990.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Askew, Joseph Benjamin. "Travelling Across Late Mediaeval Eurasia: Travel, Curiosity and Knowledge in the Mongol Period." In Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies, 59–82. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0124-9_3.
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AbstractThis chapter offers a new, brief yet cohesive introduction to travel across Mongol Eurasia. It is usually assumed that this period resulted in the movement of relatively large numbers of people across vast distances. However, previous studies of this period have not adequately distinguished between different types of movement within the wider Mongol sphere. This essay seeks to develop a thorough discussion of the different forms of movement in this period, by interrogating texts of travel accounts through the lenses of curiosity, motives and redefinition of the self within a description of geographic and social spaces. It critically reconsiders the amount of trade carried out during the so-called Pax Mongolica, and it explores an array of examples of travel writings, penned by both European and intra-Asian authors.
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Boarnet, Marlon, and Randall C. Crane. "Transit-Oriented Planning." In Travel by Design. Oxford University Press, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195123951.003.0013.
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There has been a boom in American rail transit construction in the past two decades. That new investment has prompted the question of what planners can do to support rail transit. One popular answer has been transit-oriented development (TOD), increasingly described as a comprehensive strategy for rail-based land-use planning throughout an urban area. This is most clearly illustrated by Bernick and Cervero’s (1997) description of how such projects can link together to create “transit metropolises” where rail is a viable transportation option for many of the region’s residents. In addition, TOD provides an opportunity to examine the regulatory issues discussed in chapter 6, both because it is an explicit attempt to use urban design as transportation policy and because the intergovernmental issues are especially stark in relation to these developments. Having discussed how travelers behave in the first part of this book, we now ask what we know about how cities behave. Stated in general form, the question is rather broad. It concerns the process by which cities and other land-use authorities decide where to put streets, how to structure the local hierarchy of streets, when to develop more or less densely, how to position employment centers relative to residential areas, and so on. Still, the feasibility of land-use plans with transportation goals depends critically on how such authorities behave. Any discussion of the effectiveness of these strategies must address both how communities plan for transportation and how travelers respond to those plans. The primary transportation goal of TOD generally, as currently practiced, is to coordinate land-use policies to support rail transit. In particular, focusing both residential and commercial development near rail transit stations is aimed at increasing rail ridership (e.g., Bernick, 1990; Bernick and Hall, 1990; Calthorpe, 1993; Cervero, 1993; Bernick and Cervero, 1997). Some evidence suggests that residents near rail transit stations are two to five times more likely to commute by rail when compared with persons living elsewhere in the same urban area (Pushkarev and Zupan, 1977; Bernick and Carroll, 1991; Cervero, 1994d).
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Hinton, Leanne. "Languages of California." In The Vanishing Languages Of The Pacific Rim, 442–59. Oxford University PressOxford, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199266623.003.0023.
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Abstract California has more indigenous languages than almost any area in the world of comparable size (only New Guinea has more). It is what Johanna Nichols has called a “residual area “ (Nichols 1992), where languages tend to accumulate over time rather than replace each other. This is due in large part to the geography and ecology of California—rich and varied food resources, mild climate, and travel barriers (the Sierra Madre mountain range to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west, broken up here and there by swamps, rivers, and deserts). These factors all combine to allow people to survive well in relatively small territories, not be able to maintain dominion over large expanses of land, and benefit instead from good trading relations. Thus in the time that California has been populated (12,000–30,000 years, depending on which claim we believe in), 80 to 100 languages settled here and survived until European contact and well beyond.
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Hay, Katrina. "Physics of Energy." In Practice, Progress, and Proficiency in Sustainability, 441–52. IGI Global, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-5856-1.ch022.
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A new physics course was offered at Pacific Lutheran University in Tacoma, Washington, which provides students with an understanding of the underlying physical principles of traditional and alternative energy production. The course was a travel course in the western United States, an ideal area to study practical use and research of hydroelectric, wind, nuclear, solar, ocean wave and geothermal energy sources. This sustainability-themed course was taught for the first time in January 2011 and traveled via the Amtrak Coast Starlight train, making stops in Washington, Oregon and California. Students studied the connection between resources, energy and surrounding communities. This chapter lists learning objectives, lecture and lab topics, energy sources and locations visited. Additionally, this chapter describes motivation for a sustainability-themed course in physics and contains a discussion of the unique experience of traveling with students.
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Haber, William A. "Plants and Vegetation." In Monteverde. Oxford University Press, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195095609.003.0009.
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The vegetation at Monteverde is characterized by two features that are immediately noted by visitors. The first is the overwhelming abundance of mosses, epiphytes, and tree trunk climbers in the cloud forest. The second is the striking variety of vegetation types, and consequent very high regional plant biodiversity, cramped into a small area by the narrow elevational zonation of habitats along the upper mountain slopes. This luxuriance and diversity have been important factors in the attraction of biologists to Monteverde. Lawton and Dryer (1980) described the characteristics and distribution of forest types in the upper Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve (MCFP), emphasizing the effect of the northeast trade winds on forest structure. With exposure to the trade winds and the accompanying heavy mist and clouds, the forest is reduced in height, has a more broken canopy, and supports greater epiphyte loads. Areas in the lee of the winds develop a forest with less abundant epiphytes and mosses and much taller, straighter trees, forming a closed canopy and more open understory while the strong winds apparently limit the stature of the forest on the exposed ridges, the mist and rain carried in from the Atlantic side during the dry season maintain the diverse epiphyte community of the upper Pacific slope. In contrast, a short walk down the Pacific slope during the dry season leads to progressively drier vegetation zones where ferns, epiphytes, and climbers nearly disappear. Hartshorn (1983) described vegetation in the zones below the cloud forest, with a description of the Holdridge life zone system (Holdridge 1967) and the life zones in Monteverde. In this chapter, the focal area of the vegetation is the study area of the Monteverde Flora Project, which is more extensive than the area covered in the references cited above. The aim of the Monteverde Flora, a project of the Missouri Botanical Garden in collaboration with the Manual to the Plants of Costa Rica Project, is to collect and identify the flora of the Monteverde area and produce identification guides.
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"Aquatic Stewardship Education in Theory and Practice." In Aquatic Stewardship Education in Theory and Practice, edited by Margaret Tudor and Michael O’malley. American Fisheries Society, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.47886/9781888569902.ch10.
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<i>Abstract</i>.—Washington State has used education reform best practices to redesign stewardship education. The directors of state natural resource agencies, education associations, businesses, and nonprofits who created the Pacific Education Institute (PEI) provide the leadership. PEI represents a systematic effort to work in the formal education sector using environmental education (EE) standards that align with subject area standards and provide a framework for integrated learning. PEI undertakes education research based on those EE standards to understand student achievement and its relationship to environment- based experiential education. PEI has refined the description of science inquiry to include three types of field investigation with rigorous protocols that will be included in the state’s science tests beginning in 2007. Finally, PEI has fostered a citizen science initiative with NatureMapping to connect the research undertaken by students through field investigation to questions asked by scientists. In partnership, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife expects citizen science to contribute to the statewide biodiversity index now being designed. Integral to delivering these opportunities to K– 12 is the university teacher preparation faculty and their work to prepare preservice teachers with these opportunities. The result is school districts now foster stewardship education, contributing to community sustainability.
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Greenland, David, and Frederick Bierlmaier. "Climate Variability and Ecosystem Response at the H. J. Andrews Long-Term Ecological Research Site." In Climate Variability and Ecosystem Response in Long-Term Ecological Research Sites. Oxford University Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195150599.003.0037.
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The H. J. Andrews (AND) Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) site represents the temperate coniferous forest of the Pacific Northwest (PNW) of the United States. The general climate of the area is highly dynamic, displaying variability at a variety of timescales ranging from daily to millennial. AND, and its surrounding region, is therefore an ideal site for examining some of the guiding questions of climate variability and ecosystem response addressed by this volume (see chapter 1). A legacy of more than 50 years of research at the site and its surrounding area ensures that several of the questions can be investigated in some depth. Here we organize our discussion within a timescale framework that is consistent with the structure of this volume. Thus, following a brief description of the general climate of the site, we discuss climate variability and ecosystem response at the daily, multidecadal, and century to millennial scale. This discussion for the PNW is supplemented in chapters 6 and 13 by a consideration of the quasi-quintennial scale and an additional ecosystem response at the decadal scale. Having described some of the climate variability and ecosystem response at the selected timescales, we will consider what this information can tell us regarding some of the guiding questions of this book. The questions that we specifically address include the following: What preexisting conditions affect the impact of the climatic event or episode? Is the climatic effect on the ecosystems direct or cascading? Does the system return to its original state? We also consider potential future climate change and its possible ecosystem effects. Located at latitude 44.2º N and longitude 122.2º W, the Andrews Forest is situated in the western Cascade Range of Oregon in the 6400-ha (15,800-acre) drainage basin of Lookout Creek, a tributary of the Blue River and the McKenzie River (figure 19.1). Elevation ranges from 410 m (1350 feet) to 1630 m (5340 feet). Broadly representative of the rugged mountainous landscape of the Pacific Northwest (PNW), the Andrews Forest contains excellent examples of the region’s conifer forests and associated wildlife and stream ecosystems. Lower elevation forests are dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata).
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Cerba, Otakar, Karel Charvat, Jan Jezek, and Stepan Kafka. "Enhancing the Efficiency of ICT by Spatial Data Interoperability." In Green Technologies, 1182–97. IGI Global, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60960-472-1.ch504.
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In the present world of information and communication technologies (ICT) “Green ICT” represents a topic of immense interest. The meaning, sense and scope of Green ICT are quite varied and very wide. Hardware technologies, for example (virtualization of hardware) and corresponding methods are considered initiatives towards environment protection and sustainable growth. At the same time, however, improved development and implementation of existing tools influencing environment by implication (for example due to reducing travel costs or energy savings) are very important in terms of Green ICT. ICT solutions could also work as a device or medium of implementation of new environmentally friendly methods, for instance in agriculture or industry. Spatial data or data with a direct or indirect reference to a specific location or geographic area (INSPIRE Registry, 2009), like digital maps, data in navigation tools, are a significant means of correlating otherwise disparate sources of information. This chapter tries to show the relationship of spatial data and how it can benefit Green ICT. This relationship is vital, as spatial data plays a very important role in system and application (e.g. Geographic Information Systems) with the potential for making direct impact on environmental protection. Spatial data continues to be an integral part of common equipment like mobile phones, car navigation systems and computers. The numbers of these gadgets are constantly growing and so is the corresponding volume of spatial data sets. Within the context of this rapid growth, the costs of data capture, management, updating, processing and distribution are increasing. For example the operation of servers containing the same spatial data sets is energy-consuming and results in burdening the influence on environment. Spatial data sharing, re-use and possibilities of interconnection of existing spatial data sources pose a solution. Therefore, the spatial data interoperability assurance (e.g. by private spatial data providers, state administration etc.) is required. The spatial data interoperability enables more efficient management and use of spatial data sets and achieving of desired savings.The principles of spatial data interoperability are described in the first part of this document. Emphasis is put on spatial data heterogeneities as the main problem of spatial data interoperability. Moreover, technologies focused on elimination of spatial data heterogeneities are discussed here. Subsequent paragraphs introduce selected instruments (metadata, schema languages, ontologies) which are based on data description and support data interoperability. The last section of this document is composed of examples of several international projects focused on spatial data description and processing of well-described spatial data through web services.
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Cerba, Otakar, Karel Charvat, Jan Jezek, and Stepan Kafka. "Enhancing the Efficiency of ICT by Spatial Data Interoperability." In Handbook of Research on Green ICT, 301–16. IGI Global, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-61692-834-6.ch021.
Full textAbstract:
In the present world of information and communication technologies (ICT) “Green ICT” represents a topic of immense interest. The meaning, sense and scope of Green ICT are quite varied and very wide. Hardware technologies, for example (virtualization of hardware) and corresponding methods are considered initiatives towards environment protection and sustainable growth. At the same time, however, improved development and implementation of existing tools influencing environment by implication (for example due to reducing travel costs or energy savings) are very important in terms of Green ICT. ICT solutions could also work as a device or medium of implementation of new environmentally friendly methods, for instance in agriculture or industry. Spatial data or data with a direct or indirect reference to a specific location or geographic area (INSPIRE Registry, 2009), like digital maps, data in navigation tools, are a significant means of correlating otherwise disparate sources of information. This chapter tries to show the relationship of spatial data and how it can benefit Green ICT. This relationship is vital, as spatial data plays a very important role in system and application (e.g. Geographic Information Systems) with the potential for making direct impact on environmental protection. Spatial data continues to be an integral part of common equipment like mobile phones, car navigation systems and computers. The numbers of these gadgets are constantly growing and so is the corresponding volume of spatial data sets. Within the context of this rapid growth, the costs of data capture, management, updating, processing and distribution are increasing. For example the operation of servers containing the same spatial data sets is energy-consuming and results in burdening the influence on environment. Spatial data sharing, re-use and possibilities of interconnection of existing spatial data sources pose a solution. Therefore, the spatial data interoperability assurance (e.g. by private spatial data providers, state administration etc.) is required. The spatial data interoperability enables more efficient management and use of spatial data sets and achieving of desired savings.The principles of spatial data interoperability are described in the first part of this document. Emphasis is put on spatial data heterogeneities as the main problem of spatial data interoperability. Moreover, technologies focused on elimination of spatial data heterogeneities are discussed here. Subsequent paragraphs introduce selected instruments (metadata, schema languages, ontologies) which are based on data description and support data interoperability. The last section of this document is composed of examples of several international projects focused on spatial data description and processing of well-described spatial data through web services.
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Lehmann, Scott. "The Case for Privatization." In Privatizing Public Lands. Oxford University Press, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195089721.003.0007.
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Should groves of quaking aspen in the National Forests of southwestern Colorado be maintained for those who delight in them, “so vibrant with light and motion, forever restless, always whispering, in tune like ballerinas to the music of the air,” and for ranchers, whose cows perhaps delight in the grass and shade they provide? Or should the trees be sold to Louisiana Pacific, which has figured out how to turn them into a cheaper substitute for plywood, thereby providing jobs in a not-too-prosperous area? Should portions of BLM land in the Mohave Desert be open to motorcycle races that draw thousands of participants, who “really love this sort of thing” and spend a lot of money in local communities? Or should they be withdrawn from off-road use as “critical habitat” for the endangered desert tortoise? Answers to questions like these may add up to one sort of answer to the question, “How should public lands be managed?” Insofar as the uses proposed for different parcels are consistent (so that, for example, silt from a logging operation doesn't destroy a downstream fishery), these answers will constitute a coherent plan of use for public lands. But this is not the kind of answer privatization advocates give. They do not argue directly for some pattern of use, local or global. Instead, they maintain that a system in which resources are private and individuals decide how theirs are to be used is better than one in which the private use of public resources is regulated by collective decisions. That is, they take the question “How should public lands be managed?” to ask not for a giant management plan that specifies the best use of each acre, but for a description of the institutions which best constrain decisions about use. Privatization advocates do propose to judge land-management institutions by results, but not by how closely these results fit some pattern they are prepared to specify in advance. Like politicians who tailor their pitch to their audience, they may suggest to each of various groups—environmentalists, loggers, ranchers, and others—that their interests in public lands will be better served by private management.
Conference papers on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Du, Jing. "TRANSMIT—A Real Time Travel Time Information System in New York Metropolitan Area." In 10th Asia Pacific Transportation Development Conference. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784413364.053.
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Barr, Duncan. "Reservoir Description of the Mid to Late Jurassic Laminaria Formation: Laminaria/Corallina Area, Timor Sea." In SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/64285-ms.
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Lee, Kum-Bae, Md Faisal Kader, and Young-Muk Youn. "Numerical Analysis of Automobile Environment During the Cooling Period in Summer." In ASME 2008 First International Conference on Micro/Nanoscale Heat Transfer. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/mnht2008-52344.
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Understanding the temperature and humidity profiles inside a vehicle when the A/C is on during summer is of paramount practical significance to maintain comfortable environment. In this paper, the airflow patterns, temperature and humidity distributions are predicted utilizing a three-dimensional finite volume numerical method and measured experimentally inside the automobile. Numerical analyses of the three-dimensional geometry predict a detailed description of fluid flow patterns. The velocity vectors from the side instrument panel registers impinge on the front occupant’s chest to head then travel forward and finally reach to the rear parcel shelf area. The undesirable returning flow passing by the driver’s head and neck has been observed. The velocity vectors from the central instrument panel registers travel directly to the rear compartment. A recirculation has been observed near the occupant’s knee area of the front compartment and rear compartment. The Temperature comes down to a comfortable range almost linearly at the initial stage. After that no considerable change has been observed. A good agreement has been found between the numerical and experimental results.
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Vasina, M. V. "БЕРЕГОВЫЕ ВОДОПАДЫ КУРИЛЬСКИХ ОСТРОВОВ КАК ОБЪЕКТ ТУРИЗМА." In GEOGRAFICHESKIE I GEOEKOLOGICHESKIE ISSLEDOVANIIA NA DAL`NEM VOSTOKE. ИП Мироманова Ирина Витальевна, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.35735/tig.2019.51.71.015.
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Водопады Курильских островов представляют большой интерес с точки зрения туризма, и особенно все большей популярностью пользуется туризм береговых зон. Береговая линия Курил весьма изрезана, в ее пределах встречается множество интересных объектов, в том числе и водопады. Курилы можно справедливо назвать краем водопадов. На этих островах их более 300, и каждый год открываются все новые. Почти на каждом острове Курильской гряды можно найти летящую воду . Большой вклад в изучение водопадов Сахалинской области внес ученый и путешественник Андрей Клитин. Он обошел пешком крупнейшие острова Курильской гряды Кунашир, Итуруп, Уруп, Симушир, Онекотан и Парамушир, открыл и нанес на карту множество новых водопадов, составил точное описание своих маршрутов. Его описания до сих пор берутся за основу путешественниками. К этим водопадам можно добавить также водопады, самостоятельно обнаруженные автором, и пока не обозначенные на карте. С помощью электронного ресурса Google Earth автором обнаружены новые водопады на овах Шиашкотан, Расшуа, тихоокеанской стороне овов Симушир и Онекотан. Эти открытия , безусловно, требуют полевого подтверждения. В статье предлагается разработка нескольких водопадных береговых маршрутов, продолжительностью 12 дня, по островам Кунашир, Итуруп, Уруп, Онекотан и Парамушир.The waterfalls of the Kuril Islands are of great interest from the point of view of tourism, especially the increasing popularity of tourism on coastal zones. The coastline of the Kuril Islands is highly indented. It is found a lot of interesting objects, including waterfalls. The Kuril Islands rightly can be called the land of waterfalls. On these Islands more than 300, and every year discover the new waterfalls. Almost every island of the Kuril ridge it is possible to find waterfalls. A great contribution to the study of waterfalls Sakhalin region has made scientist and traveler Andrey Klitin. He went to the largest of the Kuril Islands Kunashir, Iturup, Urup, Simushir, Onekotan and Paramushir, discovered and mapped many new waterfalls, was an accurate description of himself routes. His descriptions still are the foundation by the travelers. To these waterfalls, you can also add waterfalls, independently discovered, and it is not marked on the map. Using the eresource Google Earth were found by the author a new waterfalls on the Islands of Shiashkotan, Rasshua, Pacific side of the Islands Simushir and Onekotan. These discoveries, of course, require experimental confirmation. The article proposes the elaboration of several waterfall coastal trails, lasting 12 days, to the Islands of Iturup, Kunashir, Urup, Paramushir and Onekotan.
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Zhang, Licheng, Xianzhi Wang, Lina Yao, Lin Wu, and Feng Zheng. "Zero-Shot Object Detection via Learning an Embedding from Semantic Space to Visual Space." In Twenty-Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Seventeenth Pacific Rim International Conference on Artificial Intelligence {IJCAI-PRICAI-20}. California: International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence Organization, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.24963/ijcai.2020/126.
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Zero-shot object detection (ZSD) has received considerable attention from the community of computer vision in recent years. It aims to simultaneously locate and categorize previously unseen objects during inference. One crucial problem of ZSD is how to accurately predict the label of each object proposal, i.e. categorizing object proposals, when conducting ZSD for unseen categories. Previous ZSD models generally relied on learning an embedding from visual space to semantic space or learning a joint embedding between semantic description and visual representation. As the features in the learned semantic space or the joint projected space tend to suffer from the hubness problem, namely the feature vectors are likely embedded to an area of incorrect labels, and thus it will lead to lower detection precision. In this paper, instead, we propose to learn a deep embedding from the semantic space to the visual space, which enables to well alleviate the hubness problem, because, compared with semantic space or joint embedding space, the distribution in visual space has smaller variance. After learning a deep embedding model, we perform $k$ nearest neighbor search in the visual space of unseen categories to determine the category of each semantic description. Extensive experiments on two public datasets show that our approach significantly outperforms the existing methods.
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Landberg, Magnus, Martin Hochwallner, and Petter Krus. "Novel Linear Hydraulic Actuator." In ASME/BATH 2015 Symposium on Fluid Power and Motion Control. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/fpmc2015-9604.
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In the area of linear motion, infinite stroke only is provided by electric actuators today, until now there has been no hydraulic alternative. The novel linear hydraulic actuator consists of two double acting cylinders with a common piston rod. The working principle of this actuator for short movements is that at least one piston is connected to the piston rod and the actuator works like an ordinary hydraulic double acting cylinder. For longer movements one of the pistons is connected alternatively to the piston rod providing the drive. In this way the two pistons are moving the piston rod alternatingly in a kind of rope climbing motion. The critical element is the clamping mechanism which is an already known machine element but used in this new application. Advantages of this concept are as follows: The actuator is compact. Very long strokes and piston rods are allowed without side effects of common cylinders. This property is the origin of the name “infinite cylinder”. The cylinder has small chamber volumes and so high hydraulic stiffness and low capacitance. It has also potentially no external leakage. The cylinder can provide twice the rated force for short strokes. Applications for this feature are the plate opening stroke of injection molding machines, or presses with low work to travel stroke ratio, like a press brake. The paper includes a detailed description of the design and the working principle. One critical component is the clamping mechanism which temporarily connects the pistons to the piston rod. The clamping mechanism together with the piston represents a new kind of machine element in the mechanical engineering field. Here the focus will be on the function and the control strategy. With simulation the proposed control strategy and function will be presented and the performance analyzed. The simulation model is backed up by first results from experiments on the early prototype. The experiments carried out so far on the hydraulic clamping mechanism, which is the critical component in the system show very promising results that the required function can be achieved. Furthermore, the function of the whole cylinder has been simulated with good result. For the full paper results from a functioning prototype is also to be expected.
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Rumschoettel, Dominik, Markus Kagerer, Franz Irlinger, and Tim C. Lueth. "Compact Model for the Static and Dynamic Behavior of a Piezoelectric Bimorph Actuator for Microfluidic MEMS." In ASME 2014 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2014-36654.
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Piezoelectric actuators are commonly used in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS). They can deliver high forces, large accelerations, and high power densities. However, one of their weaknesses is the comparatively small actuator travel that can be readily achieved. The elongation attainable by a slab of piezoelectric material is only a few tenth of a percent. Therefore, it is often useful to employ mechanical structures which are capable of amplifying those minute deflections. A particularly often used configuration is a sandwich structure consisting of either two differently poled strips of piezoelectric material or a single strip of piezoelectric and a layer of passive material. Such a structure is called a bimorph. If one of the layers is mounted above a cavity, the structure forms a membrane actuator. Because of their capability to displace fluid volume, those actuators are suitable for a wide range of applications in the area of microfluidics, including, but not limited to, micropumps, microvalves, microdroplet generators, and high frequency acoustic transducers. The directed design of those actuators demands the determination of their mechanical and electrical properties in advance. In the present paper a compact model for the characterization of such a bimorphic membrane actuator is presented. The model is based on an analytical description of the bending line of the membrane by means of Euler-Bernoulli-Beam theory. Relationships for the dependency of the actuator deflection and the volume displaced by the membrane on the geometry and the material properties of the actuator are established. Other model parameters like the moving mass and the effective stiffness are also determined. The identified parameters are used to create a behavioral model of the full dynamic characteristics of the actuator. This allows the prediction of the dynamic response to an arbitrary input excitation signal. The model is validated by comparing the predicted static and dynamic behavior of the membrane actuator with empirically derived results. For this purpose a number of test specimen with different actuator geometries are fabricated. The quasi-static deflection of the actuator is monitored with a laser-vibrometer for different drive voltages. Furthermore the dynamic behavior of the actuator is determined by recording its step response function. Overall, a model for the prediction of the static and dynamic behavior of a piezoelectrically driven bimorph membrane actuator is presented. The model validation shows good agreement between the predicted and measured behavior for the quasi-static deflection of the actuator and reasonable agreement for its dynamic properties.
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Babanin, Alexander, Mariana Bernardino, Franz von Bock und Polach, Ricardo Campos, Jun Ding, Sanne van Essen, Tomaso Gaggero, et al. "Committee I.1: Environment." In 21st International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress, Volume 1. SNAME, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/issc-2022-committee-i-1.
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Committee Mandate Concern for descriptions of the ocean environment, especially with respect to wave, current and wind, in deep and shallow waters, and ice, as a basis for the determination of environmental loads for structural design. Attention shall be given to statistical description of these and other related phenomena relevant to the safe design and operation of ships and offshore structures. The committee is encouraged to cooperate with the corresponding ITTC committee. Introduction and Metocean Forcing Environment Committee of ISSC, by its Mandate, deals with the Metocean environments. “In offshore and coastal engineering, metocean refers to the syllabic abbreviation of meteorology and (physical) oceanography” (Wikipedia). Metocean research covers dynamics of the oceaninterface environments: the air-sea surface, atmospheric boundary layer, upper ocean, the sea bed within the wavelength proximity (~100 m for wind-generated waves), and coastal areas. Metocean disciplines broadly comprise maritime engineering, marine meteorology, wave forecast, operational oceanography, oceanic climate, sediment transport, coastal morphology, and specialised technological disciplines for in-situ and remote sensing observations. Metocean applications incorporate offshore, coastal and Arctic engineering; navigation, shipping and naval architecture; marine search and rescue; environmental instrumentation, among others. Often, both for design and operational purposes the ISSC community is interested in Metocean Extremes which include extreme conditions (such as extreme tropical or extra-tropical cyclones), extreme events (such as rogue waves) and extreme environments (such as Marginal Ice Zone, MIZ). Certain Metocean conditions appear extreme, depending on applications (e.g. swell seas are benign for recreational sailing, but can be dangerous for dredging operations and are extreme for vessels transporting liquids). This report builds on the work of the previous Technical Committees in charge of Environment. The goal continues to be to review scientific and technological developments in the Metocean field from the last report, and to provide context of the developments, in order to give a balanced, accurate and up to date picture about the natural environment as well as data and models which can be used to accurately simulate it. The content of this report also reflects the interests and subject areas of the Committee membership, in accordance with the ISSC I.1 mandate. The Committee has continued cooperation with the Environment Committee of ITTC and with ISSC Committee V.6 Ocean Space Utilization. The Committee consisted of members from academia, research organizations, research laboratories and classification societies. The Committee formally met as a group in person two times before the COVID onset: in Glasgow, Scotland on the 9th of June 2019, before the 38th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering (OMAE 2019) and in Melbourne, Australia on the 10th of November 2019, following the 15th International Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting. It’s also held a number of regular teleconferences: two before the face-to-face meetings and seven after, once international travel was stopped by the pandemic. Additionally, Committee members met on an ad-hoc basis during their international travels in 2019. With the wide range of subject areas that this report must cover, and the limited space, this Committee report does not purport to be exhaustive; however, the Committee believes that the reader will be presented a fair and balanced view of the subjects covered, and we recommend this report for the consideration of the ISSC 2022 Congress. The report consists of 11 Sections: two of which include the Introduction and Conclusions, and nine are the main content. The opening Section 1 outlines and defines Metocean Forcings which can affect the offshore design and operations and are the subject of this Review Chapter. The review of publications starts from progress in Analytical Theory in 2018-2021, Section 2. It covers the basic framework of experimental, numerical, remote sensing and all the other methods and approaches in Metocean science and engineering. Numerical Modelling (Section 3) is one of the most rapidly developing research and application environments over the past two decades, it allows us to extend the theory when analytical solutions are not possible, and to complement (or even replace) some of the experimental approaches of the past. Computer simulations will always need verification, validation and calibration of their outcomes through experiments and observations, particularly in engineering applications and offshore Metocean science. Therefore, Section 4 (Measurements and Observations) is the largest in the Chapter. Section 5 is effectively a modern extension of the measurement section – it is dedicated to Remote Sensing. Over the last four decades, the remote sensing has both become a powerful instrumental tool for field observations and remains an active area of engineering research in its own right as we see through growing developments of new capabilities in this space. While the first five chapters are broadly dedicated to direct outcomes of Metocean research, the rest of the chapters focus more on analysis and indirect outputs. With mounting amounts of collected data: numerical, experimental, remote sensing, - Section 6 discusses advances in Data Analysis, and Section 7 in Statistics, its Theory and Analysis. Section 8, on Wave- Coupled Phenomena, reflects one of the most rapidly developing areas in Metocean science, particularly important in our era of numerical modelling. It accommodates various topics of interactions between small-scale phenomena (waves) and large-scale processes in the air-sea environments: wave breaking, wave-current and wave-ice interactions, wave influences in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) and in the upper ocean, and complex wave-coupled modelling in the full combined air-sea-ice-wave system. Most essential for offshore engineering, is modelling and understanding of Extreme Events and Conditions, which are the subject of Section 9. Last, but not the least, Section 10 discusses Wind-Wave Climate which is connected to the global climate change. This connection is threaded throughout other sections of the chapter and is of utmost significance in offshore Metocean design and planning.
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Ramio-Tomas, Laia, Bertrand Raffier, and Carole Dufour. "SWOT: an AOCS answering to high payload constraints and a controlled reentry of a large satellite." In ESA 12th International Conference on Guidance Navigation and Control and 9th International Conference on Astrodynamics Tools and Techniques. ESA, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5270/esa-gnc-icatt-2023-028.
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Following the successful series of the Jason satellites family, the French-US SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography) satellite was launched at the end of 2022. Thanks to its wide-swath Ka-band radar interferometer, KaRin, developed by the NASA-JPL, it will offer a new opportunity for measuring the surface water height of lakes, river and flood zones, and for seeing mesoscale and sub-mesoscale circulation patterns of oceans. The platform, developed by Thales Alenia Space for CNES, is dimensioned for a satellite mass near 2 tons and a large power supply near 6.6 kWs in order to satisfy the mission needs on a drifting low earth orbit (altitude near 900 km, inclination of 78 degrees) with a local nadir and track compensation guidance. This platform uses the generic Step2 avionics developed by Thales Alenia Space. Its AOCS (Attitude and Orbit Control System) is based for the mission on a gyroless estimation and a 4-RWs control. The first challenge of the SWOT life was the deployment of the KaRin payload constituted of two radar antennas perched at the end of two 5-meter booms. A dedicated AOCS strategy has been implemented, in order to guarantee the robustness of this critical phase at both payload and platform level. As soon as the payload has been deployed, it requires a high dynamical stability in order to achieve the foreseen precision. This stability is defined by a criterion based on displacements of several points on the payload and a threshold expressed in terms of PSD (Power Spectral Density). It induces a specific approach in terms of AOCS tunings, in order to limit the excitation of given payload flexible modes for a wide range of frequencies. The last dimensioning point in terms of AOCS is the end of life strategy. The French Space Operation Act was adopted by the French Senate in 2008 in order to assure the protection of people, goods and the environment with respect to space activities. As SWOT launch has taken place after the year 2020 and the control operations will be done at CNES in France, the satellite shall respect the requirements existing in the FSOA in terms of end of life. One of the major constraints is the casualty risk limitation and due to the payload constitution there is only one solution: to guarantee a controlled re-entry of the satellite after the end of the mission. This implies a dedicated AOCS architecture, especially in terms of propulsion capacity and of guidance at low altitudes. The strategy adopted in order to be compliant to the FSOA consists in aiming an impact of the satellite debris inside the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Area (SPOUA). For doing this, a first phase consists on descending the perigee to achieve an elliptic orbit from the mission circular orbit. The objective of this phase is to decrease the perigee until the minimum altitude to ensure attitude control. This attitude has been determined with an iterative process to optimize the solar arrays position, leading to a glider approach. Then a second phase contains a last single thrust at the apogee for the final re-entry over SPOUA. The casualty risk has been computed taking into account the equipment reliability, which has led to a design with 8 thrusters for the reentry instead of one unique apogee engine. The objective of this paper is to explain how the SWOT payload has impacted the AOCS architecture. The main specificity of SWOT is the fact that the payload has to be taken into account before the mission, during the mission and after the mission. In the end, the AOCS has to manage a large satellite, a variable geometry (due to the payload deployment in flight) and a variable orbital domain (due to the controlled re-entry after the mission). The paper describes the mission context in the first part. Then it focuses on the payload deployment strategy in the second part. In the third part, the performance during the mission phase is presented. The last part of the paper is dedicated to the controlled re-entry description. The paper will present for each subject the developed concepts and the strategy used for their validation, and will illustrate them with the behavior observed in flight.
Reports on the topic "Pacific area, description and travel"
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Jacobsen, Nils. Linjebussens vekst og fall i den voksende byen: en studie av bybussenes geografiske kvalitet Stavanger – Sandnes 1920 – 2010. University of Stavanger, November 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.31265/usps.244.
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Linear city bus services are facing increased challenges from city growth. Increased number of inhabitants on increasing acres of built-up areas, makes it demanding to maintain adequate bus services within reasonable catchment areas. Number of departures per hour give a partial description of the bus service quality. Number of departures give reference to the time aspect of bus service quality, but say nothing about the geographical aspect. What part of the entire line network is within reach of direct bus service when frequencies are limited? To address the geographical aspect of bus service quality, the term network ratio is introduced. The term Network Ratio (NR) signifies what part of the entire line network is within reach of direct bus service to or from a certain place in the network. Network Ratio is given as a mathematical term whereby direct bus lines are calculated as a percentage of the entire network. The character and development of Network Ratio in a specific city is illustrated through an analysis of the urban growth of line network and built-up areas in the twin cities of Stavanger and Sandnes. The analysis is covering the period 1920 – 2000 in intervals of 20 years from the first bus lines were established in the urban area. Year 2010 is also included due to major changes implemented right after the turn of the millennium. Development show there is a close relation between bus network and built-up areas. When areas are being built, bus lines follow. The initial fase 1920 – 40 with extensive development of bus lines combined with some areal growth, is followed by a fase of consolidation 1940 – 60. The latter period is characterized by moderate areal growth, extended lines reducing network ratios, and increasing frequencies on the best bus lines. Extensive areal growth in the following period 1960 – 80, implies increased number of bus lines. As a consequence network ratios as well as frequencies are falling in the entire network. In 1960 certain lines had developed as much as 6 departures per hour, while maximum bus line frequency in 1980 has diminished to 2. New bus service development is introduced in the following period between 1980 and 2000. Numerous bus companies are united, and a more comprehensive planning of bus services are applied. The number of bus lines is stabilized at about 40, the fall in network ratio is reduced, and certain lines develop 4 departures per hour. Parallell to the bus development, growth of built-up areas is slowing down due to increased urban renewal with higher densities within built-up areas. In the period 2000 – 2010 new efforts are given to the development of bus services. Development of Network Ratio takes a new direction: The length of network links with high NR is increasing, while links with very low NR are diminishing. Number of bus lines is decreasing, and by 2010 almost 50% of the bus lines are served with 4 departures or more. Passenger comfort is improved in buses as well as on bus stops, and low floor buses are introduced to ease accessibility. Bus service quality is further developed after 2010. Digital services are introduced including digital ticketing, bus service information and real-time information on internet. In addition real-time information is presented at high frequency bus stops through visual screen and auditory speaker. Inside the buses name of next stop is given on screen and through loudspeaker. Further development of the bus services, should include improved Network Ratios in the entire network, as well as increased frequencies on major bus corridors. The latter is a task not only for the bus service planners, but just as well for the city planners and politicians in collaboration with the developers implementing urban density and allocation of important destinations. A last, but not least, objective for bus service development will be to improve punctuality and total travel time. Today a considerable proportion of city bus services are delayed in car traffic congestions. This is occurring especially on main streets and during rush hours. A set of different solutions are needed to address this question: 1. Dedicated bus streets (including car access to limited addresses) 2. Bus lines through local streets in concentrated housing, office and shopping areas. 3. Dedicated bus lane on main streets where possible. 4. Car traffic regulations on main streets without space for extra bus lane. As an overall vision, we need to cultivate the word of Flemming Larsen: urban growth as pearls on a string, as shown in fig. 13 and fig. 14.