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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 10 February 2022

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1

Zupanc, Frank J. Pulsed laser Rayleigh scattering diagnostic for hyrogen/oxygen rocket exit plane flowfield velocimetry. [Washington, DC]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1993.

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2

Jagadis Gupta, Kapuganti, ed. Plant Respiration and Internal Oxygen. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7292-0.

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3

Rio, Luis Alfonso, and Alain Puppo, eds. Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Signaling. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00390-5.

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4

Bhattacharjee, Soumen. Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Biology. New Delhi: Springer India, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3941-3.

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5

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee. F-22 pilot physiological issues: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Tactical Air and Land Forces of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, second session, hearing held September 13, 2012. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2013.

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6

Penn State Symposium in Plant Physiology (6th 1991 Pennsylvania State University). Active oxygen/oxidative stress and plant metabolism: Proceedings, 6th annual Penn State Symposium in Plant Physiology, May 23-25, 1991. Rockville, Md: American Society of Plant Physiologists, 1991.

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7

Managers, Institute of Gas Engineers and. Guidance notes on the use of oxygen in industrial gas fired plant and working flame busters. 3rd ed. London: Institute of Gas Engineers and Managers, 1989.

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8

Olson, John. Oxygen: A mission gone desperately wrong and no way out short of blind faith. Waterville, Me: Thorndike Press, 2001.

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9

Riggs, Sharon R. The effect of exposure to environmental normoxia and hypoxia on photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll concentration in intertidal Zostera marina leaves. Mount Vernon, Wash: Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Shorelands and Coastal Zone Management Program, Washington State Dept. of Ecology, 1995.

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10

Piotrowski, Robert. Hierarchiczne sterowanie predykcyjne stężeniem tlenu w reaktorze biologicznej oczyszczalni ścieków: Hierarchical predictive control of dissolved oxygen in biological wastewater treatment plant. Gdańsk: Politechnika Gdańska, 2011.

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11

Canfield, Donald Eugene. Life before Oxygen. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.003.0002.

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This chapter discusses the nature of life on ancient Earth before the evolution of oxygen production. It suggests that the Earth enjoyed an active and diverse biosphere well before the evolution of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria. This biosphere was fueled, mainly, by chemical compounds liberated during volcanism, underscoring again the importance of plate tectonics in shaping life on our planet. Geological evidence indicates that many of the processes that we have imagined were part of the early biosphere that was in place 3.5 billion years ago. These processes include methanogenesis, sulfate reduction, and decomposition of dead organic biomass, which was likely aided by a host of different fermenting bacteria. It seems likely, though, that this early biosphere was much less active than what we enjoy at present.
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12

Canfield, Donald Eugene. Oxygen. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.001.0001.

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The air we breathe is 21 percent oxygen, an amount higher than on any other known world. While we may take our air for granted, Earth was not always an oxygenated planet. How did it become this way? This book covers this vast history, emphasizing its relationship to the evolution of life and the evolving chemistry of the Earth. The book guides readers through the various lines of scientific evidence, considers some of the wrong turns and dead ends along the way, and highlights the scientists and researchers who have made key discoveries in the field. Showing how Earth's atmosphere developed over time, the book takes readers on a remarkable journey through the history of the oxygenation of our planet.
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13

Reactive Oxygen Species In Plant Signaling. Springer, 2009.

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14

Bhattacharjee, Soumen. Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Biology. Springer, 2019.

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15

Active Oxygen Oxidative Stress and Plant Metabolism. Amer Society of Plant Physiologists, 1991.

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16

Canfield, Donald Eugene. Epilogue. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.003.0012.

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This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that Earth as a planet has the “right stuff” to be an oxygen-accumulating planet. Having the right stuff, however, is not enough. For oxygen to accumulate, it has to be produced, which means that oxygen-producing organisms must first evolve. On Earth, the pathway to the evolution of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria was quite a convoluted and complex process. The chapter asks, if history would repeat itself, would the outcome be the same? Would cyanobacteria have evolved in the same manner? Would coupled photosystems have emerged in the same way, or at all, or would something different have taken its place?
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17

Lindermayr, Christian, Joerg Durner, Ann Cuypers, Jörg-Peter Schnitzler, and Krystyna Oracz, eds. Highlights of POG 2019 - Plant Oxygen Group Conference. Frontiers Media SA, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88966-576-1.

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18

B, Jackson Michael, Davies D. D, and Lambers H, eds. Plant life under oxygen deprivation: Ecology, physiology and biochemistry. The Hague, The Netherlands: SPB Academic Pub., 1991.

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19

Plant Life Under Oxygen Deprivation: Ecology, Physiology and Biochemistry. Balogh Scientific Books, 1990.

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20

Plant life under oxygen deprivation: Ecology, physiology and biochemistry. The Hague, The Netherlands: SPB Academic Pub., 1991.

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21

Mark, Allen, Gladstone George Randall, and United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., eds. Nitrogen and oxygen photochemistry following SL9. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1995.

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22

Zamor, Natacha. Hypoxia During Anesthesia. Edited by Matthew D. McEvoy and Cory M. Furse. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0022.

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In the modern anesthesia machine, there are various safety checks in place to help prevent the delivery of a hypoxic gas mixture to the patient. They include the pin index safety system (PISS), diameter index safety system (DISS), failsafe valve, oxygen-nitrous oxide proportioning system, oxygen supply failure alarm, flowmeter sequence, and, most distally, the oxygen analyzer. The PISS is a feature in the high-pressure system. The DISS, failsafe valve, and oxygen failure alarm are in the intermediate-pressure system. The flowmeters, proportioning system, and oxygen analyzer are in the low-pressure system. This chapter undertakes a discussion of the distinct role of each feature and their limitations.
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23

R, Butkus Steven, Shiao Ming C, Yeager Bruce L, and Tennessee Valley Authority. River Basin Operations., eds. The effect of Sequoyah Nuclear Plant on dissolved oxygen in Chickamauga Reservoir. Chattanooga, Tenn: Tennessee Valley Authority, Resource Development, River Basin Operations, Water Resources, 1990.

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24

Canfield, Donald Eugene. The Great Oxidation. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.003.0008.

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This chapter deals with the “great oxidation event” (GOE), which represents a quantum shift in the oxygen content of the atmosphere. It suggests that the GOE represents the evolution of cyanobacteria. According to the geologic record, the oxygen content of Earth's atmosphere increased dramatically around 2.3 billion years ago. Since cyanobacteria likely evolved much earlier, it does not appear that a well-oxygenated atmosphere is a necessary or immediate consequence of the activities of oxygen-producing organisms. Atmospheric chemistry is a slave to the dynamics of the mantle, as the interior and exterior of the planet are connected in a profound way. Indeed, it took half of Earth's history for the mantle to quiet to point where oxygen could accumulate. This, however, represented a watershed, a tipping point if you will, where the chemistry of Earth's surface was forever altered.
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25

Canfield, Donald Eugene. Cyanobacteria: The Great Liberators. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691145020.003.0004.

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This chapter discusses the importance of cyanobacteria. The evolution of cyanobacteria brought the biological production of oxygen to Earth for the first time. This led, in turn, to the eventual accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere and to the widespread evolution of oxygen-utilizing organisms. However, the importance of cyanobacteria goes beyond this. Cyanobacteria were the first photosynthetic organisms on Earth to use water as a source of electrons. Unlike the sulfide, Fe2+, and H2 used by anoxygenic phototrophic organisms, water is almost everywhere on the planet surface. This means that biological production on Earth was no longer limited by the electron source (water in this case), but rather by nutrients and other trace constituents making up the cells. In the end, the use of water in photosynthesis resulted in an increase in rates of primary production on Earth by probably somewhere between a factor of ten to a thousand. For the first time, life on Earth became truly plentiful. With the evolution of cyanobacteria, Earth was on its way to becoming a green planet.
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26

Dai, Ziyu. The sensitivity of photosynthesis to water stress and oxygen: Gas exchange, fluorescence and biochemical analysis. 1993.

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27

United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, ed. Conceptual design of a lunar oxygen pilot plant: Lunar base systems study (LESS) task 4.2. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1988.

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28

Olson, John B., and Randall Ingermanson. Oxygen: A Mission Gone Desperately Wrong and No Way Out Short of Blind Faith. Thorndike Press, 2001.

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29

Henderson, Kelley. Oxygen mass transfer and shear sensitivity studies during cultivation of Nicotiana tabacum var. Wisconsin 38 in a stirred-tank bioreactor. 1991.

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30

Kirchman, David L. Microbial primary production and phototrophy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789406.003.0006.

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This chapter is focused on the most important process in the biosphere, primary production, the turning of carbon dioxide into organic material by higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Photosynthetic microbes account for roughly 50% of global primary production while the other half is by large, terrestrial plants. After reviewing the basic physiology of photosynthesis, the chapter discusses approaches to measuring gross and net primary production and how these processes affect fluxes of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of aquatic ecosystems. It then points out that terrestrial plants have high biomass but relatively low growth, while the opposite is the case for aquatic algae and cyanobacteria. Primary production varies greatly with the seasons in temperate ecosystems, punctuated by the spring bloom when the biomass of one algal type, diatoms, reaches a maximum. Other abundant algal types include coccolithophorids in the oceans and filamentous cyanobacteria in freshwaters. After the bloom, small algae take over and out-compete larger forms for limiting nutrients because of superior uptake kinetics. Abundant types of small algae include two coccoid cyanobacteria, Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus, the latter said to be the most abundant photoautotroph on the planet because of its large numbers in oligotrophic oceans. Other algae, often dinoflagellates, are toxic. Many algae can also graze on other microbes, probably to obtain limiting nitrogen or phosphorus. Still other microbes are mainly heterotrophic but are capable of harvesting light energy. Primary production in oxic environments is carried out by oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, whereas in anoxic environments with sufficient light, it is anaerobic anoxygenic photosynthesis in which oxygen is not produced. Although its contribution to global primary production is small, anoxygenic photosynthesis helps us understand the biophysics and biochemistry of photosynthesis and its evolution on early Earth. These microbes as well as aerobic phototrophic and heterotrophic microbes make up microbial mats. These mats can provide insights into early life on the planet when a type of mat, “stromatolites,” covered vast areas of primordial seas in the Proterozoic.
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31

Ho, Chung-Han. Shear sensitivity and oxygen mass transfer studies during cultivation of tobacco cells in a stirred-tank bioreactor of impeller speeds of 100 to 325 rpm. 1994.

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32

Burton, Derek, and Margaret Burton. Gas exchange. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198785552.003.0006.

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Oxygen intake for respiration, also carbon dioxide and, generally, ammonia elimination takes place across gas-exchange surfaces, usually the gills in fish. Water flows across gills, separated by the pharyngeal gill clefts, and supported by gill arches, and which possess highly folded surfaces covered by a very thin epithelium. Blood flow and water flow are separated only by the epithelium with a ‘countercurrent’ gas exchange between the two. A respiratory centre in the hind-brain is a respiratory rhythm pacemaker for the oral and pharyngeal ventilation movements creating water flow across the gills, although ‘ram ventilation’ occurs without such movements. The oxygen and carbon dioxide-carrying capacity of blood is increased considerably by temporary attachment to haemoglobin pigment in the erythrocytes. Some fish are air breathing, using lungs, swim bladder, skin or lips for gaseous exchange. Hypoxia, hypercapnia, supersaturation and high water temperatures present problems for fish respiration, which are discussed.
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33

Riggs, Sharon R. The effect of exposure to environmental normoxia and hypoxia on photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll concentration in intertidal Zostera marina leaves. 1995.

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34

Kirchman, David L. Processes in anoxic environments. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789406.003.0011.

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During organic material degradation in oxic environments, electrons from organic material, the electron donor, are transferred to oxygen, the electron acceptor, during aerobic respiration. Other compounds, such as nitrate, iron, sulfate, and carbon dioxide, take the place of oxygen during anaerobic respiration in anoxic environments. The order in which these compounds are used by bacteria and archaea (only a few eukaryotes are capable of anaerobic respiration) is set by thermodynamics. However, concentrations and chemical state also determine the relative importance of electron acceptors in organic carbon oxidation. Oxygen is most important in the biosphere, while sulfate dominates in marine systems, and carbon dioxide in environments with low sulfate concentrations. Nitrate respiration is important in the nitrogen cycle but not in organic material degradation because of low nitrate concentrations. Organic material is degraded and oxidized by a complex consortium of organisms, the anaerobic food chain, in which the by-products from physiological types of organisms becomes the starting material of another. The consortium consists of biopolymer hydrolysis, fermentation, hydrogen gas production, and the reduction of either sulfate or carbon dioxide. The by-product of sulfate reduction, sulfide and other reduced sulfur compounds, is oxidized back eventually to sulfate by either non-phototrophic, chemolithotrophic organisms or by phototrophic microbes. The by-product of another main form of anaerobic respiration, carbon dioxide reduction, is methane, which is produced only by specific archaea. Methane is degraded aerobically by bacteria and anaerobically by some archaea, sometimes in a consortium with sulfate-reducing bacteria. Cultivation-independent approaches focusing on 16S rRNA genes and a methane-related gene (mcrA) have been instrumental in understanding these consortia because the microbes remain uncultivated to date. The chapter ends with some discussion about the few eukaryotes able to reproduce without oxygen. In addition to their ecological roles, anaerobic protists provide clues about the evolution of primitive eukaryotes.
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35

Hemer, Katie A., and Jane A. Evans. The Contribution of Stable Isotope Analysis to the Study of Childhood Movement and Migration. Edited by Sally Crawford, Dawn M. Hadley, and Gillian Shepherd. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199670697.013.27.

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Stable isotope analysis is firmly established as a method for the investigation of past population mobility. The distinction between local and non-local individuals within a cemetery population relies on identifying an individual’s place of childhood residence through the analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes present in human tooth enamel. Traditionally, studies investigating mobility focus on the analysis of a single tooth. More recently, however, it has become apparent that in order to investigate the mobility of an individual during childhood—and thus to consider the importance of children in the migration process—it is necessary to analyse a series of teeth which form at different stages during the early years of life. This chapter will consider the potential of—and challenges surrounding—this scientific approach to the investigation of childhood mobility in the past.
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36

Jansen, Tim C., and Jan Bakker. Lactate monitoring in the ICU. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0139.

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An increased blood lactate level (hyperlactataemia) is commonplace in critically-ill patients. Lactate is usually measured with the aim of detecting tissue hypoxia, but this is an oversimplification as aerobic processes can also result in increased levels. Understanding of the various anaerobic and aerobic mechanisms of production and clearance is essential for the correct interpretation of hyperlactataemia. Despite the broad differential diagnosis, hyperlactataemia generally predicts adverse outcomes. The consistency of its prognostic value emphasizes its place in the risk stratification of critically-ill patients. Lactate clearance was non-inferior to central venous oxygen saturation as a goal of early resuscitation in patients presenting to the emergency department with severe sepsis or septic shock. Therapy guidance by lactate monitoring significantly reduced hospital mortality in ICU patients admitted with hyperlactataemia after adjustment for predefined risk factors, a finding consistent with important secondary endpoints. These results confirm that lactate monitoring offers clinical benefit and should be incorporated within a goal-directed therapy strategy.
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37

Care, Valerie ER Earth. Tree Is Our Best Friend, They Give Us Free Oxygen: Earth Day Anniversary, the Planet Environmental Care Notebook Journal College-Ruled Journey Diary, 120 Pages, Lined, 6x9 Funny Gag Gifts. Independently Published, 2020.

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38

Care, Cecilia ER planet. Tree Is Our Best Friend, They Give Us Free Oxygen: Earth Day Anniversary, the Planet Environmental Care Notebook Journal College-Ruled Journey Diary, 120 Pages, Lined, 6x9 Funny Gag Gifts. Independently Published, 2020.

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39

Lachniet, Matthew S., and Juan Pablo Bernal-Uruchurtu. AD 550–600 Collapse at Teotihuacan. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199329199.003.0006.

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We analyze a 2400-year rainfall reconstruction from an ultra-high-resolution absolutely-dated stalagmite (JX-6) from southwestern Mexico (Lachniet et al., 2012). Oxygen isotope variations correlate strongly to rainfall amount in the Mexico City area since 1870 CE, and for the wider southwestern Mexico region since 1948, allowing us to quantitatively reconstruct rainfall variability for the Basin of Mexico and Sierra Madre del Sur for the past 2400 years. Because oxygen isotopes integrate rainfall variations over broad geographic regions, our data suggest substantial variations in Mesoamerican monsoon strength over the past two millennia. As a result of low age uncertainties (≤ 11 yr), our stalagmite paleoclimate reconstruction allows us to place robust ages on past rainfall variations with a resolution an order of magnitude more precise than archeological dates associated with societal change. We relate our new rainfall reconstruction to the sequence of events at Teotihuacan (Millon, 1967; Cowgill, 2015a) and to other pre-Colombian civilizations in Mesoamerica. We observe a centuries long drying trend that culminated in peak drought conditions in ca. 750 CE related to a weakening monsoon, which may have been a stressor on Mesoamerican societies. Teotihuacan is an ideal location to test for links between climate change and society, because it was located in a semi-arid highland valley with limited permanent water sources, which relied upon spring fed irrigation to ensure a reliable maize harvest (Sanders, 1977). The city of Teotihuacan was one of the largest Mesoamerican cities, which apparently reached population sizes of 80,000 to 100,000 inhabitants by AD 300 (Cowgill, 1997; 2015a). Following the “Great Fire”, which dates approximately to AD 550, population decreased to lower levels and many buildings were abandoned (Cowgill, 2015). Because of the apparent reliance on rainwater capture (Linn é, 2003) and spring-fed agriculture in the Teotihuacan valley to ensure food security and drinking water, food production and domestic water supplies should have been sensitive to rainfall variations that recharge the surficial aquifer that sustained spring discharge prior recent groundwater extraction.
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40

Lupano, Cecilia Elena. Modificaciones de componentes de los alimentos. Editorial de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata (EDULP), 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.35537/10915/32177.

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Vingt ans après son séjour dans notre laboratoire de Biochimie et Technologie Alimentaires de l’Université de Montpellier, Cécilia Lupano m’a fait le plaisir de me présenter son tout récent livre électronique. L’ouvrage porte sur les modifications des constituants des aliments sous l’effet des traitements technologiques et de l’entreposage. Sont pris en compte les macro-constituants (protides, lipides, glucides), ainsi qu’un grand nombre de constituants minoritaires, dont les vitamines. Les réactions chimiques et biochimiques affectant ces constituants font l’objet d’une description très complète appuyée sur de nombreuses références bibliographiques. Les facteurs (température, temps, pH, teneur en oxygène, pression, activités enzymatiques…) qui influencent ces modifications chimiques sont examinés, ainsi que l’impact bénéfique ou néfaste de ces dernières sur les plans sensoriel, fonctionnel et nutritionnel. <i>(del prólogo de J. Claude Cheftel)</i>
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41

Rickard, David. Pyrite. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190203672.001.0001.

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Most people have heard of pyrite, the brassy yellow mineral sometimes known as fool's gold. Pyrite behaves like stone and shines like metal, and its dual nature makes it a source of both metals and sulfur. Despite being the most common sulfide mineral on the earth's surface, pyrite's bright crystals have attracted the attention of many different cultures, and its nearly identical visual appearance to gold has led to tales of fraud, trickery, and claims of alchemy. Pyrite occupies a unique place in human history: it became an integral part of mining culture in America during the 19th century, and it has a presence in ancient Sumerian texts, Greek philosophy, and medieval poetry, becoming a symbol for anything overvalued. In Pyrite, geochemist and author David Rickard blends basic science and historical narrative to describe the many unique ways pyrite is integral to our world. He explains the basic science of oxidation, showing us why the mineral looks like gold, and inspects death zones of present oceans where pyrite-related hydrogen sulfide destroys oxygen in the waters. Rickard analyzes pyrite's role in manufacturing sulfuric acid and discusses the significant appearance of the mineral in literature, history, and the development of societies. The mineral's influence extends from human evolution and culture, through science and industry, to our understanding of ancient, modern, and future earth environments. Energetic and accessible, Pyrite is the first book to show readers the history and science of a mineral that helped make the modern world.
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42

White, Robert E. Understanding Vineyard Soils. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199342068.001.0001.

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The first edition of Understanding Vineyard Soils has been praised for its comprehensive coverage of soil topics relevant to viticulture. However, the industry is dynamic--new developments are occurring, especially with respect to measuring soil variability, managing soil water, possible effects of climate change, rootstock breeding and selection, monitoring sustainability, and improving grape quality and the "typicity" of wines. All this is embodied in an increased focus on the terroir or "sense of place" of vineyard sites, with greater emphasis being placed on wine quality relative to quantity in an increasingly competitive world market. The promotion of organic and biodynamic practices has raised a general awareness of "soil health", which is often associated with a soil's biology, but which to be properly assessed must be focused on a soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties. This edition of White's influential book presents the latest updates on these and other developments in soil management in vineyards. With a minimum of scientific jargon, Understanding Vineyard Soils explains the interaction between soils on a variety of parent materials around the world and grapevine growth and wine typicity. The essential chemical and physical processes involving nutrients, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide, moderated by the activities of soil organisms, are discussed. Methods are proposed for alleviating adverse conditions such as soil acidity, sodicity, compaction, poor drainage, and salinity. The pros and cons of organic viticulture are debated, as are the possible effects of climate change. The author explains how sustainable wine production requires winegrowers to take care of the soil and minimize their impact on the environment. This book is a practical guide for winegrowers and the lay reader who is seeking general information about soils, but who may also wish to pursue in more depth the influence of different soil types on vine performance and wine character.
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43

Kirchman, David L. Degradation of organic matter. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789406.003.0007.

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The aerobic oxidation of organic material by microbes is the focus of this chapter. Microbes account for about 50% of primary production in the biosphere, but they probably account for more than 50% of organic material oxidization and respiration (oxygen use). The traditional role of microbes is to degrade organic material and to release plant nutrients such as phosphate and ammonium as well as carbon dioxide. Microbes are responsible for more than half of soil respiration, while size fractionation experiments show that bacteria are also responsible for about half of respiration in aquatic habitats. In soils, both fungi and bacteria are important, with relative abundances and activity varying with soil type. In contrast, fungi are not common in the oceans and lakes, where they are out-competed by bacteria with their small cell size. Dead organic material, detritus, used by microbes, comes from dead plants and waste products from herbivores. It and associated microbes can be eaten by many eukaryotic organisms, forming a detritus food web. These large organisms also break up detritus into small pieces, creating more surface area on which microbes can act. Microbes in turn need to use extracellular enzymes to hydrolyze large molecular weight compounds, which releases small compounds that can be transported into cells. Fungi and bacteria use a different mechanism, “oxidative decomposition,” to degrade lignin. Organic compounds that are otherwise easily degraded (“labile”) may resist decomposition if absorbed to surfaces or surrounded by refractory organic material. Addition of labile compounds can stimulate or “prime” the degradation of other organic material. Microbes also produce organic compounds, some eventually resisting degradation for thousands of years, and contributing substantially to soil organic material in terrestrial environments and dissolved organic material in aquatic ones. The relationship between community diversity and a biochemical process depends on the metabolic redundancy among members of the microbial community. This redundancy may provide “ecological insurance” and ensure the continuation of key biogeochemical processes when environmental conditions change.
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