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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 29 January 2023

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1

Ireland. Food Safety Advisory Committee. Leptospiral infections, Lyme disease, Babesiosis, Orf virus disease. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1992.

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2

Lapierre, Hervé. Virus and virus diseases of Poaceae (Gramineae). Edited by Signoret Pierre A and Institut national de la recherche agronomique (France). Paris: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (France), 2004.

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3

Michael, Thresh J., ed. Plant virus epidemiology. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2006.

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4

A, Hadidi, Khetarpal R. K, and Koganezawa H, eds. Plant virus disease control. St. Paul, Minn: APS Press, 1998.

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5

G, Loebenstein, Lawson Roger H, and Brunt A. A, eds. Virus and virus-like diseases of bulb and flower crops. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.

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6

Frank and Bobbie Fenner Conference on Medical Research. (1st 1988 John Curtin School of Medical Research). Immunology of virus diseases. [Canberra]: John Curtin School of Medical Research, 1989.

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7

Jornadas Internacionales De iusticia et iure en el Siglo de Oro (5th 2010 Buenos Aires, Argentina). Ius et virtus en el Siglo de Oro. Edited by Corso de Estrada, Laura E. and Zorroza Idoya. Pamplona: Eunsa, 2011.

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8

Matthews, R. E. F. 1921-, ed. Diagnosis of plant virus diseases. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993.

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9

Sreenivasulu, P. Physiology of virus infected plants. New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1989.

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10

Society for General Microbiology. Symposium. Molecular basis of virus disease. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Published for the Society of General Microbiology [by] Cambridge University Press, 1987.

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11

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant virus, vector epidemiology and management. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, 2010.

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12

Johnson, Dennis A. Virus diseases of squash in Washington. Pullman: Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Washington State University, 1988.

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13

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant virus, vector epidemiology and management. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, 2010.

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14

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant virus, vector epidemiology and management. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, 2010.

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15

Biochemistry of virus-infected plants. Letchworth, Hertfordshire, England: Research Studies Press, 1987.

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16

The life of a virus: Tobacco mosaic virus as an experimental model, 1930-1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.

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17

Virus diseases of trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. London: Chapman & Hall, 1993.

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18

Husaini, Adian. Virus liberalisme di perguruan tinggi Islam. Jakarta: Gema Insani, 2009.

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19

Husaini, Adian. Virus liberalisme di perguruan tinggi Islam. Jakarta: Gema Insani, 2009.

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20

Husaini, Adian. Virus liberalisme di perguruan tinggi Islam. Jakarta: Gema Insani, 2009.

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21

International Symposium on Viruses with Fungal Vectors (1987 St. Andrews University). Viruses with fungal vectors. Wellesbourne, Warwick: Association of Applied Biologists, 1988.

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22

Danielová, Vlasta. Relationships of mosquitoes to Ťahyňa virus as determinant factors of its circulation in nature. Prague: Academia, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1992.

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23

Reid, Hugh W., and Mark P. Dagleish. Poxviruses. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0040.

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The poxviruses are a large family of complex viruses infecting many species of vertebrates as well as arthropods, and members of the three genera Orthopoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus and Parapoxvirus are the cause of sporadic zoonotic infections originating from both wildlife and domestic livestock. Infections of humans are generally associated with localized lesions, regarded as inconvenient rather than life-threatening, although severe illnesses have occurred, particularly in immunologically compromised individuals.The most celebrated of the orthopoxvirus infections is cowpox — a zoonotic infection which has been exploited to the enormous benefit of mankind as it had a pivotal role in the initiation of vaccination strategies that eventually led to the eradication of smallpox. Cowpox occurs only in Eurasia and in recent years it has become evident that infection of cattle is fortuitous and the reservoir of infection is in wild rodents. Monkeypox is another orthopoxvirus causing zoonotic infections in central and west Africa resembling smallpox and is the most serious disease in this category. While monkeypox does not readily spread between people, the potential of the virus to adapt to man is of concern and necessitates sustained surveillance in enzootic areas.The third orthopoxvirus zoonoses of importance is buffalopox in the Indian subcontinent, which is probably a strain of vaccinia that has been maintained in buffalo for at least 30 years following the cessation of vaccination of the human population. Likewise in Brazil, in recent years widespread outbreaks of vaccinia have occurred in milkers and their cattle.Orf virus, the most common of the parapoxviruses to cause zoonotic infection, is largely restricted to those in direct contact with domestic sheep and goats. Generally, infection is associated with a single localized macule affecting the hand which resolves without complications. Infection would appear to be prevalent in all sheep and goat populations and human orf is a relatively common occupational hazard. Sporadic parapoxvirus infections of man also occur following contact with cattle infected with pseudocowpoxvirus, and wildlife, in particular seals.A final serious consideration with the poxvirus zoonoses is the clinical similarity of such infections with smallpox. In view of the potential for smallpox virus to be employed by bio-terrorists there can be an urgency for laboratory confirmation of unexplained zoonotic poxvirus infections. Thus there is a requirement to maintain the capacity for rapid confirmation of poxvirus infections by molecular technique. As representatives of the known poxviruses have all been sequenced, generic and virus specific Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) can readily be performed to ensure rapid confirmation of any suspect infection.
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24

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant Virus, Vector. Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

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25

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant Virus, Vector. Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

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26

Mukhopadhyay, S. Plant Virus, Vector. Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

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27

Mukhopadhyay, S., and Mukhopadhyay Samrat. Plant Virus, Vector. Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

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28

Thresh, John Micheal. Plant Virus Epidemiology, Volume 67 (Advances in Virus Research). Academic Press, 2006.

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29

Thresh, John Micheal. Plant Virus Epidemiology, Volume 67 (Advances in Virus Research). Academic Press, 2006.

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30

Read, Jennifer S. Zika Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0015.

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Although generally asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic in the general population, infection with the Zika virus (ZIKV) during pregnancy may lead to severely adverse fetal and infant outcomes, including the congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). Characteristics of this syndrome that are unique to it or are not typically observed with other congenital infections comprise anomalies of the brain and cranial morphology, ocular anomalies, congenital contractures, and neurological sequelae. The full spectrum of outcomes of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of ZIKV appears to be large, ranging from asymptomatic infection at birth, with possible later manifestation of significant abnormalities, to obvious and severe abnormalities in the fetus and infant. Although our understanding of pathogenesis, rates, and manifestations of CZS has improved rapidly and dramatically, much remains unknown or poorly understood regarding this potentially devastating congenital infection. Because of this, a broad research agenda regarding ZIKV is being implemented.
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31

W, Demski James, ed. Peanut stripe virus. Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics, 1993.

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32

Lebo, Emmaculate, and Susan Reef. Rubella Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0013.

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Rubella infection in pregnant women, especially during the first trimester, can result in miscarriages, fetal deaths, stillbirths, or a constellation of congenital anomalies known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Infants born with CRS often present with a myriad of classical symptoms, including hearing impairment, congenital heart defects, cataracts, and mental impairment. The risk of developing a congenital defect is highest when the rubella infection occurs during the first 12 weeks of gestation. The risks associated with fetal infection are primarily in pregnant women who are not immune to the rubella virus; immunity is acquired through vaccination with a rubella-containing vaccine or develops naturally following infection with rubella virus. In 2010, approximately 105,000 children with CRS were born globally, with an estimated 49,229 and 38,712 CRS cases born in the Southeast Asia and African WHO regions, respectively. Significant progress has been made toward reducing the burden of rubella and CRS cases globally through the introduction of rubella-containing vaccines in many countries.
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33

Maramorosch, Karl, and Kerry F. Harris. Aphids As Virus Vectors. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2014.

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34

Meng, X. J. Hepatitis E virus. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0048.

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a small, non-enveloped, single-strand, positive-sense RNA virus of approximately 7.2 kb in size. HEV is classified in the family Hepeviridae consisting of four recognized major genotypes that infect humans and other animals. Genotypes 1 and 2 HEV are restricted to humans and often associated with large outbreaks and epidemics in developing countries with poor sanitation conditions, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 HEV infect humans, pigs and other animal species and are responsible for sporadic cases of hepatitis E in both developing and industrialized countries. The avian HEV associated with Hepatitis-Splenomegaly syndrome in chickens is genetically and antigenically related to mammalian HEV, and likely represents a new genus in the family. There exist three open reading frames in HEV genome: ORF1 encodes non-structural proteins, ORF2 encodes the capsid protein, and the ORF3 encodes a small phosphoprotein. ORF2 and ORF3 are translated from a single bicistronic mRNA, and overlap each other but neither overlaps ORF1. Due to the lack of an efficient cell culture system and a practical animal model for HEV, the mechanisms of HEV replication and pathogenesis are poorly understood. The recent identification and characterization of animal strains of HEV from pigs and chickens and the demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by these animal strains raise potential public health concerns for zoonotic HEV transmission. It has been shown that the genotypes 3 and 4 HEV strains from pigs can infect humans, and vice versa. Accumulating evidence indicated that hepatitis E is a zoonotic disease, and swine and perhaps other animal species are reservoirs for HEV. A vaccine against HEV is not yet available.
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35

Plumb, R. T. Plant Virus Vector Interactions. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2002.

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36

T, Plumb R., ed. Plant virus vector interactions. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002.

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37

Fluxus virus, 1962-1992. Köln: Galerie Schüppenhauer, 1992.

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38

Loebenstein, Gad, and George Thottappilly. Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries. Springer, 2014.

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39

Loebenstein, Gad, and George Thottappilly. Virus and Virus-Like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries. Springer London, Limited, 2013.

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40

Seedborne Plant Virus Diseases. Springer, 2012.

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41

Finn, Matthew. West Nile Virus. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0053.

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West Nile virus (WNV) is a single-stranded RNA virus of the Flavivirus family that is transmitted via a mosquito vector, typically causing fever and capable of causing meningoencephalitis. Although mortality is low, it can lead to debilitating neuroinvasive disease in some patients. WNV is a leading cause of domestically-acquired arboviral disease and most commonly occurs in late August and early September. Consider WNV in otherwise unexplained cases of meningitis or encephalitis. Initial testing should consist of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis and West Nile immunoglobulin M enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serum and/or CSF. WNV is a nationally notifiable disease. Prevention remains the key to controlling this disease. Reducing the breeding grounds of the Culex mosquito and using insect repellant to prevent bites are two important strategies.
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42

Bonthius, Daniel J. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0011.

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Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), an arenavirus, is a prevalent pathogen and an important and underrecognized cause of neurologic birth defects. LCMV utilizes rodents as its principal reservoir. Rodents that acquire the virus transplacentally often remain asymptomatic because congenital infection provides immunological tolerance for the virus. Humans typically acquire LCMV by direct contact with fomites contaminated with infectious virus, from rodents, or by inhalation of aerosolized virus. Congenital LCMV infection occurs when a woman acquires the virus during pregnancy. The virus is passed to the fetus transplacentally, presumably during maternal viremia. Published reports of LCMV infection during pregnancy make it clear that LCMV can be a severe neuroteratogen. Prospective epidemiological or clinical studies of congenital LCMV infection are needed to gain more knowledge about the incidence and spectrum of LCMV-induced teratogenicity. The clinical presentation of congenital LCMV is reviewed, along with recommendations for diagnostic studies and information about long-term prognosis.
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43

Krain, Lisa J., and Kenrad E. Nelson. Hepatitis E Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0006.

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) poses serious risks to pregnant women and their developing fetuses, including increased risk of pregnancy loss, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and early infant death. Supportive care is currently the standard treatment for pregnant women with HEV infection, but in some cases, ribavirin treatment or early delivery may be indicated. Infants born with acute HEV infection face increased risk of complications and death. Intensive monitoring and support may be required in the neonatal period, particularly for preterm infants. Infants who survive the early neonatal period are likely to recover fully and clear the virus. Immunoassays and molecular methods for diagnosis of HEV have improved markedly over the past decade. New HEV vaccines may provide an opportunity to prevent both maternal illness and mother-to-child transmission (vertical transmission) (MTCT).
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44

Loebenstein, Gad. Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Potatoes and Production of Seed-Potatoes. Springer, 2013.

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45

Berger, P. H., A. A. Brunt, Gad Loebenstein, and R. H. Lawson. Virus and Virus-Like Diseases of Potatoes and Production of Seed-Potatoes. Springer, 2013.

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46

Honegger, Jonathan R. Hepatitis C Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0005.

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An estimated 185 million individuals have been infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) worldwide. Although often clinically silent for decades, chronic HCV infection predisposes to late-onset complications, including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HCV affects approximately 5% of children born to viremic mothers and is the primary route of HCV infection in young children. While some vertically acquired HCV infections are resolved during the first years of life, many persist indefinitely. Chronically infected children tend to be asymptomatic and have mild liver disease, but they face a risk of progression to advanced liver disease in adulthood. Current diagnostic and management strategies leave most infected children undiagnosed and untreated. Widespread use of newly-available direct-acting antiviral therapies has the potential to substantially reduce the global burden of HCV, including vertically acquired HCV, but an effective vaccine likely will be required to achieve this ultimate goal.
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47

Kourtis, Athena P., Shruti Chandramouli, Gonzague Jourdain, and Marc Bulterys. Hepatitis B Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0004.

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Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the most common cause of chronic viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma in the world. Worldwide, more than 250 million people are chronically infected with HBV, causing nearly 780,000 deaths each year, and mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) accounts for more than one-third of chronic HBV infections. Universal vaccination in neonates is the most effective strategy for eliminating infections worldwide. Maternal antiviral treatment during the antepartum/postpartum period for mothers with high HBV viral loads is effective in preventing HBV MTCT. Full immunization coverage is currently the only way to reach the goal of eradicating HBV infection. Operational research and, in some resource-limited settings, international funding may be essential to bring the vaccine where neonates and infants need it, including remote locations where home births are common. Continued improvements in the coverage and timeliness of HBV vaccination and education of clinicians about its importance are needed.
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48

Picone, Olivier, Christelle Vauloup-Fellous, and Laurent Mandelbrot. Varicella-Zoster Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0014.

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Chickenpox in a pregnant woman is uncommon, but it is a major concern for patients and their families, as well as for clinicians caring for pregnant women. Varicella infection during pregnancy is usually benign, but there can be serious consequences for both mother and child. Notably, fetal varicella syndrome (FVS) can happen when infection occurs before 21 weeks of gestation. It can present with serious neurological anomalies and unusual cicatricial skin lesions. Later in pregnancy, primary neonatal varicella may occur when the mother is infected in the peripartum period, and it can be life-threatening. The complications of varicella during pregnancy are reviewed, with an emphasis on early recognition, accurate timing of infection, and risk to the developing fetus and newborn infant. The impact of varicella vaccine on the epidemiology of these infections is reviewed, as well as indications for varicella-zoster virus (VZV)–specific immune globulin and antiviral therapy with acyclovir.
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49

Alyazidi, Raidan, and Soren Gantt. Herpes simplex Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0007.

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Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2 cause several important syndromes, including congenital and perinatal infections that can cause devastating consequences in newborns (i.e., neonatal HSV). Most neonatal HSV infections are acquired intrapartum in the infected maternal birth canal. Since genital HSV infections are common, neonatal HSV is an important complication in infected women, even if maternal symptoms are absent. As a result of the developmental status of the fetal and newborn immune system, neonatal HSV infection is associated with life-threatening disease. This chapter reviews the clinical presentations of neonatal HSV infection, as well as advances in diagnosis and therapy. Skin vesicles and fever are often absent, which contributes to a delay in initiating effective therapy. Early recognition is key. Despite significant advances in diagnostic testing and antiviral treatment for neonatal HSV, morbidity and mortality remain high and no vaccine is currently available for clinical use.
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50

Masterson, Liam. Human papilloma virus. Edited by John Phillips and Sally Erskine. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198834281.003.0049.

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This chapter discusses Ang, Harris, Wheeler, Weber, Rosenthal, Nguyen-Tân, Westra, Chung, Jordan, Lu, Kim, Axelrod, Silverman, Redmond, and Gillison’s paper on the human papilloma virus including the design of the study (outcome measures, results, conclusions, and a critique).
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