Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Optimal energy efficiency'

Several studies have shown that the buildings envelope optical properties are important in terms of energy use and thermal comfort level. However, no study has been found in regard of the optimal optical properties for the building envelope. Moreover, developments in the coil-coating industry have made possible to design cost effective optical selective surfaces for the construction sector. Based on the above mentioned, this study pretends to map the envelope optimal optical properties minimizing the energy use for large-open-volume buildings locates in Stockholm, Copenhagen, Liverpool, Amsterdam, Berlin, Vienna, Bern, Rome, and Madrid.A building could be seen as a very complex solar energy conversion system, which is very difficult to describe accurately. Nonetheless, it is possible to use Building Energy Simulation (BES) tools to model, to some extent, its thermal performance under many simplistic assumptions. The simulation tool TRNSYS 17 and the optimization tool GenOpt were selected for this study. Additionally, detailed small-open-volume building thermal performance data, obtained during passive measurements from the steel manufacturer SSAB, in Borlänge-Sweden, were used to assess the methodology for the creation of the large-open-volume simulation models. The variations in large-open-volume building design around Europe are not well documented, which constitutes one of the major impediments for this research. However, detailed European historical building U-value data from the European Union project called iNSPiRe made it possible to achieve the objective of this study.The simulation work showed, that the building envelope optimal optical properties are related to the magnitude of the heating and cooling loads. Consequently, GenOpt was used to plot the sensitivity of the building envelope optimal optical properties to the ratio between the heating demand and the total energy demand (Qheat/Qtotal). In regard to the large-open-volume building optimal optical properties in the selected locations, it was found that the allocation of optimal optical properties does not lead to significant energy savings in locations with relatively low solar availability and high thermal insulation levels. Nonetheless, a final envelope optical properties study for a small-open-volume building model based on three existing buildings differing only on their optical properties was made for 243 world-capital cities. The simulations reinforced the results for the large-open-volume building in the European locations, and additionally showed huge energy savings potential for most of the world capital cities. This investigation restates the results obtained by Joudi (2015), “Possible energy savings by the smart choice of optical properties on the interior and exterior surfaces of the building.”<br>Varios estudios han demostrado que las propiedades ópticas de las envolturas delos edificios son importantes en términos de consumo energético y de nivel deconfort térmico. Sin embargo, no se ha encontrado estudio alguno con respecto alas propiedades ópticas óptimas para las envolturas de los edificios.Conjuntamente, los desarrollos en la industria de bobinas metálicas revestidas hanhecho posible diseñar superficies selectivas rentables para el sector de laconstrucción. Basándose en lo anteriormente expuesto, este estudio pretendemapear las propiedades ópticas óptimas de la envoltura que minimizan el uso deenergía para edificios de gran volumen abierto localizados en Estocolmo,Copenhague, Liverpool, Ámsterdam, Berlín, Viena, Berna, Roma y Madrid.Un edificio podría ser visto como un sistema de conversión de energía solar muycomplejo, que es muy difícil de describir con precisión. No obstante, es posibleutilizar las herramientas de Simulación de Energía de Edificios (BES) para modelar,hasta cierto punto, su rendimiento térmico bajo una considerable cantidad desuposiciones simplistas. El programa de simulación TRNSYS 17 y el programa deoptimización GenOpt fueron seleccionadas para este estudio. Adicionalmente, conel fin de evaluar la metodología utilizada para la creación de los modelos desimulación para edificios de gran volumen abierto, se utilizaron datos detallados derendimiento térmico de edificios de pequeño volumen abierto, obtenidos durantemediciones pasivas del fabricante de acero SSAB, en Borlänge-Suecia. Lasvariaciones en el diseño de edificios de gran volumen abierto en toda Europa noestán bien documentadas, lo que constituye uno de los principales impedimentospara esta investigación. Sin embargo, los datos detallados y en orden cronológicode los niveles de aislamiento térmico (U-value) en la construcción europea,recopilados por el proyecto de la Unión Europea llamado iNSPiRe, permitieronalcanzar el objetivo de este estudio.El trabajo de simulación demostró que las propiedades ópticas óptimas de laenvoltura del edificio están relacionadas con la magnitud de las cargas decalefacción y refrigeración. En consecuencia, GenOpt fue utilizado para graficar lasensibilidad de las propiedades ópticas óptimas de la envolvente del edificio conrespecto a la proporción entre la demanda de calefacción y la demanda total deenergía (Qheat/Qtotal). En cuanto a las propiedades ópticas óptimas del edificio degran volumen abierto en las ubicaciones seleccionadas, se encontró que laasignación de propiedades ópticas óptimas no conduce a ahorros de energíasignificativos en ubicaciones con disponibilidad solar relativamente baja y altosniveles de aislamiento térmico. Sin embargo, un último estudio de propiedadesópticas de envolvente para un modelo de construcción de pequeño volumen abiertobasado en tres edificios existentes que difieren sólo en sus propiedades ópticas serealizó para 243 capitales mundiales. Las simulaciones reforzaron los resultadospara el edificio de gran volumen abierto en las localidades europeas, y ademásmostraron un enorme potencial de ahorro de energía para la mayoría de lascapitales mundiales. Esta investigación reitera los resultados obtenidos por Joudi (2015), "Posibles ahorros de energía por la elección inteligente de propiedadesópticas en las superficies interiores y exteriores del edificio".

Predicted cooling system performance plays an important role in choices among alternative system selections and designs. When system performance is expressed in proper indicators such as "overall system energy consumption" or "overall system efficiency", it can provide the decision makers with a quantitative measure of the extent to which a cooling system satisfies the system design requirements and objectives. Predictions of cooling system energy consumption and efficiency imply assumptions about component performance. Quantitative appraisal of the uncertainty (lack of knowledge) in these assumptions can be used by design practitioners to select and design systems, by energy contractors to guarantee future system energy cost savings, and codes and standards officials to set proper goals to conserve energy. Our lack of knowledge has different sources, notably unknown tolerances in equipment nameplate data, and unpredictable load profiles. Both cause systems to under-perform current predictions, and as a result decrease the accuracy of the outcomes of energy simulations that commonly are used to verify system performance during the design and construction stages. There can be many other causes of unpredictable system behavior, for example due to bad workmanship in the installation, occurrence of faults in the operation of certain system parts, deterioration over time and other. These uncertainties are typically much harder to quantify and their propagation into the calculated energy consumption is much harder to accomplish. In this thesis, these categories of failures are not considered, i.e. the treatment is limited to component tolerances and load variability. In this research the effects of equipment nameplate tolerances and cooling load profile variability on the overall energy consumption and efficiency of commonly used commercial cooling systems are quantified. The main target of this thesis is to present a methodology for calculating the chances that a specific cooling system could deviate from a certain efficiency level by a certain margin, and use these results to guide practitioners and energy performance contractors to select, and guarantee system performances more realistically. By doing that, the plan is to establish a systematic approach of developing expressions of risk, in commercial cooling system consumption and efficiency calculations, and thus to advocate the use of expressions of risk as design targets. This thesis makes a contribution to improving our fundamental understanding of performance risk in selecting and sizing certain HVAC design concepts.

Fuel consumption reduction is one of the main challenges in the automotiveindustry due to its economical and environmental impacts as well as legalregulations. While fuel consumption reduction is important for all vehicles,it has larger benefits for commercial ones due to their long operational timesand much higher fuel consumption. Optimal control of multiple energy buffers within the vehicle proves aneffective approach for reducing energy consumption. Energy is temporarilystored in a buffer when its cost is small and released when it is relativelyexpensive. An example of an energy buffer is the vehicle body. Before goingup a hill, the vehicle can accelerate to increase its kinetic energy, which canthen be consumed on the uphill stretch to reduce the engine load. The simplestrategy proves effective for reducing fuel consumption. The thesis generalizes the energy buffer concept to various vehicular componentswith distinct physical disciplines so that they share the same modelstructure reflecting energy flow. The thesis furthermore improves widely appliedcontrol methods and apply them to new applications. The contribution of the thesis can be summarized as follows: • Developing a new function to make the equivalent consumption minimizationstrategy (ECMS) controller (which is one of the well-knownoptimal energy management methods in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs))more robust. • Developing an integrated controller to optimize torque split and gearnumber simultaneously for both reducing fuel consumption and improvingdrivability of HEVs. • Developing a one-step prediction control method for improving the gearchanging decision. • Studying the potential fuel efficiency improvement of using electromechanicalbrake (EMB) on a hybrid electric city bus. • Evaluating the potential improvement of fuel economy of the electricallyactuated engine cooling system through the off-line global optimizationmethod. • Developing a linear time variant model predictive controller (LTV-MPC)for the real-time control of the electric engine cooling system of heavytrucks and implementing it on a real truck.<br><p>QC 20160128</p>

Energy consumption has increased drastically during the last century. Currently, the worldwide energy consumption is about 17.4 TW and is predicted to reach 25 TW by 2035. Solar energy has emerged as one of the potential renewable energy sources. Since its first physical recognition in 1887 by Adams and Day till nowadays, research in solar energy is continuously developing. This has lead to many achievements and milestones that introduced it as one of the most reliable and sustainable energy sources. Recently, the International Energy Agency declared that solar energy is predicted to be one of the major electricity production energy sources by 2035. Enhancing the efficiency and lifecycle of photovoltaic (PV) modules leads to significant cost reduction. Reducing the temperature of the PV module improves its efficiency and enhances its lifecycle. To better understand the PV module performance, it is important to study the interaction between the output power and the temperature. A model that is capable of predicting the PV module temperature and its effects on the output power considering the individual contribution of the solar spectrum wavelengths significantly advances the PV module designs toward higher efficiency. In this work, a thermoelectrical model is developed to predict the effects of the solar spectrum wavelengths on the PV module performance. The model is characterized and validated under real meteorological conditions where experimental temperature and output power of the PV module measurements are shown to agree with the predicted results. The model is used to validate the concept of active optical filtering. Since this model is wavelength-based, it is used to design an active optical filter for PV applications. Applying this filter to the PV module is expected to increase the output power of the module by filtering the spectrum wavelengths. The active filter performance is optimized, where different cutoff wavelengths are used to maximize the module output power. It is predicted that if the optimized active optical filter is applied to the PV module, the module efficiency is predicted to increase by about 1%. Different technologies are considered for physical implementation of the active optical filter.

Reducing global energy consumption is a common challenge faced by the human race due to the energy shortage and growing energy demands. The building sector bears a large responsibility for the total energy consumption throughout the world. In particular, it was concluded that existing buildings, which are usually old and energy-inefficient, are the main reason for the high energy consumption of the building sector, in view of the low replacement rate (about 1%-3% per year) of existing buildings by new energy-efficient buildings. Therefore, improving the energy efficiency of existing buildings is a feasible and effective way to reduce energy consumption and mitigate the environmental impact of the building sector. The high energy intensity and requirements of a green building policy are the main motivation of this study, which focuses on finding cost-effective solutions to green building retrofit and maintenance planning to reduce energy consumption and ensure policy compliance. As about 50% of the total energy usage of a general building is caused by its envelope system, this study first proposes a multi-objective optimization approach for building envelope retrofit planning in Chapter 2. The purpose is to maximize the energy savings and economic benefits of an investment by improving the energy efficiency of existing buildings with the optimal retrofit plans obtained from the proposed approach. In the model formulation, important indicators for decision makers to evaluate an investment, including energy savings, net present value and the payback period, are taken into consideration. In addition, a photovoltaic (PV) power supply system is considered to reduce the energy demand of buildings because of the adequate solar resource in South Africa. The performance degradation of the PV system and corresponding maintenance cost are built into the optimization process for an accurate estimation of the energy savings and payback period of the investment so that decision makers are able to make informed decisions. The proposed model also gives decision makers a convenient way to interact with the optimization process to obtain a desired optimal retrofit plan according to their preferences over different objectives. In addition to the envelope system, the indoor systems of a general building also account for a large proportion of the total energy demand of a building. In the literature, research related to building retrofit planning methods aiming at saving energy examines either the indoor appliances or the envelope components. No study on systematic retrofit plan for the whole building, including both the envelope system and the indoor systems, has been reported so far. In addition, a systematic whole-building retrofit plan taking into account the green building policy, which in South Africa is the energy performance certificate (EPC) rating system, is urgently needed to help decision makers to ensure that the retrofit is financially beneficial and the resulting building complies with the green building policy requirements. This has not been investigated in the literature. Therefore, Chapter 4 of this thesis fills the above-mentioned gaps and presents a model that can determine an optimal retrofit plan for the whole building, considering both the envelope system and indoor systems, aiming at maximizing energy savings in the most cost-effective way and achieving a good rating from the EPC rating system to comply with the green building policy in South Africa. As reaching the best energy level from the EPC rating system for a building usually requires a high amount of investment, resulting in a long payback period, which is not attractive for decision makers in view of the vulnerable economic situation of South Africa, the proposed model treats the retrofit plan as a multi-year project, improving efficiency targets in consecutive years. That is to say, the model breaks down the once-off long-term project into smaller projects over multiple financial years with shorter payback periods. In that way, the financial concerns of the investors are alleviated. In addition, a tax incentive program to encourage energy saving investments in South Africa is considered in the optimization problem to explore the economic benefits of the retrofit projects fully. Considering both the envelope system and indoor systems, many systems and items that can be retrofitted and massive retrofit options available for them result in a large number of discrete decision variables for the optimization problem. The inherent non-linearity and multi-objective nature of the optimization problem and other factors such as the requirements of the EPC system make it difficult to solve the building retrofit problem. The complexity of the problem is further increased when the target buildings have many floors. In addition, there is a large number of parameters that need to be obtained in the building retrofit optimization problem. This requires a detailed energy audit of the buildings to be retrofitted, which is an expensive bottom-up modeling exercise. To address these challenges, two simplified methods to reduce the complexity of finding the optimal whole-building retrofit plans are proposed in Chapter 4. Lastly, an optimal maintenance planning strategy is presented in Chapter 5 to ensure the sustainability of the retrofit. It is natural that the performance of all the retrofitted items will degrade over time and consequently the energy savings achieved by the retrofit will diminish. The maintenance plan is therefore studied to restore the energy performance of the buildings after retrofit in a cost-effective way. Maintenance planning for the indoor systems is not considered in this study because it has been thoroughly investigated in the literature. In addition, a maintenance plan for the PV system involved in the retrofit of this study is investigated in Chapter 2.<br>Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2017.<br>Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering<br>PhD<br>Unrestricted

Fish is one of Norway’s main exports, and can be shipped fresh, frozen or dried. This thesis examines the freezing of fish in batch tunnels and ways to increase the energy efficiency of this process. A fish freezing plant on the west coast of Norway was used as a baseline case and measurements were made of the freezing system. Different aspects of this system were simulated, mainly using MATLAB. The focus was on the compressors and the freezing tunnels of an industrial refrigeration system. The compressors and the freezing tunnel fans are the largest consumers of electricity, but they are often not operated at the highest efficiency. An analysis of the compressor operation showed that it was far from optimal, with several compressors often operating at part-load simultaneously. These were screw compressors regulated by slide valves, which provide easy capacity control, but also have low energy efficiency. The refrigeration system had several different sized compressors, and the results showed that it was possible to run the system with only one compressor at part-load operation. The total coefficient of performance was improved by as much as 29% for a low production period. A further analysis showed that installing a variable speed drive on one compressor would also improve energy efficiency and make capacity regulation straightforward. The freezing system included five batch freezing tunnels, each of which had a freezing capacity of more than 100 tonnes of pelagic fish. A typical freezing period lasted typically 20 h and decreased the fish temperature to -18◦C or below. The main task was to develop a computer program that could simulate the freezing process and the refrigeration system and locate opportunities for improvement. The air velocities inside the freezing tunnel varied with location, which were pinpointed using the computational fluid dynamics software program Airpak. These velocities were used in freezing time calculations. It was shown that a guide blade installed in the air flow at a critical location improved the air velocity distribution compared with no guide blade. Without the guide blade, the freezing times of the products were between 16 h and 32 h, but with a guide blade they were between 17h and 21 h, a span of only 4 h. These freezing times were calculated with a modified Plank’s equation. A numerical model was programmed in MATLAB and it was used to simulate the temperatures of the products. The model was a two-dimensional finite difference approximation of the heat conduction equation. The simulation results were compared to measured temperatures, to validate the model. The measured temperatures were also used for validation of another simulation program, programmed in Modelica. The final stage of this research involved testing different alternatives for reduced fan operation. The program for the product model was extended with models for calculating the energy consumption of the air fans and the compressors and using Airpak-simulated velocities. The air fan speed was reduced to 83%, 67%, 50% and 33% of full air fan speed. This was tested at 5 different points during the freezing period, to see how the freezing times were affected. Full air speed during the freezing period resulted in a total freezing time of 20 h. A reduction in air fan speed to 33% after 8 h resulted in an increase in total freezing time of 10 hours (47% longer) but reduced energy consumption to 73.8% of the baseline case. An alternative with only 4 h longer freezing time resulted in an energy consumption of 80.5% of the baseline case. It was assumed that the fans had variable speed drives. The effect of reduced air inlet temperature was also tested and the results show that this can reduce freezing times. The effect on the total energy consumption was not large and also depends on the rest of the refrigeration system. Issues raised by this thesis are relevant for future research. It is suggested that the main simulation program is expanded by incorporating more detailed models of the refrigeration system. Dynamic operation of the air fans is also a possibility, for example to gradually reduce fan speed with decreasing product heat load.

Developing nations face insurmountable challenges to reliably and sustainably provide energy and water to the population. These resources are intricately entwined such that decisions on the use of one affects the other (energy-water nexus). Inadequate and ageing infrastructure, increased population and connectivity, urbanization, improved standards of living and spatially uneven rainfall are some of the reasons causing this insecurity. Expanding and developing new supply infrastructure is not sustainable due to sky high costs and negative environmental impact such as increased greenhouse gas emissions and over extraction of surface water. The exponentially increasing demand, way above the capacity of supply infrastructure in most developing countries, requires urgent mitigation strategies through demand side management (DSM). The DSM strategies seek to increase efficiency of use of available resources and reducing demand from utilities in the short, medium and long term. Renewable energy, rooftop rain water harvesting, pump-storage scheme and grey water recycling are some alternatives being used to curb the insecurity. However, renewable energy and rooftop water harvesting are spasmodic in nature hampering their adoption as the sole supply options for energy and water respectively. The built environment is one of the largest energy and water consuming sectors in the world presenting a huge potential towards conserving and increasing efficiency of these resources. For this reason, coupled with the 1970s energy challenges, the concept of green buildings seeking to, among other factors, reduce the consumption of energy and water sprung up. Conventionally, policy makers, industry players and researchers have made decisions on either resource independently, with little knowledge on the effect it would have on the other. It is therefore imperative that optimal integration of alternative sources and resource efficient technologies are implemented and analysed jointly in order to achieve maximum benefits. This is a step closer to achieving green buildings while also improving energy and water security. A multifaceted approach to save energy and water should integrate appropriate resource efficient technology, alternative source and an advanced and reliable control system to coordinate their operation. In a typical South African urban residential house, water heating is one of the most energy and water intensive end uses while lawn irrigation is the highest water intensive end use occasioned by low rainfall and high evaporation. Therefore, seamless integration of these alternative supply and most resource intensive end uses provides the highest potential towards resource conservation. This thesis introduces the first practical and economical attempt to integrate various alternative energy and water supply options with efficient devices. The multifaceted approach used in this research has proven that optimal control strategy can significantly reduce the cost of these resources, bring in revenue through renewable energy sales, reuse waste water and reduce the demand for grid energy, water and waste water services. This thesis is generally divided into cold and hot water categories; both of which energy-water nexus DSM is carried out. Open-loop optimal and closed-loop model predictive (MPC) control strategies that minimize the objective while meeting present technical and operational constraints are designed. In cold water systems, open-loop optimal and MPC strategies are designed to improve water reliability through a pump storage system. Energy efficiency (EE) of the pump is achieved through optimally shifting the load to off-peak period of the time-of-use (TOU) tariff in South Africa. Thereafter, an open-loop optimal control strategy is developed for rooftop rain water harvesting for lawn irrigation. The controller ensures water is conserved by using the stored rain water and ensuring only the required amount of water is used for irrigation. Further, EE is achieved through load shifting of the pump subject to the TOU tariff. The two control strategies are then developed to operate a grey water recycling system that is useful in meeting non-potable water demand such as toilet flushing and lawn irrigation and EE is achieved through shifting of pump's load. Finally, the two control strategies are designed for an integrated rain and grey water recycling for a residential house, whose life cycle cost (LCC) analysis is carried out. The hot water category is more energy intensive, and therefore, the open-loop optimal control strategy is developed to control a heat pump water heater (HPWH) and an instantaneous shower, both powered by grid-tied renewable energy systems. Solar and wind energy are used due to their abundance in South Africa. Thereafter, the MPC strategy is developed to power same devices with renewable energy systems. In both strategies, energy is saved through the use of renewable energy sources, that also bring in revenue through sale of excess power back to the grid. In addition, water is conserved through heating the cold water in the pipes using the instantaneous shower rather than running it down the drain while waiting for hot water to arrive. LCC analysis is also carried out for this strategy. Each of the two control strategies has its strengths. The open loop optimal control is easier and cheaper to implement but is only suitable in cases where uncertainties and disturbances affecting the system do not alter the demand pattern for water in a major way. Conversely, the closed-loop MPC strategy is more complicated and costly to implement due to additional components like sensors, but comes with great robustness against uncertainties and disturbances. Both strategies are beneficial in ensuring security and reliability of energy and water is achieved. Importantly, technology alone cannot have sustainable DSM impact. Public education and awareness on importance of energy and water savings, improved efficiency and effect on supply infrastructure and greenhouse gas emissions are essential. Awareness is also important in enabling the acceptance of these technological advancements by the society.<br>Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2017.<br>National Hub for Energy Efficiency and Demand Side Management (EEDSM)<br>University of Pretoria<br>Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering<br>PhD<br>Unrestricted

Genom att energin är begränsad i världen och att byggsektorn kräver en mycket stor andel så är arbetet att effektivisera i denna sektor ett av de viktigaste målen i denna bransch. Syftet med detta arbete är att finna en bra, effektiv, och billig metod för att snabbt nå målet med energieffektivitet för Kinas bostäder. Beaktat att Kina är ett stort land indelas det i flera delar med olika klimat för att med större säkerhet nå rätt. Ett typhus har antagits i beräkningarna för fem olika klimatzoner. Programmet Designbuilder har använts och data för isolering och ventilation i ett basfall, ett fall med bättre skal d v s U-värden och ett med värmeåtervinning diskuterats vilka tar längre tid att genomföra och kräver större investering men ändå är lönsamma. Dessa kan förordas med statligt stöd.<br>Due to the energy shortage situation of the world and building sector occupies the most significant particle of total energy consumption, promoting the energy efficiency in the buildings has become one of the most urgent goals for energy develop the profession. The purpose of this project is to look for the most reasonable method, which is efficient and can be carried out in a short term with a lower investment, to reach the goal of energy efficiency in residential buildings in China. Considering that China is a vast territory country, the whole mainland is separated into five parts according to the various climate types in order to research accurately. A base building has been modeled in five climate zones at the same time. The software Designbuilder is used to simulate the base scenario, the building envelope improved scenario and the HVAC system improved scenario. The final suggestion is given according to the comparison of these three scenarios.Besides, some other technologies have been given in the thesis. These methods would take a longer time period or more investment, but still are good choices for residential buildings energy efficiency. They should be promoted in the future by the government support.

Thesis: M.C.P., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, 2016.<br>Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.<br>Includes bibliographical references (pages 52-54).<br>The goal of this thesis is to examine the relative cost-effectiveness of subsidies in incentivizing energy efficiency investment using a real option framework. I generalize a model of a sequential investment project involving two stages, design and construction stage, and investment lags and incorporate explicit consideration of dynamic subsidies. I apply this model to green construction projects and study how design subsidies and rent subsidies incentivizes investment in green buildings. My research questions address the impact of subsidies on the trigger prices for the two stages as well as that on the instantaneous project value. Although both design and rent subsidies can reduce trigger prices and enhance project value, design subsidies cost less both in reducing the first-stage trigger to a certain threshold and in inducing firms to switch from inefficient projects to efficient ones. Lastly, I evaluate the comparative statics of investment, showing how the patterns of lags and demand uncertainty affect the effectiveness of both subsidies. A noteworthy result is that quality switching from an inefficient project to an green alternative is more likely to occur when the uncertainty is smaller or the length of the construction stage is shorter.<br>by Yue Pan.<br>M.C.P.

Independent metering poses a possibility to improve energy efficiency of throttlecontrolled hydraulic single-rod cylinder drives. This paper deals with energetic potentials gained through variable circuitry that come along with independent metering. A method to assess energetic potentials is described, based on load specific, optimal operating modes. As a means of yielding maximum energy efficiency for a wide range of applications, a smooth mode switching algorithm that minimizes losses and allows good motion tracking is proposed. The mode switching algorithm is validated in simulation and on a test stand.

L'énergie est une ressource clé dans les systèmes commandés en réseau, en particulier dans les applications concernant les réseaux sans fil. Cette thèse étudie comment économiser l'énergie dans les capteurs sans fil avec une co-Conception contrôle et communication. Cette thèse examine les techniques et les approches existantes qui sont utilisées pour économiser l'énergie d'un point de vue de la communication et du contrôle. Cet étude est organisée selon une architecture de communication par couches couvrant de bas en haut les couches Physique, Liaison, Réseau, et Application. Puis, à partir de la conclusion que la puce radio est un important consommateur d'énergie, une loi conjointe de gestion des modes radio et de contrôle en boucle fermée est établie. La gestion des modes radio exploite les capacités de la puce radio à communter dans des modes de basses consommation pour économiser l'énergie, et d'adapter la puissance de transmission aux conditions du canal. Il en résulte un système de contrôle basé sur des événements où le système fonctionne en boucle ouverte à certains moments. Un compromis naturel apparaît entre l'économie d'énergie et les performances de contrôle. La loi conjointe est établie avec une formulation de contrôle optimal utilisant la Programmation Dynamique. Cette thèse résout le problème optimal dans les deux cas d'horizon infini et fini. La stabilité du système en boucle fermée est étudiée avec la formulation Input-To-State Stability (ISS). La principale conclusion de cette thèse, également illustrée dans la simulation, est que la conception à travers différentes couches dans les systèmes commandés en réseau est essentielle pour économiser l'énergie dans les noeuds sans fil<br>Energy is a key resource in Networked Control Systems, in particular in applications concerning wireless networks. This thesis investigates how to save energy in wireless sensor nodes with control and communication co-Design. This thesis reviews existing techniques and approaches that are used to save energy from a communication and a control point of view. This review is organized according to the layered communication architecture covering from bottom to top the Physical, Data Link, Network, and Application layers. Then, from the conclusion that the radio chip is an important energy consumer, a joint radio-Mode management and feedback law policy is derived. The radio-Mode management exploits the capabilities of the radio chip to switch to low consuming radio-Modes to save energy, and to adapt the transmission power to the channel conditions. This results in an event-Based control scheme where the system runs open loop at certain time. A natural trade-Off appears between energy savings and control performance. The joint policy is derived in the framework of Optimal Control with the use of Dynamic Programming. This thesis solves the optimal problem in both infinite and finite horizon cases. Stability of the closed loop system is investigated with Input-To-State Stability framework. The main conclusion of this thesis, also shown in simulation, is that cross-Layer design in Networked Control System is essential to save energy in the wireless nodes

Les principaux objectifs de ce travail est de développer une méthode de modélisation efficace pour un déploiement facile et rapide d'une stratégie de contrôle, d'examiner et d'étudier cette stratégie pour une application spécifique, et d'analyser l'amélioration qui peut être apporté à un moteur pour une meilleure efficacité dans les systèmes électrique et hybride. Ce travail comprend une partie simulation du système étudié et sa validation avec les résultats expérimentaux. Les études de cas sont utilisées pour analyser l'optimisation qui peut être effectuée en comparaison au système d'origine (le véhicule étudié est la NOAO).Un outil d'optimisation est choisie pour optimiser la stratégie de contrôle actuellement déployée sur le véhicule. Cette outil nous a permis de développer une nouvelle stratégie de commande optimisée prêt à être déployé dans le véhicule. Un procédé de prédiction pour connaître la consommation d'énergie du système est mis au point en vue d'obtenir un contrôle optimal adapté à la demande du véhicule et à une utilisation spécifique.Comme perspectives, les principaux composants du système peuvent être étudiés et modélisé afin d'améliorer l’efficacité énergétique du véhicule. La Représentation Energétique Macroscopique (REM) est une bonne méthode pour représenter le modèle dynamique et peut être utilisé pour modéliser des machines électromécaniques. Cette méthode est également envisagé pour modéliser d’autre système que le système véhicule tel que les systèmes énergies renouvelables, les systèmes électromécanique ou robotique<br>The main objectives of this work is to develop an effective modeling method for an easydeployment of a control strategy, to review and study an optimal control strategy for a specific application, and to analyze improvement that can be effected to engine for better efficiency in hybrid vehicle architecture. The scopes of this work include the simulation part of the studied system and its validation with experimental results. Study cases are used to analyze optimization that can be effected to the original system. A well established optimization tool is chosen to optimize the actual control strategy and becomes a benchmark of a new optimal control strategy to be deployed in the system. A predictive method to know energy consumption of the system is developed in order to obtain an optimal control suitable with the vehicle application. Using the developed model, analysis is conducted to identify an optimal control strategy for a specific utilization. As perspectives, the main components of the system can be studied for improvements of its energy efficiency. The Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) is a good method to represent dynamic model and it can be used to model any electromechanical machines and can be envisaged to model other system than a vehicle system, like a renewable energy system, a new electro-mechanical system or a robotic system

Grid connected inverter requires accurate and appropriate sizing which depends on the temperature, inverter operating efficiency, performance ratio, annual system yield and solar radiation characteristics. The aim of this study was to design and size for optimum sizing factor for grid connected inverter. The main component to be considered in any photovoltaic grid connected system is the inverter since the output depends on the inverter sizing ratio, therefore optimal sizing factor was designed by considering factors that affects inverter sizing such as temperature, irradiance and the location. Large and small systems of 50 kW and 5 kW respectively were considered to determine grid connected inverter sizing factors for different climates in Kenya, Sweden, and India using PVsyst simulation. Two different inverter brands of SMA and ABB with 20 kW and 25 kW rating for large system and 4.6 kW, 4 kW inverters for small system. PVsyst simulation result showed that different locations with different orientation angles, the optimum sizing varies hence affects the annual performance of the system. Photovoltaic system inverters are sized based on the rated power of the installed system and this can be achieved when the inverter size is either almost matching or not. In this case the study presents the optimal sizing factor for grid connected inverter for Mandera in Kenya, Norrköping in Sweden and Kerala in India. The determination was done through the use of designing, assessing and analyzing of the relationship between the sizing factor with performance ratio, operational efficiency and annual hourly energy yield. The unique weather profile in Kerala and in Mandera favors the adoption of solar energy technology in the location. Solar radiation for one year was used as a baseline input and the result reveals that Mandera receives yearly radiation of 2.1 MWh/m² while Kerala and Norrköping receives 2 MWh/m² and 1.1 MWh/m² respectively. Design simulation using PVsyst tool made it possible for the determination of the optimal sizing factor for the grid connected system. Considerations such as the losses and the variations within the specific location was done and a graph showing the relationship between the sizing factor in relation to the operational inverter efficiency as well as energy yield and performance ratio was later on compared to see the behavior of the sizing factor. The study concludes that operational efficiency, performance ratio and energy yield affects the array optimum sizing ratio. For the three locations, inverters (SMA and ABB) shows different variations because optimal sizing ratio depends on the location and irradiation. The results reveal that Mandera has an optimal grid connected inverter sizing of the range from 1.1 to 1.4 while in Kerala it has from 1.2 to 1.4 and Norrköping has the range from 1.1 to 1.3. Optimal sizing of grid connected inverters depends on the energy yield and the location therefore the inverter mismatch voltage and its rating values have to be considered while determining the optimal sizing factor. The 25 kW inverters in all the locations had better efficiency and sizing factor and this proves that sizing the photovoltaic inverter will give better performance and efficiency.

The ever-increasing technological advances in embedded systems engineering, together with the proliferation of small-size sensor design and deployment, have enabled mobile devices (e.g., smartphones) to recognize daily occurring human based actions, activities and interactions. Therefore, inferring a vast variety of mobile device user based activities from a very diverse context obtained by a series of sensory observations has drawn much interest in the research area of ubiquitous sensing. The existence and awareness of the context provides the capability of being conscious of physical environments or situations around mobile device users, and this allows network services to respond proactively and intelligently based on such awareness. Hence, with the evolution of smartphones, software developers are empowered to create context aware applications for recognizing human-centric or community based innovative social and cognitive activities in any situation and from anywhere. This leads to the exciting vision of forming a society of ``Internet of Things" which facilitates applications to encourage users to collect, analyze and share local sensory knowledge in the purpose for a large scale community use by creating a smart network which is capable of making autonomous logical decisions to actuate environmental objects. More significantly, it is believed that introducing the intelligence and situational awareness into recognition process of human-centric event patterns could give a better understanding of human behaviors, and it also could give a chance for proactively assisting individuals in order to enhance the quality of lives. Mobile devices supporting emerging computationally pervasive applications will constitute a significant part of future mobile technologies by providing highly proactive services requiring continuous monitoring of user related contexts. However, the middleware services provided in mobile devices have limited resources in terms of power, memory and bandwidth as compared to the capabilities of PCs and servers. Above all, power concerns are major restrictions standing up to implementation of context-aware applications. These requirements unfortunately shorten device battery lifetimes due to high energy consumption caused by both sensor and processor operations. Specifically, continuously capturing user context through sensors imposes heavy workloads in hardware and computations, and hence drains the battery power rapidly. Therefore, mobile device batteries do not last a long time while operating sensor(s) constantly. In addition to that, the growing deployment of sensor technologies in mobile devices and innumerable software applications utilizing sensors have led to the creation of a layered system architecture (i.e., context aware middleware) so that the desired architecture can not only offer a wide range of user-specific services, but also respond effectively towards diversity in sensor utilization, large sensory data acquisitions, ever-increasing application requirements, pervasive context processing software libraries, mobile device based constraints and so on. Due to the ubiquity of these computing devices in a dynamic environment where the sensor network topologies actively change, it yields applications to behave opportunistically and adaptively without a priori assumptions in response to the availability of diverse resources in the physical world as well as in response to scalability, modularity, extensibility and interoperability among heterogeneous physical hardware. In this sense, this dissertation aims at proposing novel solutions to enhance the existing tradeoffs in mobile sensing between accuracy and power consumption while context is being inferred under the intrinsic constraints of mobile devices and around the emerging concepts in context-aware middleware framework.

The next 30 years are going to be crucial for the future of climate in Europe and in the world: the globally increase of the population and the rise of the energy demand to guarantee higher life-standards, while keeping carbon-emissions low, are pushing the road of the Paris-agreement goals towards challenging paths. A massive and never-seen before green revolution is nedeed as well as the commitment of all the policy-makers involved to be on track with these goals. Europe can be considered the pioneer of this green revolution since at the heart of its Climate-Energy strategy, i.e. the Green Deal, there is a large economic investment (1/3 of the 1.8 trillion euros investments from the NextGenerationEU Recovery Plan and the EU’s seven-year budget) and a more ambitious program in the short term like an improvement of 32.5% in energy efficiency and a 32% share for Renewable Energy by 2030 . The legislative acts to reach these targets are contained in the Clean Energy Package. It can be considered the EU's "energy rulebook" and it's based on 3 key pillars: energy efficiency, renewable energy generation and the new role of consumers in a greener society. In this contest, there is a legislative support for collective energy actions and citizens’ active participation in energy markets through the definition of Energy Communities. This thesis aims to describe the role of Energy Communities in Europe with a particular focus to Switzerland. In chapter 1 the regulatory framework will be introduced, followed in chapter 2 by the different business models that can be implemented. In the 3rd chapter, the Lugaggia energy community, object of study of this thesis, is presented. After a discussion on convex optimization theory in chapter 4, the algorithms used to reach an optimal economical operation of the energy community are introduced in chapter 5. In the end, chapter 6, the results are analyzed and discussed.

Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings are energy consuming and traditional methods used for building control results in energy losses. The methods cannot account for non-linear dependencies in the thermal behaviour. Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) is a powerful method for reaching optimal control in many different control environments. DRL utilizes neural networks to approximate the optimal actions to take given that the system is in a given state. Therefore, DRL is a promising method for building control and this fact is highlighted by several studies. However, neural network polices are known to be vulnerable to adversarial attacks, which are small, indistinguishable changes to the input, which make the network choose a sub-optimal action. Two of the main approaches to attack DRL policies are: (1) the Fast Gradient Sign Method, which uses the gradients of the control agent’s network to conduct the attack; (2) to train a a DRL-agent with the goal to minimize performance of control agents. The aim of this thesis is to investigate different strategies for solving the building control problem with DRL using the building simulator IDA ICE. This thesis is also going to use the concept of adversarial machine learning by applying the attacks on the agents controlling the temperature inside the building. We first built a DRL architecture to learn how to efficiently control temperature in a building. Experiments demonstrate that exploration of the agent plays a crucial role in the training of the building control agent, and one needs to fine-tune the exploration strategy in order to achieve satisfactory performance. Finally, we tested the susceptibility of the trained DRL controllers to adversarial attacks. These tests showed, on average, that attacks trained using DRL methods have a larger impact on building control than those using FGSM, while random perturbation have almost null impact.<br>Ventilationssystem i byggnader är energiförbrukande och traditionella metoder som används för byggnadskontroll resulterar i förlust av energisparande. Dessa metoder kan inte ta hänsyn till icke-linjära beroenden i termisk beteenden. Djup förstärkande inlärning (DRL) är en kraftfull metod för att uppnå optimal kontroll i många kontrollmiljöer. DRL använder sig av neurala nätverk för att approximera optimala val som kan tas givet att systemet befinner sig i en viss stadie. Därför är DRL en lovande metod för byggnadskontroll och detta faktumet är markerat av flera studier. Likväl, neurala nätverk i allmänhet är kända för att vara svaga mot adversarial attacker, vilket är små ändringar i inmatningen, som gör att neurala nätverket väljer en åtgärd som är suboptimal. Syftet med denna anvhandling är att undersöka olika strategier för att lösa byggnadskontroll-problemet med DRL genom att använda sig av byggnadssimulatorn IDA ICE. Denna avhandling kommer också att använda konceptet av adversarial machine learning för att attackera agenterna som kontrollerar temperaturen i byggnaden. Det finns två olika sätt att attackera neurala nätverk: (1) Fast Gradient Sign Method, som använder gradienterna av kontrollagentens nätverk för att utföra sin attack; (2) träna en inlärningsagent med DRL med målet att minimera kontrollagenternas prestanda. Först byggde vi en DRL-arkitektur som lärde sig kontrollera temperaturen i en byggad. Experimenten visar att utforskning av agenten är en grundläggande faktor för träningen av kontrollagenten och man måste finjustera utforskningen av agenten för att nå tillfredsställande prestanda. Slutligen testade vi känsligheten av de tränade DRL-agenterna till adversarial attacker. Dessa test visade att i genomsnitt har det större påverkan på kontrollagenterna att använda DRL metoder än att använda sig av FGSM medans att attackera helt slumpmässigt har nästan ingen påverkan.

L’objectif principal de ce travail est de développer une stratégie de gestion optimale afin d’améliorer l’efficacité énergétique des véhicules hybrides. Ces travaux comportent une partie analyse expérimentale de la mobilité, une partie modélisation numérique et une partie optimisation de la stratégie de gestion énergétique. L’étude de la mobilité a permis de mettre en avant et de quantifier la prédictibilité des trajets, dus à une forte mobilité contrainte. La modélisation dynamique du véhicule, nécessaire à l’étude de stratégie, a été réalisée par Représentation Energétique Macroscopique (REM) qui est une bonne méthode pour ce type d’étude. La stratégie proposée est basée sur le contrôle prédictif (MPC), résolu par une méthode de Programmation Quadratique, et mis en place en s’appuyant sur la prédiction de cycle issu de l’étude expérimentale. Les perspectives d’améliorations de ces travaux se situent au niveau de la consolidation de la base de données, et du niveau de modélisation de la batterie (impact de la thermique et du vieillissement) et du moteur thermique (prise en compte des polluants)<br>The main objective of this work is to develop an optimal management strategy to improve energetic efficiency of hybrid electric vehicle. This work is composed by a mobility experimental analysis part, a numerical modelization part and an optimization part of the energy management strategy. The study of mobility allow to highligth and quantify the predictibility of trips, due to a constraint mobility.The dynamic modelling of the vehicle which is necesary to study perfomance of strategies, was realized by Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) which is a good methode in this case. The proposed strategy is based on the predictive control (MPC), solve by a method of Programming Quadratic, and set up resting on the cycle prediction determined from the experimental study. The perspectives of improvements of these work are consolidation of the database, and improvement of the battery modelling (imcluding thermal and ageing effects) and of the thermal engine (taken into account by some pollutants)

Les fermes houlomotrices de seconde génération qui seront déployées dans les années qui viennent seront composées d’un grand nombre de modules identiques mouillés en mer et rapportant au rivage l’électricité produite par câbles sous-marins. Il a été montré que le contrôle des machines houlomotrices permet d’augmenter significativement leur rendement. Cependant, le contrôle optimal d’un système houlomoteur est non causal, i.e. son application nécessite la prévision de la force d’excitation soumise par le champ de vague sur chacun des éléments de la ferme. Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit ont consisté à mettre en place une stratégie de contrôle permettant une récupération d’énergie proche de l’optimum théorique en tenant compte des interactions hydrodynamiques liées à la configuration de ferme et permettant de résoudre la non-causalité d’un tel contrôleur en utilisant uniquement l’information contenue dans les vecteurs d’états des machines de la ferme. Dans un premier temps, les équations reliant les différents états des machines de la ferme ont été établies puis ont été utilisées afin d'effectuer une prévision des états sur les corps contrôlés permettant ainsi d’appliquer un contrôle réactif pseudo causal. Afin de contraindre la dynamique des corps et maitriser l’horizon de non causal du contrôleur, une méthode de fenêtrage a été appliquée à l’impédance du contrôleur. À l’aide d’un simulateur temporel développé spécifiquement, une étude de sensibilité a été conduite pour définir les paramètres optimaux et le comportement de la stratégie de contrôle et de son fenêtrage. La robustesse et la performance du contrôleur ont ensuite été évaluées pour différents changements extérieurs comme la dérive des corps, les variations d’orientation de houle, et l’étalement spectral directionnel. L’application de la stratégie de contrôle à une ferme de 10 corps a montré une récupération d’énergie supérieure à 83% de la limite théorique maximale<br>The next generation of wave farms will becomposed of a large number of identical devices deployed offshore, which will transfer the retrieved energy to the shore using submarine cables. It hasbeen proven that the control of Wave Energy Converters can improve their efficiency. However, one of the main challenges of WEC control is the noncausality of the optimal controller. Indeed, the time domain application of this kind of control requires the forecast of the excitation force applied by the wavefield on each device of the farm. The work presented in this thesis aimed at developing and assessing a control strategy with an energy efficiency close to the theoretical optimum, taking into account the hydrodynamic interactions between the farm devices, and solving the non-causality issue using the measurements of the states of the device of the array. First, the equations linking the devices’ states within the array have been established and used to performa deterministic forecast of the states of the controlled bodies, which allowed to apply a pseudo-causal reactive control. Moreover, a window function hasbeen applied to the controller impedance in order to constrain the dynamic of the controlled bodies, and also to regulate the non-causal horizon of the controller. Then, using a time domain simulator developed specifically, a sensibility analysis has been performed to define the optimal parameters and the behavior of the controller with the window function.The robustness and the performances of the controller have also been assessed when affected by exterior changes such as device drift, wave orientation modification, and directional spreading of the wave spectrum. The collaborative controlled strategy applied to a farm of 10 devices has shown an energy efficiency over 83% of the theoretical bound

The efficacy of the energy management systems at dealing with energy consumption in buildings has been a topic with a growing interest in recent years due to the ever-increasing global energy demand and the large percentage of energy being currently used by buildings. The scale of this sector has attracted research effort with the objective of uncovering potential improvement avenues and materializing them with the help of recent technological advances that could be exploited to lower the energetic footprint of buildings. Specifically, in the area of heating, ventilating and air conditioning installations, the availability of large amounts of historical data in building management software suites makes possible the study of how resource-efficient these systems really are when entrusted with ensuring occupant comfort. Actually, recent reports have shown that there is a gap between the ideal operating performance and the performance achieved in practice. Accordingly, this thesis considers the research of novel energy management strategies for heating, ventilating and air conditioning installations in buildings, aimed at narrowing the performance gap by employing data-driven methods to increase their context awareness, allowing management systems to steer the operation towards higher efficiency. This includes the advancement of modeling methodologies capable of extracting actionable knowledge from historical building behavior databases, through load forecasting and equipment operational performance estimation supporting the identification of a building’s context and energetic needs, and the development of a generalizable multi-objective optimization strategy aimed at meeting these needs while minimizing the consumption of energy. The experimental results obtained from the implementation of the developed methodologies show a significant potential for increasing energy efficiency of heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems while being sufficiently generic to support their usage in different installations having diverse equipment. In conclusion, a complete analysis and actuation framework was developed, implemented and validated by means of an experimental database acquired from a pilot plant during the research period of this thesis. The obtained results demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed standalone contributions, and as a whole represent a suitable solution for helping to increase the performance of heating, ventilating and air conditioning installations without affecting the comfort of their occupants.<br>L’eficàcia dels sistemes de gestió d’energia per afrontar el consum d’energia en edificis és un tema que ha rebut un interès en augment durant els darrers anys a causa de la creixent demanda global d’energia i del gran percentatge d’energia que n’utilitzen actualment els edificis. L’escala d’aquest sector ha atret l'atenció de nombrosa investigació amb l’objectiu de descobrir possibles vies de millora i materialitzar-les amb l’ajuda de recents avenços tecnològics que es podrien aprofitar per disminuir les necessitats energètiques dels edificis. Concretament, en l’àrea d’instal·lacions de calefacció, ventilació i climatització, la disponibilitat de grans bases de dades històriques als sistemes de gestió d’edificis fa possible l’estudi de com d'eficients són realment aquests sistemes quan s’encarreguen d'assegurar el confort dels seus ocupants. En realitat, informes recents indiquen que hi ha una diferència entre el rendiment operatiu ideal i el rendiment generalment assolit a la pràctica. En conseqüència, aquesta tesi considera la investigació de noves estratègies de gestió de l’energia per a instal·lacions de calefacció, ventilació i climatització en edificis, destinades a reduir la diferència de rendiment mitjançant l’ús de mètodes basats en dades per tal d'augmentar el seu coneixement contextual, permetent als sistemes de gestió dirigir l’operació cap a zones de treball amb un rendiment superior. Això inclou tant l’avanç de metodologies de modelat capaces d’extreure coneixement de bases de dades de comportaments històrics d’edificis a través de la previsió de càrregues de consum i l’estimació del rendiment operatiu dels equips que recolzin la identificació del context operatiu i de les necessitats energètiques d’un edifici, tant com del desenvolupament d’una estratègia d’optimització multi-objectiu generalitzable per tal de minimitzar el consum d’energia mentre es satisfan aquestes necessitats energètiques. Els resultats experimentals obtinguts a partir de la implementació de les metodologies desenvolupades mostren un potencial important per augmentar l'eficiència energètica dels sistemes de climatització, mentre que són prou genèrics com per permetre el seu ús en diferents instal·lacions i suportant equips diversos. En conclusió, durant aquesta tesi es va desenvolupar, implementar i validar un marc d’anàlisi i actuació complet mitjançant una base de dades experimental adquirida en una planta pilot durant el període d’investigació de la tesi. Els resultats obtinguts demostren l’eficàcia de les contribucions de manera individual i, en conjunt, representen una solució idònia per ajudar a augmentar el rendiment de les instal·lacions de climatització sense afectar el confort dels seus ocupants

Este trabalho trata do planejamento de trajetórias que minimizam as perdas elétricas no KA\'I yxo, um robô escalador de árvores que tem por finalidade realizar monitoramento ambiental em florestas através da coleta de diferentes tipos de dados. Como essa aplicação requer que o robô permaneça em ambientes remotos, o estudo de técnicas que reduzam as perdas de energia a fim de que se aumente o tempo em operação do robô se mostra relevante, sendo a minimização das perdas elétricas uma contribuição importante nesse sentido. Estruturalmente, o KA\'I yxo consiste em um robô bípede com duas garras e quatro ligamentos interconectados por três juntas rotacionais. Além disso, seu mecanismo de andadura foi biologicamente inspirado na forma de locomoção observada em lagartas mede-palmos, o que permitiu tratar o robô como um manipulador industrial, cuja base é o ligamento associado à garra engastada e cujo efetuador é o ligamento associado à garra livre. Com isso, quando conveniente, o robô foi tratado em dois casos, conforme a garra que se encontra engastada. Inicialmente, realizou-se a modelagem matemática do robô, obtendo-se as equações cinemáticas direta e inversa, e dinâmicas, bem como o modelo das juntas segundo a abordagem do controle independente por junta. Posteriormente, formulou-se um problema de controle ótimo, solucionado através de um método numérico que o transformou em um problema de programação quadrática, que por sua vez foi resolvido iterativamente. Por fim, as trajetórias ótimas planejadas foram implementadas no robô real e, como forma de validação, as novas perdas elétricas foram comparadas com as das trajetórias anteriormente executadas pelo robô, determinando-se a correspondente economia de energia.<br>This work deals with the minimum-energy trajectory planning, related to the electrical losses, in KA\'I yxo, a tree-climbing robot that aims to perform environmental monitoring in forests through the collection of different types of data. As this application requires that the robot remains in remote environments, the study of techniques that reduce energy losses in order to increase the operation time of the robot is shown to be relevant, and the minimization of the electrical losses is an important contribution in this sense. Structurally, KA\'I yxo consists of a biped robot with two claws and four links interconnected by three revolute joints. In addition, its gait mechanism was biologically inspired in the form of locomotion observed in caterpillars, allowing to treat the robot as an industrial manipulator, which base is the link associated with the fixed claw and which end-effector is the link associated with the free claw. In consequence, when convenient, the robot was treated in two cases, according to the claw that is fixed. Initially, the mathematical model of the robot was developed, being obtained the forward and inverse kinematic and dynamic equations, as well as the model of the joints according to the independent joint control approach. Subsequently, an optimal control problem was formulated, which was solved through a numerical method that turned it into a quadratic programming problem, which in turn was solved iteratively. Finally, the planned optimal trajectories were implemented in the real robot and, as a form of validation, the new electrical losses were compared with those of the trajectories previously executed by the robot, being determined the corresponding energy saving.

Advances in optical coherent transmissions and electrical compensation technologies have stimulated the exploration of novel optical network architectures. Filterless optical backbone networks (F-OBNs) eliminate or minimize the usage of active photonic reconfigurable components, which is also referred to as passive OBN. By introducing passive splitters and combiners to interconnect the fiber links, this type of networks have been proposed as a cost- and energy-efficient alternative to active optical switching networks. However, F-OBN suffers from a constraint on wavelength reuse due to its broadcast nature. Consequently, this architecture always requires more resources, i.e. higher number of wavelengths, than the active optical switching networks. To address this issue, another passive approach for optical core network, i.e., semi-filterless OBN (SF-OBN) has been introduced. By utilizing passive colored components, e.g., Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG), red/blue filters, etc., at some selected nodes, the SF-OBN is able to improve the wavelength usage while keeping the similar level on cost and energy consumption as FOBN. In this thesis project, an optimization model for wavelength assignment and filter placement in SF-OBN has been developed. F-OBN can be considered as a special case without any filter in SF-OBN. Using integer linear programming (ILP) formulation, the model aims to minimize the total number of wavelengths required in the network given the number of filters. Furthermore, wavelength usage, cost and energy consumption in active optical switching, F-OBN and SF-OBN have been compared in order to evaluate the performance of the each network architecture.

The growing demand for wireless communication capacity and the overutilisation of the conventional radio frequency (RF) spectrum have inspired research into using alternative spectrum regions for communication. Using optical wireless communications (OWC), for example, offers significant advantages over RF communication in terms of higher bandwidth, lower implementation costs and energy savings. In OWC systems, the information signal has to be real and non-negative. Therefore, modifications to the conventional communication algorithms are required. Multicarrier modulation schemes like orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) promise to deliver a more efficient use of the communication capacity through adaptive bit and energy loading techniques. Three OFDM-based schemes – direct-current-biased OFDM (DCO-OFDM), asymmetrically clipped optical OFDM(ACO-OFDM), and pulse-amplitude modulated discrete multitone (PAM-DMT) – have been introduced in the literature. The current work investigates the recently introduced scheme subcarrier-index modulation OFDM as a potential energy-efficient modulation technique with reduced peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) suitable for applications in OWC. A theoretical model for the analysis of SIM-OFDMin a linear additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel is provided. A closed-form solution for the PAPR in SIM-OFDM is also proposed. Following the work on SIM-OFDM, a novel inherently unipolar modulation scheme, unipolar orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (U-OFDM), is proposed as an alternative to the existing similar schemes: ACO-OFDMand PAM-DMT. Furthermore, an enhanced U-OFDMsignal generation algorithm is introduced which allows the spectral efficiency gap between the inherently unipolar modulation schemes – U-OFDM, ACO-OFDM, PAM-DMT – and the conventionally used DCO-OFDM to be closed. This results in an OFDM-based modulation approach which is electrically and optically more efficient than any other OFDM-based technique proposed so far for intensity modulation and direct detection (IM/DD) communication systems. Non-linear distortion in the optical front-end elements is one of the major limitations for high-speed communication in OWC. This work presents a generalised approach for analysing nonlinear distortion in OFDM-based modulation schemes. The presented technique leads to a closed-form analytical solution for an arbitrary memoryless distortion of the information signal and has been proven to work for the majority of the known unipolar OFDM-based modulation techniques - DCO-OFDM, ACO-OFDM, PAM-DMT and U-OFDM. The high-speed communication capabilities of novel Gallium Nitride based μm-sized light emitting diodes (μLEDs) are investigated, and a record-setting result of 3.5Gb/s using a single 50-μm device is demonstrated. The capabilities of using such devices at practical transmission distances are also investigated, and a 1 Gb/s link using a single device is demonstrated at a distance of up to 10m. Furthermore, a proof-of-concept experiment is realised where a 50-μm LED is successfully modulated using U-OFDM and enhanced U-OFDM to achieve notable energy savings in comparison to DCO-OFDM.

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, 2014.<br>Submitted by Cristiane Mendes (mcristianem@gmail.com) on 2015-07-02T16:07:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_RaisaOhanaDaCostaHirafuji.PDF: 3173809 bytes, checksum: ce762142b391426311c251f79ad47862 (MD5)<br>Approved for entry into archive by Raquel Viana(raquelviana@bce.unb.br) on 2015-07-30T16:02:41Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_RaisaOhanaDaCostaHirafuji.PDF: 3173809 bytes, checksum: ce762142b391426311c251f79ad47862 (MD5)<br>Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-30T16:02:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_RaisaOhanaDaCostaHirafuji.PDF: 3173809 bytes, checksum: ce762142b391426311c251f79ad47862 (MD5)<br>Nos últimos anos, a eficiência energética tem se tornado um fator cada vez mais importante para as redes de comunicação, principalmente por fatores econômicos e ambientais. Dentre as tecnologias de redes ópticas de acesso existentes, as Redes Ópticas Passivas (Passive Optical Networks, PONs) são consideradas as mais eficientes em termos de consumo de energia. Apesar disso, os sistemas PON da ITU-T existentes podem dar suporte a dois modos de economia de potência na unidade de rede óptica (optical network unit, ONU), chamados de modos Doze e Cyclic Sleep, que são mecanismos baseados em protocolos para o gerenciamento de potência. Porém, apesar de estes dois modos terem sido padronizados, não há razão técnica para manter a separação entre eles. Neste trabalho de mestrado, nós apresentamos e avaliamos o desempenho de um novo e único modo de gerenciamento de potência para PONs multiplexadas por divisão de tempo (time division multiplexed, TDM), chamado de modo Watchful Sleep, o qual combina as vantagens dos modos Doze e Cyclic Sleep em um framework único e mais simples, e os supera em eficiência energética. Devido à sua eficácia, o modo Watchful Sleep foi aprovado para inclusão nos padrões ITU-T G.984 (G-PON) e ITU-T G.987 (XG-PON). Ele também está sendo considerado para inclusão no padrão de NG-PON (ITU-T G.989), cujo objetivo é padronizar as redes TWDM PON. ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT<br>Energy efficiency in communication networks has been growing in importance in the last few years, mainly due to economical and environmental issues. Among the existing optical access network technologies, Passive Optical Networks (PONs) are considered the most energy efficient ones. Despite this fact, existing ITU-T PON systems may support two standardized optical network unit (ONU) power saving modes, namely the Doze and Cyclic Sleep modes, which are protocol-based mechanisms for ONU power management. However, notwithstanding that these two modes have been standardized, there is no technical reason to maintain the separation between them. In this master’s work, we present and evaluate the performance of a new and single power management mode for time division multiplexed (TDM) PONs, called the Watchful Sleep mode, which combines the advantages of both Doze and Cyclic Sleep modes into a unique and simpler framework and outperforms them in energy efficiency. Due to its effectiveness, the Watchful Sleep mode has been approved to be included in the ITU-T G.984 (GPON) and ITU-T G.987 (XG-PON) standards. It is also being considered for the NGPON standard (ITU-T G.989), which aims at standardizing TWDM PON networks.

The Internet has become an integral part of modern societies fuelling ever growing opportunities for the provision of new advanced services which better respond to quickly changing societal needs. Previously the deployment of such services have led to significant increases in energy consumption which is in strong contrast with the global drive for a greener and more energy efficient environments. Network infrastructures are required which support these growing needs but at the same time remain zero-carbon emission complaint. Green photonic network designs centre on techniques to reduce and conserve energy within multilayer network scenarios. In this Thesis, hibernation strategies are proposed where network configurations form selective group of nodes, segmentation of links and partitioning of the light paths within connections to enable "sleep" modes. The strategy is founded on the optimisation and improved power management through a control algorithm implemented as a modification of the Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching (GMPLS) signalling and routing protocol. The impact of the strategy on network utilization, number of wavelengths, number of connection requests, number of nodes, network connectivity degree, and power ratio in IP routers has been evaluated on representative optical networks using a simulation framework established using OMNeT++. A trade-off is observed between energy consumption and network performance as a result of hibernation; evaluation of this methodology indicates potential reduction in energy power consumption from 30% up to 75% at the expense of reduced network performance.

Диссертация на соискание ученой степени кандидата технических наук по специальности 05.13. 03 – системы и процессы управления. – Национальный технический университет "Харьковский политехнический институт", Харьков, 2016. Диссертация посвящена решению научно-практической задачи усовершенствования оптимальной по затратам энергии системы управления. В диссертационной работе рассмотрен метод оптимального управления в линейной системе при квадратичном критерии качества с учётом ограничений на управляемые координаты, применительно к разомкнутой системе. Показано, что существует шесть вариантов алгоритмов оптимального управления, в зависимости от сочетания ограничений, накладываемых на управляемые координаты. В зависимости от длительности процесса оптимального управления, алгоритмы располагаются в определённом порядке, относительно друг друга, образуя тем самым область решения задачи, ограниченную временем максимального быстродействия с одной стороны и временем минимальных затрат с другой. Математические зависимости для определения этих ограничений, а также границ соседних алгоритмов внутри этой области выведены в диссертации. В работе предложена функциональная схема двухуровневой системы оптимального управления. На верхнем уровне осуществляется выбор алгоритма оптимального управления и расчёт длительностей его интервалов. Основанием для вычислений служат внешние управляющие данные. При расчёте используются параметры объекта, идентифицированные на нижнем уровне. Контроллер нижнего уровня осуществляет выработку управляющих воздействий на объект, форма и длительность которых определена ЭВМ верхнего уровня. На контроллере нижнего уровня реализована система подчинённого регулирования, с целью удержания объекта на выбранной траектории оптимального движения в фазовом пространстве. Дополнительно, локальный контроллер реализовывает функции нейронного идентификатора параметров.<br>The thesis for scientific degree of candidate of technical sciences in the specialty 05.13.03 – control systems and processes. – National Technical University "Kharkov Polytechnic Institute", Kharkov, 2016. The thesis is devoted to solving scientific and practical problems of improvement of cost effective energy control system. In the thesis has given the method of optimal control in a linear open-loop system with quadratic criteria of quality. It is shown that there are six variants of the algorithms of optimal control, depending on the combination of constraints on the controlled axes. Depending on the duration, optimal control algorithms are arranged in a specific order, relative to each other, thereby forming a region of the problem solution by the time of maximum speed with one hand and minimal time costs with other. Mathematical dependences for definition of these limits and the borders of neighbour algorithms within this field are derived in the thesis. In the thesis is proposed a method for the identification of the drive parameters. This method based on recurrent neural network Elman. The mathematical relationship between the weight coefficients of the network layers and parameters of the engine allows using the network learning as a way of identification. The paper presents a functional diagram of a two-tier system of optimal control. On the upper level, there is a choice of algorithm of optimal control and calculation of intervals durations. The lower level controller performs the generation of control actions on the object, the shape and duration of which is determined the upper-level computer.

The advance of internet applications, such as video streaming, big data and cloud computing, is reshaping the telecommunication and internet industries. Bandwidth demands in datacentres have been boosted by these emerging data-hungry internet applications. Regarding inter- and intra-datacentre communications, fine-grained data need to be exchanged across a large shared memory space. Large-scale high-speed optical switches tend to use a rearrangeably non-blocking architecture as this limits the number of switching elements required. However, this comes at the expense of requiring more sophisticated route selection within the switch and also some forms of time-slotted protocols. The looping algorithm is the classical routing algorithm to set up paths in rearrangeably non-blocking switches. It was born in the electronic switch era, where all links in the switches are equal. It is, therefore, not able to accommodate loss difference between optical paths due to the different length of waveguides and distinct numbers of crossings, and bends, leading to sub-optimal performance. We, therefore, propose an advanced path-selection algorithm based on the looping algorithm that minimises the path-dependent loss. It explores all possible set-ups for a given connection assignment and selects the optimal one. It guarantees that no individual path would have a sufficiently substantial loss, therefore, improve the overall performance of the switch. The performance of the proposed algorithm has been assessed by modelling switches using the VPI simulator. An 8×8 Clos-tree switch demonstrates a 2.7dB decrease in loss and 1.9dB improvement in IPDR with 1.5 dB penalty for the worst case. An 8×8 dilated Beneš shows more than 4 dB loss reduction for the lossiest path and 1.4 dB IPDR improvement for 1 dB power penalty. The improved algorithm can be run once for each switch design and store its output in a compact lookup table, enabling rapid switch reconfiguration. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) based optical switches have been fabricated with over 1,000 ports which meet the port count requirements in data centre networks. However, the reconfiguration speed of the MEMS switches is limited to the millisecond to microsecond timescale, which is not sufficient for packet switching in datacentres. Opto-electronic devices, such as Mach-Zehnder Interferometers (MZIs) and semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) with nanosecond response time show the potential to fulfil the requirements of packet switching. However, the scalability of MZI switches is inherently limited by insertion loss and accumulated crosstalk, while the scalability of SOA switches is restricted by accumulated noise and distortion. We, therefore, have proposed a dilated Beneš hybrid MZI-SOA design, where MZIs are implemented as 1×2 or 2×1 low-loss switching elements, minimising crosstalk by using a single input, and where short SOAs are included as gain or absorption units, offering either loss compensation or crosstalk suppression though adding only minimal noise and distortion. A 4×4 device has been fabricated and exhibits a mere 1.3dB loss, an extinction ratio of 47dB, and more than 13dB IPDR for a 0.5dB power penalty. When operating with 10 Gb/s per port, 6pJ/bit energy consumption is demonstrated, delivering 20% reduced energy consumption compared with SOA-based switches. The tolerance of the current control accuracy of this switch is very broad. Within a 5 mA bias current range, the power penalty can be maintained below 0.2 dB for 8 dB IPDR and 12 mA for 10 dB IPDR with a penalty less 0.5 dB. The excellent crosstalk and power penalty performance demonstrated by this chip enable the scalability of this hybrid approach. The performance of 16×16 port dilated Beneš hybrid switch is experimentally assessed by cascading 4×4 switch chips, demonstrating an IPDR of 15 dB at a 1 dB penalty with a 0.6 dB power penalty floor. In terms of switches with port count larger than 16×16, the power penalty performance has been analysed with physical layer simulations fitted with state-of-the-art data. We assess the feasibility of three potential topologies, with different architectural optimisations: dilated Beneš, Beneš and Clos-Beneš. Quantitative analysis for switches with up to 2048 ports is presented, achieving a 1.15dB penalty for a BER of 10-3, compatible with soft-decision forward error correction.

Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit portent sur l’optimisation d’une chaufferie collective multi-énergie en l’équipant d’un système de stockage thermique de type hydro-accumulation. L’efficacité de ce dernier dépend de sa capacité à conserver son énergie initiale. Ainsi, pour minimiser les pertes thermiques, le système de stockage doit être correctement isolé. Un modèle de ballon d’hydro-accumulation stratifié est développé et validé expérimentalement. Une étude paramétrique est menée afin d’étudier l’impact, sur les pertes thermiques, de paramètres géométriques et météorologiques. Ensuite, une approche de dimensionnement, fondée sur une stratégie de gestion séquentielle et une étude paramétrique est proposée. Plusieurs critères énergétiques et économiques peuvent ainsi être évalués pour différents volumes de stockage thermique. L’approche de dimensionnement proposée a été appliquée à plusieurs sites exploités par Cofely GDF-Suez, notre partenaire industriel. Les résultats obtenus montrent que le dimensionnement optimal du système de stockage et la gestion intelligente du procédé permettent d'optimiser le fonctionnement d’un site. Des économies énergétiques et financières importantes peuvent ainsi être réalisées. La stratégie de gestion séquentielle proposée n’anticipe pas les besoins du réseau de chaleur. C’est pourquoi une stratégie fondée sur la commande prédictive (MPC pour Model Predictive Control) est susceptible d’améliorer le fonctionnement et les performances d’une chaufferie collective équipée d’un système d’hydro-accumulation. Afin de mettre en œuvre un tel contrôleur, la puissance thermique demandée par le réseau de chaleur doit être correctement prédite. Par conséquent, une méthode de prédiction a été développée. Elle s’appuie sur une analyse multi-résolution par transformée en ondelettes discrète et sur l’utilisation de réseaux de neurones artificiels de type perceptron multicouche. La stratégie séquentielle (non prédictive) et la stratégie prédictive ont été appliquées à une chaufferie collective mixte située dans une commune du nord de la France. Pour ce cas d’étude, la stratégie prédictive est plus efficace. De plus, les résultats montrent que, quelle que soit la stratégie utilisée, équiper la chaufferie d’un système d’hydro-accumulation correctement dimensionné est un investissement rentable. Il permet de minimiser la consommation d’énergie fossile et, par conséquent, le coût économique et les émissions de CO2<br>The present work deals with optimizing a multi-energy district boiler by adding to the plant a thermal water storage tank. The effectiveness of such a system depends on how long the stored energy can be kept without considerable degradation. The storage tank should be properly insulated to reduce the rate of heat loss. Thus, firstly, a stratified water thermal storage model is developed and experimentally validated. A parametric study is carried out to determine the influence of geometric and meteorological parameters on heat loss. Next, a reliable sizing method based on a sequential management strategy and a parametric study is proposed. Various energy and economic criteria have been evaluated for a range of thermal storage sizes. The proposed methodology has been applied to many plants managed by Cofely GDF-Suez, our industrial partner. Results highlight the ability of a thermal storage tank (optimally sized and managed) to improve the operation of a multi-energy district boiler and realize significant energy and economic savings. The main drawback of the proposed sequential management strategy lies in not taking into account the future power demand. That is why a strategy based on a Model Predictive Controller (MPC) is likely to improve operation and performance. In order to implement such a controller, the power demand has to be accurately forecasted. As a consequence, a short-term forecast method, based on wavelet-based Multi-Resolution Analysis (MRA) and multilayer Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is proposed. Both the sequential and the predictive strategies are applied to a northeast France multi-energy district boiler selected as a case study. The main result to retain is that the efficiency of water thermal storage tank is mainly related to its design and the way it is managed. For this case study, the predictive strategy regardless the size of the storage tank, the predictive strategy is more reliable. Furthermore, in all cases an adequately sized and managed thermal storage tank is a profitable investment. It allows the fossil energy consumption to be significantly reduced. The same remark applies to the functioning costs and CO2 emissions

Дисертація на здобуття наукового ступеня кандидата технічних наук за спеціальністю 05.13. 03 – системи та процеси керування. – Національний технічний університет "Харківський політехнічний інститут", Харків, 2016. Дисертація присвячена вирішенню науково-практичної задачі вдосконалення оптимальною за витратами енергії системи керування. У дисертаційній роботі розглянуто метод оптимального керування в лінійній системі при квадратичному критерії якості з урахуванням обмежень на керовані координати, стосовно до розімкнутої системи. Показано, що існує шість варіантів алгоритмів оптимального керування, в залежності від поєднання обмежень, що накладаються на керовані координати. В залежності від тривалості процесу оптимального керування, алгоритми розташовуються у певному порядку, відносно один одного, утворюючи область рішення, обмежену часом максимальної швидкодії з одного боку і часом мінімальних витрат з іншого. Математичні залежності для визначення цих обмежень, а також кордонів сусідніх алгоритмів всередині цієї області виведені в дисертації. В дисертації запропоновано метод ідентифікації параметрів позиційного приводу, заснований на рекурентної нейронної мережі Елмана. Математичний зв'язок між ваговими коефіцієнтами рекурентного і зовнішнього шарів мережі з параметрами двигуна дозволяє застосувати здатність мережі до навчання як спосіб ідентифікації. В роботі запропонована функціональна схема дворівневої системи оптимального керування. На верхньому рівні здійснюється вибір алгоритму оптимального керування і розрахунок тривалості його інтервалів. Контролер нижнього рівня здійснює вироблення керуючих впливів на об'єкт, форма і тривалість яких визначена ЕОМ верхнього рівня.<br>The thesis for scientific degree of candidate of technical sciences in the specialty 05.13.03 – control systems and processes. – National Technical University "Kharkov Polytechnic Institute", Kharkov, 2016. The thesis is devoted to solving scientific and practical problems of improvement of cost effective energy control system. In the thesis has given the method of optimal control in a linear open-loop system with quadratic criteria of quality. It is shown that there are six variants of the algorithms of optimal control, depending on the combination of constraints on the controlled axes. Depending on the duration, optimal control algorithms are arranged in a specific order, relative to each other, thereby forming a region of the problem solution by the time of maximum speed with one hand and minimal time costs with other. Mathematical dependences for definition of these limits and the borders of neighbour algorithms within this field are derived in the thesis. In the thesis is proposed a method for the identification of the drive parameters. This method based on recurrent neural network Elman. The mathematical relationship between the weight coefficients of the network layers and parameters of the engine allows using the network learning as a way of identification. The paper presents a functional diagram of a two-tier system of optimal control. On the upper level, there is a choice of algorithm of optimal control and calculation of intervals durations. The lower level controller performs the generation of control actions on the object, the shape and duration of which is determined the upper-level computer.

Moving toward ubiquitous Cyber-Physical Systems - where computation, control and communication units are mutually interacting - this thesis aims to provide fundamental frameworks to address the problems arising from such a system, namely the real-time multiprocessor scheduling problem (RTMSP) and the multi-UAV topology control problem (MUTCP). The RTMSP is concerned with how tasks can be scheduled on available computing resources such that no task misses a deadline. An optimization-based control method was used to solve the problem. Though it is quite natural to formulate the task assignment problem as a mixed-integer nonlinear program, the computation cost is high. By reformulating the scheduling problem as a problem of first determining a percentage of task execution time and then finding the task execution order, the computation complexity can be reduced. Simulation results illustrate that our methods are both feasibility optimal and energy optimal. The framework is then extended to solve a scheduling problem with uncertainty in task execution times by adopting a feedback approach. The MUTCP is concerned with how a communication network topology can be determined such that the energy cost is minimized. An optimal control framework to construct a data aggregation network is proposed to optimally trade-off between communication and computation energy. The benefit of our network topology model is that it is a self-organized multi-hop hierarchical clustering network, which provides better performance in term of energy consumption, reliability and network scalability. In addition, our framework can be applied to both homogeneous and heterogeneous mobile sensor networks due to the generalization of the network model. Two multi-UAV information gathering applications, i.e. target tracking and area mapping, were chosen to test the proposed algorithm. Based on simulation results, our method can save up to 40% energy for a target tracking and 60% for an area mapping compared to the baseline approach.

Dans ce travail de thèse, un aperçu général sur les systèmes PON est présenté et sont étudiés les mécanismes et classification PON existants. Après, nous introduisons notre première contribution qui est un algorithme d'allocation dynamique de bande passante pour EPON. Cet algorithme proposé est désigné comme «hcDBA». Par la suite, une amélioration de l'algorithme de hcDBA avec mécanisme de prédiction précoce est présentée. Notre simulation montre bien que notre algorithme hcDBA est performant comparé aux mécanismes existants en termes de taux de perte de paquets et de délai d’accès. Dans notre seconde contribution, nous sommes intéressés au problème de consommation d’énergie qui est un sujet d’actualité dans les réseaux de télécommunication. Les études montrent aujourd’hui que les réseaux d'accès constituent une partie remarquable de la consommation totale d'énergie dans les réseaux de télécommunication. Les organisations ITU-T et IEEE ont publié la recommandation pour la conversation de l'énergie pour les réseaux PONs. Bien que, la consommation totale d'énergie des nœuds ONU est plus importantes que d'autres équipements dans le réseau d'accès fixe, les normes et la plupart des travaux de recherches ont porté sur les économies d'énergie du côté de ONU. Dans cette thèse, nous sommes concentrés sur une méthode d'efficacité énergétique basée sur la conservation de l'énergie du côté de l’OLT. La méthode proposée permet d’économiser de l'énergie en déplaçant dynamiquement des cartes d’OLT en mode de sommeil profond en fonction des charges de trafic entrant et sortant<br>In this thesis, general overview about PON systems is presented and existing PON mechanisms and classification are investigated. After, a novel dynamic bandwidth allocation algorithm for EPON is introduced. This proposed algorithm is named as “Half Cycling Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation-hcDBA” by the inspiration of its half cycling processing mode. Later, an improvement of hcDBA algorithm with early prediction mechanism is presented. As a result statement of the study, hcDBA algorithm performs better than existing mechanism in terms of packet loss ratio and access delays. Beside, simulation traffic behavior of EPON’s upstream channel has been investigated in order to support the decision of selecting suitable traffic generator in further studies. Energy conversation is one of the hot topics in telecommunication networks. Access networks constitute remarkable portion of the total energy consumption in telecommunication networks. ITU-T and IEEE organizations published recommendation for energy conversation in PONs. While, total energy consumption of ONUs is more than other equipment in fix access network the standards and most of the researches focused on saving energy at ONU side. In this thesis I focused on an energy efficiency method based on energy conversation on OLT side. The proposed method save energy by dynamically moving OLT cards to deep sleep mode according to the incoming and outgoing traffic loads

The requirements on fuel consumption and emissions for passenger cars are getting stricter every year. This has forced the vehicle industry to look for ways to improve the performance of the driveline. With the increasing focus on electrification, a common method is to combine an electrical driveline with a conventional driveline that uses a petrol or diesel engine, thus creating a hybrid electric vehicle. To fully be able to utilise the potential of the driveline in such a vehicle, an efficient energy management strategy is needed. This thesis describes the development of an efficient route-based energy management strategy. Three different optimisation strategies are combined, deterministic dynamic programming, equivalent consumption minimisation strategy and convex optimisation, together with segmentation of the input data. The developed strategy shows a decrease in computational time with up to more than one hundred times compared to a benchmark algorithm. When implemented in Volvo's simulation tool, VSim, substantial fuel savings of up to ten percent is shown compared to a charge-depleting charge-sustain strategy.

Thin film coatings of ZnO, TiO2, CeOX and BiOX have been deposited on soda lime silica glass through spray pyrolysis. The effects on the optical properties of the coated glass, as well as the possible impacts on the life expectancy and energy efficiency of PV-modules have been studied. ZnO and TiO2 coatings both reduced the transmission of UV radiation of wavelengths destructive to PV-modules. Therefore, both have the potential to increase the life expectancy of PV-modules if used on cover glass. The ZnO thin film also showed an increase in photoluminescence at 377 nm when radiated with UV radiation of 325 nm while TiO2 reduced the photoluminescence. ZnO coatings on the cover glass have the potential to increase the efficiency of PV-modules in addition to UV protection. No CeOX or BiOX films were found to be deposited with the method used. The ZnO and TiO2 coated samples showed a decrease in transmission of light, due to increased reflection and possibly scattering. This needs to be addressed if these kinds of coatings are going to be beneficial for Si PV-modules.

L'objectif des travaux présentés dans ce mémoire concerne le développement d'un modèle global représentant le couplage de l'enveloppe du bâtiment avec les équipements énergétiques. Une approche systémique appelée les Bond Graphs, peu employée jusqu'ici dans la modélisation des systèmes thermiques, est utilisée. Le modèle global du bâtiment, regroupant sous le même environnement de simulation, les modèles de l'enveloppe du bâtiment, les apports solaires, les émetteurs de chauffage et de rafraîchissement et le système de ventilation, est développé pour reconstituer l'ensemble des articulations énergétiques entre l'enveloppe et les environnements intérieur et extérieur. A travers la modélisation d'un bâtiment multizone, le couplage systémique des modèles de l'enveloppe et des apports solaires est présenté. Par ailleurs, un système combinant un plancher chauffant et un plafond rafraîchissant est étudié à l'aide des modèles des émetteurs de chauffage et de rafraîchissement. Le renouvèlement d'air dans le bâtiment est également concerné par la modélisation Bond Graph. Enfin, des éléments de validation expérimentale sont présentés. Pour cela, la plateforme de tri-génération d'énergie ENERBAT est exploitée. L'objectif est d'étudier le couplage optimal enveloppe du bâtiment - équipements énergétiques pour lequel les modèles BG sont développés. Une étude paramétrique tenant compte des interactions entre les paramètres étudiés est menée sur un projet réel de rénovation. Finalement, une combinaison appropriée des paramètres étudiés a été retenue afin de réduire la consommation énergétique selon la réglementation thermique française (RT2012)<br>Our works focus on the setting of reliable tools able to analyze the interaction between the building envelope and HVAC systems. The developed approach is based on Bond Graphs methodology, a graphical modeling language which is particularly suitable for energy exchanges. A numerical model gathering, under the same simulation environment, sub-models representing the building envelope, the solar gains, the floor heating, the chilled ceiling and the ventilation system, is developed in order to predict the energy interactions between these sub-systems. The multi-zone building model is developed in order to simulate and analyze the overall building thermal behavior. Then, the solar gains model is also included to predict the solar radiation exchanges in a way close to reality. The model of the heating and cooling system, combining the floor heating and the chilled ceiling, is developed in order to improve the thermal comfort of the building. Afterwards, the ventilation system is modeled in order to represent the air exchange inside the building. The experimental validation is carried out on the tri-generation unit integrated with a thermal solar system (platform ENERBAT). Furthermore, the parametrical study was realized in order to gain a better understanding according to the impact of some factors in the energy performance of the single-family building located in Meurthe-et-Moselle region (France). Optimization of several measures, such as insulation of the building envelope, type of glazing, building orientation and ventilation system, is performed to respond to the requirements of the French thermal standard (RT2012)

The continuous growth of traffic demand driven by the brisk increase in number of Internet users and emerging online services creates new challenges for communication networks. The latest advances in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) technology make it possible to build Transparent Optical Networks (TONs) which are expected to be able to satisfy this rapidly growing capacity demand. Moreover, with the ability of TONs to transparently carry the optical signal from source to destination, electronic processing of the tremendous amount of data can be avoided and optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) conversion at intermediate nodes can be eliminated. Consequently, transparent WDM networks consume relatively low power, compared to their electronic-based IP network counterpart. Furthermore, TONs bring also additional benefits in terms of bit rate, signal format, and protocol transparency. However, the absence of O/E/O processing at intermediate nodes in TONs has also some drawbacks. Without regeneration, the quality of the optical signal transmitted from a source to a destination might be degraded due to the effect of physical-layer impairments induced by the transmission through optical fibers and network components. For this reason, routing approaches specifically tailored to account for the effect of physical-layer impairments are needed to avoid setting up connections that don’t satisfy required signal quality at the receiver. Transparency also makes TONs highly vulnerable to deliberate physical-layer attacks. Malicious attacking signals can cause a severe impact on the traffic and for this reason proactive mechanisms, e.g., network design strategies, able to limit their effect are required. Finally, even though energy consumption of transparent WDM networks is lower than in the case of networks processing the traffic at the nodes in the electronic domain, they have the potential to consume even less power. This can be accomplished by targeting the inefficiencies of the current provisioning strategies applied in WDM networks. The work in this thesis addresses the three important aspects mentioned above. In particular, this thesis focuses on routing and wavelength assignment (RWA) strategies specifically devised to target: (i) the lightpath transmission quality, (ii) the network security (i.e., in terms of vulnerability to physical-layer attacks), and (iii) the reduction of the network energy consumption. Our contributions are summarized below. A number of Impairment Constraint Based Routing (ICBR) algorithms have been proposed in the literature to consider physical-layer impairments during the connection provisioning phase. Their objective is to prevent the selection of optical connections (referred to as lightpaths) with poor signal quality. These ICBR approaches always assign each connection request the least impaired lightpath and support only a single threshold of transmission quality, used for all connection requests. However, next generation networks are expected to support a variety of services with disparate requirements for transmission quality. To address this issue, in this thesis we propose an ICBR algorithm supporting differentiation of services at the Bit Error Rate (BER) level, referred to as ICBR-Diff. Our approach takes into account the effect of physical-layer impairments during the connection provisioning phase where various BER thresholds are considered for accepting/blocking connection requests, depending on the signal quality requirements of the connection requests. We tested the proposed ICBR-Diff approach in different network scenarios, including also a fiber heterogeneity. It is shown that it can achieve a significant improvement of network performance in terms of connection blocking, compared to previously published non-differentiated RWA and ICBR algorithms.  Another important challenge to be considered in TONs is their vulnerability to physical-layer attacks. Deliberate attacking signals, e.g., high-power jamming, can cause severe service disruption or even service denial, due to their ability to propagate in the network. Detecting and locating the source of such attacks is difficult, since monitoring must be done in the optical domain, and it is also very expensive. Several attack-aware RWA algorithms have been proposed in the literature to proactively reduce the disruption caused by high-power jamming attacks. However, even with attack-aware network planning mechanisms, the uncontrollable propagation of the attack still remains an issue. To address this problem, we propose the use of power equalizers inside the network nodes in order to limit the propagation of high-power jamming attacks. Because of the high cost of such equipment, we develop a series of heuristics (incl. Greedy Randomized Adaptive Search Procedure (GRASP)) aiming at minimizing the number of power equalizers needed to reduce the network attack vulnerability to a desired level by optimizing the location of the equalizers. Our simulation results show that the equalizer placement obtained by the proposed GRASP approach allows for 50% reduction of the sites with the power equalizers while offering the same level of attack propagation limitation as it is possible to achieve with all nodes having this additional equipment installed. In turn, this potentially yields a significant cost saving.    Energy consumption in TONs has been the target of several studies focusing on the energy-aware and survivable network design problem for both dedicated and shared path protection. However, survivability and energy efficiency in a dynamic provisioning scenario has not been addressed. To fill this gap, in this thesis we focus on the power consumption of survivable WDM network with dynamically provisioned 1:1 dedicated path protected connections. We first investigate the potential energy savings that are achievable by setting all unused protection resources into a lower-power, stand-by state (or sleep mode) during normal network operations. It is shown that in this way the network power consumption can be significantly reduced. Thus, to optimize the energy savings, we propose and evaluate a series of energy-efficient strategies, specifically tailored around the sleep mode functionality. The performance evaluation results reveal the existence of a trade-off between energy saving and connection blocking. Nonetheless, they also show that with the right provisioning strategy it is possible to save a considerable amount of energy with a negligible impact on the connection blocking probability. In order to evaluate the performance of our proposed ICBR-Diff and energy-aware RWA algorithms, we develop two custom-made discrete-event simulators. In addition, the Matlab program of GRASP approach for power equalization placement problem is implemented.<br><p>QC 20120508</p>

The energy consumption of communication networks is continuously growing. Many energy saving approaches have been proposed at the device, system, and network level. The most promising way to address this problem is to utilize photonic technologies as much as possible thanks to their low energy consumption per bit performance. Moreover, several approaches have been proposed to further reduce the energy consumption in optical networks. One popular technique exploits low power modes (e.g., sleep or doze mode) for devices that are not used. However, sleep mode based approaches may affect the way optical connections (i.e., lightpaths) are routed, or alter the characteristics of some devices. This in turn may have a detrimental impact on crucial network/device performance parameters. In other words a green approach may introduce additional delay, change the level of resource utilization in the network, or even impact the lifetime of a device, resulting in increased network operational cost. This thesis provides a study that carefully assesses, in both access and core networks, the trade-off between the benefits of sleep-based energy-efficient schemes and their possible side-effects. In fiber access networks putting a device into sleep mode and waking it up can introduce a significant energy overhead. Already proposed energy-efficient approaches reduce this overhead by aggregating as much as possible the traffic before a transmission. However, aggregating data may cause an additional delay that in some cases might not be acceptable. This thesis investigates the trade-off between energy saving and additional packet delay in the case of a LTE backhaul network based on wavelength division multiplexing passive optical network (WDM-PON). The thesis proposes a novel energy-efficient approach based on the dozing concept able to precisely control when a transmitter needs to wake up in order to maximize the time spent in sleep mode, while assuring that packet transmissions are completed before a given deadline. The proposed scheme is also able to exploit possibly diverse traffic delay requirements to further improve energy saving performance. In optical core networks, one way to decrease the energy consumption is to minimize the number of used active devices by aggregating the lightpaths on the lowest possible number of active fiber links. Routing strategies based on this intuition are beneficial in terms of energy saving, but on the other hand may impact the network performance (e.g., blocking probability) by affecting length of the lightpaths and link occupancy distribution. This trade-off is evaluated in the thesis with the help of a specially designed routing and wavelength assignment (RWA) strategy referred to as weighted power aware lightpath routing (WPA-LR). The WPA-LR strategy permits the fine tuning between the minimization of two objectives: energy consumption and network resource (i.e., wavelength) utilization. Evaluation results confirm that energy efficiency and network performance are conflicting objectives. However, the proposed WPA-LR strategy offers energy minimization with acceptable impact on the network performance. The thesis also investigates the impact that sleep-based energy-efficient strategies have on the lifetime of a number of optical network devices, in both access and core networks. In fact, utilizing a sleep mode functionality may change the operational conditions of the device which can impact the device lifetime. This is a crucial aspect to consider because it may directly affect the network operational cost related to fault management. The thesis provides a methodology to assess under which conditions and for which devices an energy-efficient scheme may lead to overall cost benefit vs. a (possible) increase of reparation cost. It was found that in access networks and with business customers a small lifetime variation in optical line terminals (OLTs) or in optical network units (ONUs) can lead to significant cost increase that cannot be covered by the profits coming from the energy saving. In core networks erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) are the most vulnerable devices in terms of impact on their lifetime. For this reason it was found that the usage of green routing algorithms based on putting EDFAs into sleep mode may not always be economically beneficial. In conclusion this thesis provides a different perspective on sleep mode based energy-efficient algorithms where the potential benefit in terms of energy saving is weighted against the impact of a possible degradation of the network performance and devices lifetime. On the other hand these performance degradations can be controlled and limited by the proposed algorithms.<br>Energikonsumtionen av kommunikationsnätverk, växer kontinuerligt. Många energibesparande åtgärder har föreslagits, såväl på komponentnivå, systemnivå och nätverksnivå. Det mest lovande sättet att hantera energibehov i kommunikationsnätverk är att utnyttja optisk teknologi så mycket som möjligt då denna har potential att ge låg energiförbrukning per bit. Det finns också ett antal föreslagna metoder för att ytterligare reducera energibehovet i optiska nätverk. En av de mest använda teknikerna bygger på att låta enheter som ej används gå ner på låg effekt (”sovläge”). Om detta används i allt för hög utsträckning kan det dock påverka hur optiska förbindelser (sk lightpaths) sätts upp eller ge förändrade egenskaper hos de aktuella komponenterna. Detta kan i sin tur ha en skadlig inverkan på de centrala nätverks- och komponentegenskaper vilket påverkar prestandan. Med andra ord kan en sådan ”grön” ansats baserad på sovläge leda till ökad fördröjning, förändring av resursutnyttjandet i nätet och till och med påverka risken för att det uppstår fel i komponenterna vilket ökar driftskostnaden för nätet. Denna avhandling fokuserar på dessa aspekter och visar upp resultat som belyser avvägningen mellan sovlägesbaserade energieffektiva strategier och deras eventuella bieffekter. Att slå av och väcka upp komponenter i optiska access-nätverk kan vara förknippat med en signifikant extra energikostnad. Tidigare föreslagna energieffektiva strategier försöker reducera denna ökade energikostnad genom att samla så mycket trafik som möjligt innan överföringen sker. Dock kan detta leda till ökad fördröjning som i vissa lägen inte är acceptabel. I avhandlingen undersöker vi avvägningen mellan energibesparingar och ökad paketfördröjning i fallet med LTE distributionsnät baserade på våglängsmultiplexerade passiva optiska nätverk (WDM-PON). Vi föreslår en ny energieffektiv ansats baserad på att enheter försätts i ”slummer-läge”. Detta gör det möjligt att med god precision bestämma när en sändare behöver väckas upp i syfte att maximera tiden i sovläget och att försäkra sig om att paketen kommer fram inom avsedd tid. Strategin är även kapabel att utnyttja differentierad fördröjning för att ytterligare förbättra energibesparingen. Ett sätt att minska energikonsumtionen i optiska distributionsnät är att minimera antalet aktiva enheter genom att exempelvis samla optiska förbindelser till ett minimalt antal aktiva fiberlänkar. Routingstrategier som utgår från denna princip är fördelaktiga ur energisynpunkt men kan å andra sidan skada nätverksprestanda (exempelvis blockeringssannolikhet) genom påverkan på förbindelselängder och annorlunda belastning av länkarna. Denna avvägning utvärderas i avhandlingen med hjälp av en specifikt utformad strategi för routing och våglängstilldelning (RWA) som vi benämner ”viktad effektmedveten optisk förbindelserouting” (WPA-LR). Denna strategi möjliggör noggrann avvägning mellan minimeringen av två kriterier: å ena sidan energikonsumtion, å andra sidan utnyttjandet av nätverksresurser (speciellt väglängdsutnyttjandet). Vår utvärdering bekräftar att energieffektivitet och nätverksprestanda står i motsatsförhållande till varandra. Dock erbjuder WPA-LR strategin minimering av energin med en acceptabel påverkan på nätverksprestanda. Slutligen undersöks i avhandlingen den påverkan som sovlägesbaserade energieffektiva strategier har på livslängden för optiska nätverkskomponenter, både i access- och i distributionsnät. Användning av sovlägesfunktion kan påverka arbetsförhållandena för en komponent, något som i sin tur kan påverka livslängden. Detta är en kritisk aspekt att ta i beaktande då det direkt kan påverka driftskostnaden kopplad till nätunderhållet. En metod ges för att utvärdera under vilka förhållanden och för vilka enheter en energieffektiv strategi kan leda till en total kostnadsfördel jämfört med en (möjlig) ökning av reparationskostnaderna. Ett resultat är att, i accessnät och för företagsanvändare, så kan även en liten variation i feluppkomst i optiska linjeterminaler (OLTs) eller optiska nätverksenheter (ONUs) leda till signifikanta kostnadsförluster vilka inte kan kompenseras genom de vinster som kan åstadkommas med energibesparingar. I distributionsnät är erbium-dopade fiberförstärkare (EDFAs) de mest utsatta enheterna vad gäller inverkan på livslängd. Genom att studera routingstrategier (ex.vis WPA-LR) har vi funnit att användningen av ”gröna” routingalgoritmer baserade på att lägga EDFAs i sovläge inte alltid är ekonomiskt fördelaktigt. Denna avhandling ger ett perspektiv på sovlägesbaserade energieffektiviseringsalgoritmer där de potentiella fördelarna vad gäller minskade driftskostnader ställs mot möjliga försämringar av nätverksprestanda och komponenters livslängd. Å andra sidan kan dessa försämringar hållas under kontroll och begränsas av den föreslagna algoritmen.<br>La consommation d'énergie des réseaux de communication ne cesse de croître. Ce problème fait l’objet de nombreuses approches orientées vers les économies d'énergie (écoénergétiques) au niveau des appareils (équipements) des systèmes et des réseaux. La façon la plus prometteuse de limiter l’augmentation de consommation évoquée est d'utiliser autant que possible des technologies photoniques, vu leur faible consommation d'énergie par bit. Plusieurs autres approches ont été proposées pour réduire davantage encore la consommation d'énergie dans des réseaux optiques. Une technique populaire exploite les modes de faible puissance (par exemple le mode veille) pour les appareils qui ne sont pas utilisés. Cependant, les approches basées sur le mode de veille peuvent affecter la manière dont les liaisons optiques (circuits optiques) sont acheminées, ou modifier les caractéristiques de certains appareils. Cela peut avoir un impact négatif sur les paramètres de performance des réseaux/équipements cruciaux. En d'autres termes, une approche écoénergétique peut introduire un retard supplémentaire, changer le niveau d'utilisation des ressources dans le réseau, ou même avoir un impact sur le taux d'échec d'un équipement, entraînant une augmentation des coûts d'exploitation du réseau. Cette thèse évalue attentivement, à la fois dans le réseau d'accès mais aussi dans le cœur du réseau, le compromis entre les avantages des régimes économes en énergie utilisant le mode veille et leurs effets secondaires possibles. Dans les réseaux d'accès optiques, mettre un équipement en mode veille et le réactiver peut introduire une surcharge d'énergie significative. Les approches d'économie d'énergie déjà proposées réduisent cette surcharge en regroupant autant que possible le trafic avant sa transmission. Toutefois, les données d'agrégation peuvent provoquer un retard supplémentaire qui peut ne pas être acceptable dans certains cas. Cette thèse étudie le compromis entre les économies d'énergie et un retard supplémentaire des paquets dans le cas d'un réseau backhaul LTE basé sur réseau optique passif à multiplexage en longueur d'onde (WDM-PON). La thèse propose une nouvelle approche éco énergétique. Elle développe un concept au travers duquel il est possible de contrôler avec précision quand un émetteur doit se réactiver, afin de maximiser le temps passé en mode veille tout en veillant à ce que les transmissions de paquets soient terminées en temps voulu. Le schéma proposé est également capable d’exploiter les (éventuelles) exigences diverses de retard de trafic pour améliorer encore les économies d'énergie. Dans le cœur des réseaux optiques, on peut diminuer la consommation d'énergie en minimisant le nombre d’équipements actifs utilisés pour l’acheminement des circuits optiques et le nombre de liens actifs à fibres optiques. Les stratégies de routage basées sur ce principe sont bénéfiques en termes d'économie d'énergie, mais peuvent affecter les performances du réseau (par exemple, la probabilité de blocage) en affectant la longueur des circuits optiques et la distribution d’occupation des liens. Ce compromis est évalué dans la thèse avec l'aide d’une stratégie de routage et affectation de longueur d'onde (RWA) appelée routage des circuits optiques conscient de la puissance (WPA-LR). La stratégie WPA-LR permet le réglage fin entre deux objectifs: minimiser la consommation d'énergie et minimiser l’utilisation des ressources réseau (i.e. longueur d'onde). Les résultats de l'évaluation confirment que l'efficacité énergétique et les performances du réseau ont des objectifs contradictoires. Cependant, la stratégie WPA-LR proposée permet la minimisation de l'énergie avec un impact acceptable sur les performances du réseau. La thèse étudie également l'impact que les stratégies d’économie d’énergie basées sur le mode veille ont sur la durée de vie d'un certain nombre d’équipements de réseau optique, dans les deux réseaux d'accès et de base. L'utilisation du mode veille peut en effet modifier les conditions de fonctionnement de l’équipement, ce qui peut influer sur la durée de vie de l'appareil. Ceci est un aspect crucial à considérer, car il peut affecter directement le coût opérationnel du réseau lié à la gestion des pannes. La thèse propose une méthodologie pour évaluer dans quelles conditions et pour quels dispositifs un système économe en énergie peut conduire à des avantages de coûts globaux par rapport à une (possible) augmentation des coûts de maintenance. Dans les réseaux d'accès et auprès de clients commerciaux, il a été constaté qu’une petite variation de taux d'échec dans les terminaux de ligne optique (OLT) ou dans les unités de terminaison de réseau optique (ONUs) peut conduire à des pertes financières importantes qui ne peuvent être compensées par les bénéfices provenant des économies d'énergie. Dans les cœurs de réseaux les amplificateurs à fibre dopée en erbium (EDFA) sont les équipements les plus vulnérables en termes d'impact sur leur durée de vie. Pour cette raison, l'utilisation d'algorithmes de routage écoénergétiques basé sur la mise en mode veille des EDFA peut par conséquent n’être pas toujours économiquement avantageuse. En conclusion, cette thèse fournit une perspective différente sur des algorithmes économes en énergie basés sur l’utilisation du mode veille. Leur bénéfice potentiel en termes d'économie d'énergie est comparé à l'impact d'une éventuelle dégradation d’une part de la performance du réseau et d’autre part de la durée de vie des équipements. Ces dégradations de performances peuvent être contrôlées et limitées par les algorithmes proposés.<br>Zużycie energii elektrycznej w sieciach komunikacyjnych stale rośnie. Do tej pory zostało zaproponowanych wiele metod oszczędzania energii na poziomie urządzeń, systemów i sieci. Najbardziej obiecującym podejściem do tego problemu jest wykorzystanie technologii optycznych, z uwagi na ich niskie zużycie energii „per bit”. Ponadto wiele różnych metod przeznaczonych dla sieci optycznych zostało przedstawionych w literaturze. Jedna z popularnych technik wykorzystuje tryb niskiego poboru energii (uśpienia) w urządzeniach, które nie są używane. Jednakże techniki wykorzystujące tryb uśpienia mogą mieć wpływ na kierowanie optycznych połączeń sieciowych (lightpaths) lub zmieniać właściwości urządzeń. Natomiast to może mieć negatywny wpływ na kluczowe parametry wydajności sieci czy urządzeń sieciowych. Innymi słowy algorytmy oszczędzające energię mogą wprowadzić dodatkowe opóźnienia, zmienić wykorzystanie zasobów sieciowych, a nawet wpływać na awaryjność urządzeń zwiekszając tym samym koszt eksploatacji sieci. Praca ta przedstawia i analizuje kompromis pomiędzy korzyściami płynącymi z energooszczędnych algorytmów opartych na trybie uśpienia, a ich ewentualnymi skutkami ubocznymi, zarówno w sieciach dostępowych, jak i szkieletowych. W przypadku optycznych sieci dostępowych proces wprowadzenia urządzenia w tryb uśpienia i jego wybudzenia może spowodować znaczący narzut energetyczny. Proponowane sposoby zmniejszenia tego narzutu agregują ruch sieciowy przed jego transmisją, Jednakże taka agregacja powoduje dodatkowe opóźnienia transmisji, które w niektórych przypadkach mogą być niedopuszczalne. Praca ta analizuje kompromis pomiędzy oszczędzaniem energii, a dodatkowymi opóźnieniami transmisji w przypadku sieci LTE-backhaul, bazowanej na technologii pasywnych sieci optycznych, opartych na multipleksowaniu z podziałem długości fali WDM-PON (Wavelength Division Multiplexing Passive Optical Network). Niniejsza praca proponuje nowatorską metodę oszczędzania energii, opartą na koncepcji drzemki (dozing), która precyzyjnie kontroluje czas wybudzania nadajnika, tak aby zmaksymalizować czas spędzony w trybie drzemki, przy zapewnieniu, że transmisja danych zostanie zakończona przed upływem wymaganego czasu. Proponowana metoda wykorzystuje również zróżnicowane wymagania maksymalnych opóźnień transmitowanych danych do dalszej poprawy wydajności energetycznej. Jednym ze sposobów zmniejszania zużycia energii w światłowodowych sieciach szkieletowych jest zredukowanie liczby aktywnych urządzeń, poprzez umiejętne kierowanie optycznych połączeń sieciowych przy użyciu już aktywnych łączy światłowodowych. Kierowanie ruchu sieciowego oparte na tym pomyśle jest korzystne z punktu widzenia oszczędzania energii, choć z drugiej strony może mieć wpływ na parametry wydajnościowe sieci (np. zwiększenie prawdopodobieństwa blokady połączeń) poprzez oddziaływanie na długość połączeń, czy zajętość łączy. Przytoczony problem jest analizowany w tej pracy za pomocą specjalnie zaprojektowanego algorytmu routingu i przypisania długości fali RWA (Routing and Wavelength Assignement), nazwanego WPA-LR (Weighted Power Aware Lightpath Routing). Algorytm WPA-LR pozwala na precyzyjną regulację pomiędzy redukcją zużycia energii i optymalizacją wykorzystania zasobów sieciowych. Wyniki wykonanej analizy problemu potwierdzają, że efektywność energetyczna i wydajność sieci to cele ze sobą sprzeczne. Jednakże proponowana strategia (WPA-LR) umożliwia kontrolę i osiągnięcie kompromisu pomiędzy zmniejszeniem zużycia energii, a pogorszeniem wydajności sieci. Praca ta bada również wpływ energooszczędnych strategii, opartych o tryb uśpienia, na trwałość optycznych urządzeń sieciowych, zarówno w sieciach dostępowych, jak i szkieletowych. Używanie trybu uśpienia może zmienić warunki pracy urządzenia, które z kolei mogą mieć wpływ na jego trwałość. Natomiast zmniejszenie trwałości urządzenia może bezpośrednio oddziaływać na koszt eksploatacji sieci związany z zarządzaniem awariami. Niniejsza praca proponuje metodologię oceny, na jakich warunkach i w przypadku których urządzeń, używanie algorytmów oszczędzania energii może prowadzić do ogólnych korzyści finansowych lub strat związanych ze wzrostem kosztu eksploatacji sieci. W pracy stwierdzono, że w sieciach dostępowych, w szczególności obsługujących klientów biznesowych, mały wpływ na awaryjność optycznych terminali ONU (Optical Network Unit) lub optycznych urządzeń dystrybucyjnych OLT (Optical Line Terminal) może prowadzić do znacznego zwiększenia kosztów, które mogą przekroczyć zyski związane z oszczędzaniem energii. W sieciach szkieletowych wzmacniacze światłowodowe EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier) są najbardziej wrażliwymi urządzeniami pod względem wpływu na ich awaryjność. W pracy dowiedziono, że użycie energooszczędnych algorytmów kierowania połączeń światłowodowych, opartych na wprowadzaniu EDFA w tryb uśpienia, nie zawsze jest korzystne ekonomicznie. Niniejsza praca przedstawia nowatorskie spojrzenie na energooszczędne algorytmy oparte na wprowadzaniu urządzeń w tryb uśpienia, gdzie potencjalne korzyści w zakresie oszczędzania energii są porównane ze stratami związanymi z degradacją wydajności sieci lub żywotności urządzeń sieciowych.<br><p>QC 20160509</p>

Access networks have been going through many reformations to make them adapt to arising traffic trends and become better suited for many new demanding applications. To that end, incorporating fog and edge computing has become a necessity for supporting many emerging applications as well as alleviating network congestions. At the same time, energy-efficiency has become a strong imperative for access networks to reduce both their operating costs and carbon footprint. In this dissertation, we address these two challenges in long-reach optical access networks. We first study the integration of fog and edge computing with optical access networks, which is believed to form a highly capable access network by combining the huge fiber capacity with closer-to-the-edge computing and storage resources. In our study, we examine the offloading performance under different cloudlet placements when the underlying bandwidth allocation is either centralized or decentralized. We combine between analytical modeling and simulation results in order to identify the different factors that affect the offloading performance within each paradigm. To address the energy efficiency requirement, we introduce novel enhancements and modifications to both allocation paradigms that aim to enhance their network performance while conserving energy. We consider this work to be one of the first to explore the integration of fog and edge computing with optical access networks from both bandwidth allocation and energy efficiency perspectives in order to identify which allocation paradigm would be able to meet the requirements of next-generation access networks.

Progress in energy harvesting technology and the increasing need for the energy efficient and environmentally friendly applications have called for reconsideration of communication systems. This reconsideration results in new problem formulations regarding the recent developments on energy harvesting systems. Recently, optimal strategies for various types of energy harvesting networks have been developed based on different harvesting models. This thesis reports the results of our research to develop the optimal scheduling structures on an energy harvesting broadcast and fading channels, and to devise online implementable algorithms for a point-to-point communication system. Particularly, structural properties of an optimal offline schedule in, (1) an energy harvesting broadcast channel with one transmitter two receivers, (2) a single user communication system under fading conditions, are investigated. Moreover, an online algorithm is proposed for a single-user energy harvesting communication system considering the physical constraints and necessities regarding implementation. The proposed scheme is implemented through GNU Radio framework on a USRP device.

Cognitive Radio (CR) has emerged as the key technology to enable dynamic spectrum access. Capabilities of CR can meet the unique requirements of many wireless networks. Hence, Cognitive Radio Sensor Networks (CRSN) is introduced as a promising solution to address the unique challenges of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) which have been widely used for reliable event detection for many applications. However, there exist many open research issues for the realization of CRSN. Among others, determination of optimal packet size for CRSN is one of the most fundamental problems to be addressed. The existing optimal packet size solutions devised for CR networks as well as WSN are not applicable in CRSN regime and would cause a waste of energy resources. Hence, the objective of this thesis is to determine the optimal packet size for CRSN that maximizes energy-efficiency while maintaining acceptable interference level for licensed primary users (PU) and remaining under the maximum allowed distortion level between tracked event signal and its estimation at sink. Energy-efficient packet size reduces energy consumption and increases the transmission efficiency for CRSN. In this thesis, the energy-efficient packet size optimization problem is analytically formulated. Then, sequential quadratic programming (SQP) method is used for solving the optimization problem. The variation of optimal packet size with respect to different parameters of CRSN network is observed through numerical analysis. Results reveal that PU behavior and channel bit error rate (BER) are the most critical parameters in determining energy-efficient optimal packet size for CRSN.

A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of a large number of networked sensor nodes deployed to sense and report a particular phenomenon to a base station. Currently, most WSNs use radio frequency (RF) communications, and this accounts for a significant amount of energy expended. Free space optical (FSO) communications using modulating retroreflectors is potentially attractive for WSNs, due to the lower communications energy required. However, for FSO communications, line of sight (LOS) is required between the transmitter and the receiver. In this thesis, a hybrid Radio Frequency/Free Space Optical (RF/FSO) WSN is proposed. FSO links are used for communications, with RF links providing backup in the absence of LOS. This network has the potential to lower the overall energy consumption of a traditional RF-only WSN. Chapter 1 introduces the WSN and outlines the motivation for the RF/FSO WSN. Chapters 2 and 3 describe the RF and FSO link models used for the RF/FSO WSN. Chapter 4 describes how the WSN networks are configured. The energy model for the sensor node is discussed in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses how network traffic and energy consumption are modelled. The results of the RF/FSO WSN simulations are presented in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 discusses the conclusions from the thesis and suggests areas for future work. Simulations show that for the wide range of scenarios considered, the RF/FSO WSN consumes less energy and has a lifetime at least twice as long as the RF-only WSN. For low and average optical blocking conditions, the RF/FSO WSN is also able to offer at least the same level of network coverage as the RF-only WSN.