Academic literature on the topic 'Optical surface profiling'

Accurate determination of surface texture is essential for the manufacturing of mechanical components within design specifications in engineering and materials science disciplines. It is also required for any subsequent modifications to physical properties and functional aspects of the object. A number of methods are available to characterize any surface through the measurement of roughness parameters that can then be used to describe surface texture. These methods may be divided into those in that direct contact is made with the surface and those where such contact is not required. This report describes two methods approach for the surface profiling of a quartz glass substrate for step height, and tungsten substrate for roughness measure. A stylus profilometer (contact method) and vertical scanning interferometer, (VSI) or (non-contact optical method) were used for step height and roughness parameter measurements. A comparison was made with nominal values assigned to the studied surface, and conclusions drawn about the relative merits of the two methods. Those merits were found to differ, depending on the parameters under consideration. The stylus method gave better agreement of step height values for dimensions greater than a micron. Both methods showed excellent accuracy at smaller dimensions. Both methods also provided accurate average roughness values, although the VSI data significantly overestimated 35% above the peak-to-valley parameter. Likely sources and nature of such differences are discussed based on the results presented, as well as on the previous comparison studies reported in the literature. Because of such method-specific differences, the multi-technique approach used in this work for accurate surface profiling appears to be a more rational option than reliance upon a single method. Both contact and non-contact approaches have problems with specific roughness parameters, but a hybrid approach offers the possibility of combining the strengths of both methods and eliminating their individual weaknesses.

Conventional non-contact optical methods of surface profiling are limited in the range of surface heights that can be accurately measured due to phase ambiguity errors on steep local slopes. Instruments that have been developed thus far to avoid the problems with local slope typically suffer from poor measurement height resolution and slow measurement speeds. Contact profilometers such as stylus-based instruments suffer from poor lateral resolution due to the finite radius of the stylus tip, and slow measurement speeds, especially when two-dimensional scans of the surface are required. Stylus tips can also scratch delicate surfaces during the measurement. We propose a new method of optical, non-contact profiling of rough surfaces without the limitations on local slope that other methods suffer from. This new method utilizes interferometric techniques as well as digital signal processing algorithms to produce fast, accurate, and repeatable three-dimensional surface profile measurements on a wide variety of surfaces.

L'objectif de cette thèse concerne l'association de deux techniques de mesure dans le cadre de la caractérisation in vivo de la peau. La première, nommée Spectroscopie de Réflectance Diffuse (DRS), permet la caractérisation des paramètres optiques de la peau analysée et quantifie les phénomènes d'absorption et de diffusion de la lumière. La deuxième est la microspectroscopie Raman. Elle fournit une identification chimique des composés analysés sans marquage. L'objet de cette thèse est d'évaluer l'effet de l'interaction lumière-matière sur les capacités de localisation et de quantification de la microspectroscopie Raman, lesquelles sont dégradées dans un milieu diffusant tel que la peau. Une approche in vivo bimodale (DRS et Raman) est proposée pour la caractérisation biochimique quantitative des tissus cutanés avec l'idée d'établir un protocole de correction des spectres Raman acquis, en exploitant les propriétés optiques fournies par la DRS. Elle est décomposée en trois axes de travail complémentaires : le développement d'une instrumentation DRS permettant la mesure des spectres de réflectance diffuse et le calcul des propriétés optiques dans la zone sondée par la spectroscopie Raman ; le développement de fantômes optiques permettant une compréhension expérimentale des phénomènes d'absorption, de diffusion élastique et de diffusion Raman; le développement d'un protocole de correction des spectres Raman à partir des propriétés optiques obtenues par DRS
This thesis relates to the combination of two in vivo skin characterization techniques. On the one hand, Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (DRS) enables skin optical properties characterization by quantifying light absorption and light elastic scattering. On the other hand, Raman microspectroscopy provides information on molecular compositions of tissues with no need of labeling. Localization and quantification functions of Raman microspectroscopy are both distorted in scattering media such as skin. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to assess the effect of light-matter interactions on these functions. A bimodal method is proposed to achieve quantitative biochemical characterization of cutaneous tissues in vivo. The main idea is to develop a procedure of Raman spectra correction based on the quantified optical properties provided by DRS. This work was divided in three complementary approaches: the development of a system enabling diffuse reflectance and optical properties measurements in the same zone as Raman microspectroscopy; the fabrication of optical phantoms improving our knowledge on absorption, elastic scattering and Raman scattering phenomena; and the development of a Raman spectra correction model as function of the skin optical properties given by DRS measurements

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird erstmals das QQDS-Magnetspektrometer für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente am Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf umfassend vorgestellt. Zusätzlich werden sowohl alle auf die Analytik Einfluss nehmenden Parameter untersucht als auch Methoden und Modelle vorgestellt, wie deren Einfluss vermieden oder rechnerisch kompensiert werden kann. Die Schwerpunkte dieser Arbeit gliedern sich in fünf Bereiche. Der Erste ist der Aufbau und die Inbetriebnahme des QQDS-Magnetspektrometers, der zugehörige Streukammer mit allen Peripheriegeräten und des eigens für die höchstauflösende elastische Rückstoßanalyse entwickelten Detektors. Sowohl das umgebaute Spektrometer als auch der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gebaute Detektor wurden speziell an experimentelle Bedingungen für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente angepasst und erstmalig auf einen routinemäßigen Einsatz hin getestet. Der Detektor besteht aus zwei Komponenten. Zum einen befindet sich am hinteren Ende des Detektors eine Bragg-Ionisationskammer, die zur Teilchenidentifikation genutzt wird. Zum anderen dient ein Proportionalzähler, der eine Hochwiderstandsanode besitzt und direkt hinter dem Eintrittsfenster montiert ist, zur Teilchenpositionsbestimmung im Detektor. Die folgenden zwei Schwerpunkte beinhalten grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkung. Durch die Verwendung eines Magnetspektrometers ist die Messung der Ladungszustandsverteilung der herausgestreuten Teilchen direkt nach einem binären Stoß sowohl möglich als auch für die Analyse notwendig. Aus diesem Grund werden zum einen die Ladungszustände gemessen und zum anderen mit existierenden Modellen verglichen. Außerdem wird ein eigens entwickeltes Modell vorgestellt und erstmals im Rahmen dieser Arbeit angewendet, welches den ladungszustandsabhängigen Energieverlust bei der Tiefenprofilierung berücksichtigt. Es wird gezeigt, dass ohne die Anwendung dieses Modells die Tiefenprofile nicht mit den quantitativen Messungen mittels konventioneller Ionenstrahlanalytikmethoden und mit der Dickenmessung mittels Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie übereinstimmen, und damit falsche Werte liefern würden. Der zweite für die Thematik wesentliche Aspekt der Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkung, sind die Probenschäden und -modifikationen, die während einer Schwerionen-bestrahlung auftreten. Dabei wird gezeigt, dass bei den hier verwendeten Energien sowohl elektronisches Sputtern als auch elektronisch verursachtes Grenzflächendurchmischen eintreten. Das elektronische Sputtern kann durch geeignete Strahlparameter für die meisten Proben ausreichend minimiert werden. Dagegen ist der Einfluss der Grenzflächendurchmischung meist signifikant, so dass dieser analysiert und in der Auswertung berücksichtigt werden muss. Schlussfolgernd aus diesen Untersuchungen ergibt sich für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente am Rossendorfer 5-MV Tandembeschleuniger, dass die geeignetsten Primärionen Chlor mit einer Energie von 20 MeV sind. In Einzelfällen, wie zum Beispiel der Analyse von Bor, muss die Energie jedoch auf 6,5 MeV reduziert werden, um das elektronische Sputtern bei der notwendigen Fluenz unterhalb der Nachweisgrenze zu halten. Der vierte Schwerpunkt ist die Untersuchung von sowohl qualitativen als auch quantitativen Einflüssen bestimmter Probeneigenschaften, wie beispielsweise Oberflächenrauheit, auf die Form des gemessenen Energiespektrums beziehungsweise auf das analysierte Tiefenprofil. Die Kenntnis der Rauheit einer Probe an der Oberfläche und an den Grenzflächen ist für die Analytik unabdingbar. Als Resultat der genannten Betrachtungen werden die Einflüsse von Probeneigenschaften und Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkungen auf die Energie- beziehungsweise Tiefenauflösung des Gesamtsystems beschrieben, berechnet und mit der konventionellen Ionenstrahlanalytik verglichen. Die Möglichkeiten der höchstauflösenden Ionenstrahlanalytik werden zudem mit den von anderen Gruppen veröffentlichten Komplementärmethoden gegenübergestellt. Der fünfte und letzte Schwerpunkt ist die Analytik leichter Elemente in ultradünnen Schichten unter Berücksichtigung aller in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Modelle, wie die Reduzierung des Einflusses von Strahlschäden oder die Quantifizierung der Elemente im dynamischen Ladungszustandsnichtgleichgewicht. Es wird die Tiefenprofilierung von Mehrschichtsystemen, bestehend aus SiO2-Si3N4Ox-SiO2 auf Silizium, von Ultra-Shallow-Junction Bor-Implantationsprofilen und von ultradünnen Oxidschichten, wie zum Beispiel High-k-Materialien, demonstriert
In this thesis the QQDS magnetic spectrometer that is used for high resolution ion beam analysis (IBA) of light elements at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf is presented for the first time. In addition all parameters are investigated that influence the analysis. Methods and models are presented with which the effects can be minimised or calculated. There are five focal points of this thesis. The first point is the construction and commissioning of the QQDS magnetic spectrometer, the corresponding scattering chamber with all the peripherals and the detector, which is specially developed for high resolution elastic recoil detection. Both the reconstructed spectrometer and the detector were adapted to the specific experimental conditions needed for high-resolution Ion beam analysis of light elements and tested for routine practice. The detector consists of two compo-nents. At the back end of the detector a Bragg ionization chamber is mounted, which is used for the particle identification. At the front end, directly behind the entrance window a proportional counter is mounted. This proportional counter includes a high-resistance anode. Thus, the position of the particles is determined in the detector. The following two points concern fundamental studies of ion-solid interaction. By using a magnetic spectrometer the charge state distribution of the particles scattered from the sample after a binary collision is both possible and necessary for the analysis. For this reason the charge states are measured and compared with existing models. In addition, a model is developed that takes into account the charge state dependent energy loss. It is shown that without the application of this model the depth profiles do not correspond with the quantitative measurements by conventional IBA methods and with the thickness obtained by transmission electron microscopy. The second fundamental ion-solid interaction is the damage and the modification of the sample that occurs during heavy ion irradiation. It is shown that the used energies occur both electronic sputtering and electronically induced interface mixing. Electronic sputtering is minimised by using optimised beam parameters. For most samples the effect is below the detection limit for a fluence sufficient for the analysis. However, the influence of interface mixing is so strong that it has to be included in the analysis of the layers of the depth profiles. It is concluded from these studies that at the Rossendorf 5 MV tandem accelerator chlorine ions with an energy of 20 MeV deliver the best results. In some cases, such as the analysis of boron, the energy must be reduced to 6.5 MeV in order to retain the electronic sputtering below the detection limit. The fourth focus is the study of the influence of specific sample properties, such as surface roughness, on the shape of a measured energy spectra and respectively on the analysed depth profile. It is shown that knowledge of the roughness of a sample at the surface and at the interfaces for the analysis is needed. In addition, the contribution parameters limiting the depth resolution are calculated and compared with the conventional ion beam analysis. Finally, a comparison is made between the high-resolution ion beam analysis and complementary methods published by other research groups. The fifth and last focus is the analysis of light elements in ultra thin layers. All models presented in this thesis to reduce the influence of beam damage are taken into account. The dynamic non-equilibrium charge state is also included for the quantification of elements. Depth profiling of multilayer systems is demonstrated for systems consisting of SiO2-Si3N4Ox-SiO2 on silicon, boron implantation profiles for ultra shallow junctions and ultra thin oxide layers, such as used as high-k materials

Plasmon resonances in metal nanoparticles control the far field and near field optical properties of these metallic structures. The enhanced electromagnetic near field is strongest at the surface of the nanoparticles and rapidly decays away from the surface. This enhanced near field is exploited in surface enhanced spectroscopies including Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) and Metal Enhanced Fluorescence Spectroscopy (MEFS). A measurement of the decay profile of the fringing field is important both for further development of surface enhanced spectroscopy for sensor device application, and for understanding from a fundamental physics point of view. Gold nanoshells are spherical colloidal nanoparticles with a silica core covered by a thin gold shell. The plasmon resonance of nanoshells can be controllably tuned in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum. The near field profile of nanoshells can be theoretically calculated on the basis of Mie scattering theory. The thesis describes a series of experiments designed to experimentally verify the near field profile of nanoshells. A scaffold of ss-DNA is used to place a fluorescein dye molecule at varying distances from the nanoshell surface. The SERS intensity from both the scaffold molecules and the fluorescein placed at the end of the tether is measured simultaneously and self consistently. The fluorescein-ss-DNA nanoshell conjugate structures are also used to study the distance dependence of the fluorescence emission from fluorescein. The thesis discusses the results of the SERS intensity profile agreement with the intensity profile calculated using Mie scattering theory. The quenching and enhancement of the fluorescence emission at varying distances from the nanoshell surface are also discussed.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird erstmals das QQDS-Magnetspektrometer für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente am Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf umfassend vorgestellt. Zusätzlich werden sowohl alle auf die Analytik Einfluss nehmenden Parameter untersucht als auch Methoden und Modelle vorgestellt, wie deren Einfluss vermieden oder rechnerisch kompensiert werden kann. Die Schwerpunkte dieser Arbeit gliedern sich in fünf Bereiche. Der Erste ist der Aufbau und die Inbetriebnahme des QQDS-Magnetspektrometers, der zugehörige Streukammer mit allen Peripheriegeräten und des eigens für die höchstauflösende elastische Rückstoßanalyse entwickelten Detektors. Sowohl das umgebaute Spektrometer als auch der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gebaute Detektor wurden speziell an experimentelle Bedingungen für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente angepasst und erstmalig auf einen routinemäßigen Einsatz hin getestet. Der Detektor besteht aus zwei Komponenten. Zum einen befindet sich am hinteren Ende des Detektors eine Bragg-Ionisationskammer, die zur Teilchenidentifikation genutzt wird. Zum anderen dient ein Proportionalzähler, der eine Hochwiderstandsanode besitzt und direkt hinter dem Eintrittsfenster montiert ist, zur Teilchenpositionsbestimmung im Detektor. Die folgenden zwei Schwerpunkte beinhalten grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkung. Durch die Verwendung eines Magnetspektrometers ist die Messung der Ladungszustandsverteilung der herausgestreuten Teilchen direkt nach einem binären Stoß sowohl möglich als auch für die Analyse notwendig. Aus diesem Grund werden zum einen die Ladungszustände gemessen und zum anderen mit existierenden Modellen verglichen. Außerdem wird ein eigens entwickeltes Modell vorgestellt und erstmals im Rahmen dieser Arbeit angewendet, welches den ladungszustandsabhängigen Energieverlust bei der Tiefenprofilierung berücksichtigt. Es wird gezeigt, dass ohne die Anwendung dieses Modells die Tiefenprofile nicht mit den quantitativen Messungen mittels konventioneller Ionenstrahlanalytikmethoden und mit der Dickenmessung mittels Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie übereinstimmen, und damit falsche Werte liefern würden. Der zweite für die Thematik wesentliche Aspekt der Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkung, sind die Probenschäden und -modifikationen, die während einer Schwerionen-bestrahlung auftreten. Dabei wird gezeigt, dass bei den hier verwendeten Energien sowohl elektronisches Sputtern als auch elektronisch verursachtes Grenzflächendurchmischen eintreten. Das elektronische Sputtern kann durch geeignete Strahlparameter für die meisten Proben ausreichend minimiert werden. Dagegen ist der Einfluss der Grenzflächendurchmischung meist signifikant, so dass dieser analysiert und in der Auswertung berücksichtigt werden muss. Schlussfolgernd aus diesen Untersuchungen ergibt sich für die höchstauflösende Ionenstrahlanalytik leichter Elemente am Rossendorfer 5-MV Tandembeschleuniger, dass die geeignetsten Primärionen Chlor mit einer Energie von 20 MeV sind. In Einzelfällen, wie zum Beispiel der Analyse von Bor, muss die Energie jedoch auf 6,5 MeV reduziert werden, um das elektronische Sputtern bei der notwendigen Fluenz unterhalb der Nachweisgrenze zu halten. Der vierte Schwerpunkt ist die Untersuchung von sowohl qualitativen als auch quantitativen Einflüssen bestimmter Probeneigenschaften, wie beispielsweise Oberflächenrauheit, auf die Form des gemessenen Energiespektrums beziehungsweise auf das analysierte Tiefenprofil. Die Kenntnis der Rauheit einer Probe an der Oberfläche und an den Grenzflächen ist für die Analytik unabdingbar. Als Resultat der genannten Betrachtungen werden die Einflüsse von Probeneigenschaften und Ionen-Festkörper-Wechselwirkungen auf die Energie- beziehungsweise Tiefenauflösung des Gesamtsystems beschrieben, berechnet und mit der konventionellen Ionenstrahlanalytik verglichen. Die Möglichkeiten der höchstauflösenden Ionenstrahlanalytik werden zudem mit den von anderen Gruppen veröffentlichten Komplementärmethoden gegenübergestellt. Der fünfte und letzte Schwerpunkt ist die Analytik leichter Elemente in ultradünnen Schichten unter Berücksichtigung aller in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Modelle, wie die Reduzierung des Einflusses von Strahlschäden oder die Quantifizierung der Elemente im dynamischen Ladungszustandsnichtgleichgewicht. Es wird die Tiefenprofilierung von Mehrschichtsystemen, bestehend aus SiO2-Si3N4Ox-SiO2 auf Silizium, von Ultra-Shallow-Junction Bor-Implantationsprofilen und von ultradünnen Oxidschichten, wie zum Beispiel High-k-Materialien, demonstriert.
In this thesis the QQDS magnetic spectrometer that is used for high resolution ion beam analysis (IBA) of light elements at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf is presented for the first time. In addition all parameters are investigated that influence the analysis. Methods and models are presented with which the effects can be minimised or calculated. There are five focal points of this thesis. The first point is the construction and commissioning of the QQDS magnetic spectrometer, the corresponding scattering chamber with all the peripherals and the detector, which is specially developed for high resolution elastic recoil detection. Both the reconstructed spectrometer and the detector were adapted to the specific experimental conditions needed for high-resolution Ion beam analysis of light elements and tested for routine practice. The detector consists of two compo-nents. At the back end of the detector a Bragg ionization chamber is mounted, which is used for the particle identification. At the front end, directly behind the entrance window a proportional counter is mounted. This proportional counter includes a high-resistance anode. Thus, the position of the particles is determined in the detector. The following two points concern fundamental studies of ion-solid interaction. By using a magnetic spectrometer the charge state distribution of the particles scattered from the sample after a binary collision is both possible and necessary for the analysis. For this reason the charge states are measured and compared with existing models. In addition, a model is developed that takes into account the charge state dependent energy loss. It is shown that without the application of this model the depth profiles do not correspond with the quantitative measurements by conventional IBA methods and with the thickness obtained by transmission electron microscopy. The second fundamental ion-solid interaction is the damage and the modification of the sample that occurs during heavy ion irradiation. It is shown that the used energies occur both electronic sputtering and electronically induced interface mixing. Electronic sputtering is minimised by using optimised beam parameters. For most samples the effect is below the detection limit for a fluence sufficient for the analysis. However, the influence of interface mixing is so strong that it has to be included in the analysis of the layers of the depth profiles. It is concluded from these studies that at the Rossendorf 5 MV tandem accelerator chlorine ions with an energy of 20 MeV deliver the best results. In some cases, such as the analysis of boron, the energy must be reduced to 6.5 MeV in order to retain the electronic sputtering below the detection limit. The fourth focus is the study of the influence of specific sample properties, such as surface roughness, on the shape of a measured energy spectra and respectively on the analysed depth profile. It is shown that knowledge of the roughness of a sample at the surface and at the interfaces for the analysis is needed. In addition, the contribution parameters limiting the depth resolution are calculated and compared with the conventional ion beam analysis. Finally, a comparison is made between the high-resolution ion beam analysis and complementary methods published by other research groups. The fifth and last focus is the analysis of light elements in ultra thin layers. All models presented in this thesis to reduce the influence of beam damage are taken into account. The dynamic non-equilibrium charge state is also included for the quantification of elements. Depth profiling of multilayer systems is demonstrated for systems consisting of SiO2-Si3N4Ox-SiO2 on silicon, boron implantation profiles for ultra shallow junctions and ultra thin oxide layers, such as used as high-k materials.

The aim of the paper was to determine the influence of root systems of chosen tree species found in the Polish Flysch Carpathians on the increase of soil shear strength (root cohesion) in terms of slope stability. The paper's goal was achieved through comprehensive tests on root systems of eight relatively common in the Polish Flysch Carpathians tree species. The tests that were carried out included field work, laboratory work and analytical calculations. As part of the field work, the root area ratio (A IA) of the roots was determined using the method of profiling the walls of the trench at a distance of about 1.0 m from the tree trunk. The width of the. trenches was about 1.0 m, and their depth depended on the ground conditions and ranged from 0.6 to 1.0 m below the ground level. After preparing the walls of the trench, the profile was divided into vertical layers with a height of 0.1 m, within which root diameters were measured. Roots with diameters from 1 to 10 mm were taken into consideration in root area ratio calculations in accordance with the generally accepted methodology for this type of tests. These measurements were made in Biegnik (silver fir), Ropica Polska (silver birch, black locust) and Szymbark (silver birch, European beech, European hornbeam, silver fir, sycamore maple, Scots pine, European spruce) located near Gorlice (The Low Beskids) in areas with unplanned forest management. In case of each tested tree species the samples of roots were taken, transported to the laboratory and then saturated with water for at least one day. Before testing the samples were obtained from the water and stretched in a. tensile testing machine in order to determine their tensile strength and flexibility. In general, over 2200 root samples were tested. The results of tests on root area ratio of root systems and their tensile strength were used to determine the value of increase in shear strength of the soils, called root cohesion. To this purpose a classic Wu-Waldron calculation model was used as well as two types of bundle models, the so called static model (Fiber Bundle Model — FIRM, FBM2, FBM3) and the deformation model (Root Bundle Model— RBM1, RBM2, mRBM1) that differ in terms of the assumptions concerning the way the tensile force is distributed to the roots as well as the range of parameters taken into account during calculations. The stability analysis of 8 landslides in forest areas of Cicikowicleie and Wignickie Foothills was a form of verification of relevance of the obtained calculation results. The results of tests on root area ratio in the profile showed that, as expected, the number of roots in the soil profile and their ApIA values are very variable. It was shown that the values of the root area ratio of the tested tree species with a diameter 1-10 ram are a maximum of 0.8% close to the surface of the ground and they decrease along with the depth reaching the values at least one order of magnitude lower than close to the surface at the depth 0.5-1.0 m below the ground level. Average values of the root area ratio within the soil profile were from 0.05 to 0.13% adequately for Scots pine and European beech. The measured values of the root area ratio are relatively low in relation to the values of this parameter given in literature, which is probably connected with great cohesiveness of the soils and the fact that there were a lot of rock fragments in the soil, where the tests were carried out. Calculation results of the Gale-Grigal function indicate that a distribution of roots in the soil profile is similar for the tested species, apart from the silver fir from Bie§nik and European hornbeam. Considering the number of roots, their distribution in the soil profile and the root area ratio it appears that — considering slope stability — the root systems of European beech and black locust are the most optimal, which coincides with tests results given in literature. The results of tensile strength tests showed that the roots of the tested tree species have different tensile strength. The roots of European beech and European hornbeam had high tensile strength, whereas the roots of conifers and silver birch in deciduous trees — low. The analysis of test results also showed that the roots of the studied tree species are characterized by high variability of mechanical properties. The values Of shear strength increase are mainly related to the number and size (diameter) of the roots in the soil profile as well as their tensile strength and pullout resistance, although they can also result from the used calculation method (calculation model). The tests showed that the distribution of roots in the soil and their tensile strength are characterized by large variability, which allows the conclusion that using typical geotechnical calculations, which take into consideration the role of root systems is exposed to a high risk of overestimating their influence on the soil reinforcement. hence, while determining or assuming the increase in shear strength of soil reinforced with roots (root cohesion) for design calculations, a conservative (careful) approach that includes the most unfavourable values of this parameter should be used. Tests showed that the values of shear strength increase of the soil reinforced with roots calculated using Wu-Waldron model in extreme cases are three times higher than the values calculated using bundle models. In general, the most conservative calculation results of the shear strength increase were obtained using deformation bundle models: RBM2 (RBMw) or mRBM1. RBM2 model considers the variability of strength characteristics of soils described by Weibull survival function and in most cases gives the lowest values of the shear strength increase, which usually constitute 50% of the values of shear strength increase determined using classic Wu-Waldron model. Whereas the second model (mRBM1.) considers averaged values of roots strength parameters as well as the possibility that two main mechanism of destruction of a root bundle - rupture and pulling out - can occur at the same. time. The values of shear strength increase calculated using this model were the lowest in case of beech and hornbeam roots, which had high tensile strength. It indicates that in the surface part of the profile (down to 0.2 m below the ground level), primarily in case of deciduous trees, the main mechanism of failure of the root bundle will be pulling out. However, this model requires the knowledge of a much greater number of geometrical parameters of roots and geotechnical parameters of soil, and additionally it is very sensitive to input data. Therefore, it seems practical to use the RBM2 model to assess the influence of roots on the soil shear strength increase, and in order to obtain safe results of calculations in the surface part of the profile, the Weibull shape coefficient equal to 1.0 can be assumed. On the other hand, the Wu-Waldron model can be used for the initial assessment of the shear strength increase of soil reinforced with roots in the situation, where the deformation properties of the root system and its interaction with the soil are not considered, although the values of the shear strength increase calculated using this model should be corrected and reduced by half. Test results indicate that in terms of slope stability the root systems of beech and hornbeam have the most favourable properties - their maximum effect of soil reinforcement in the profile to the depth of 0.5 m does not usually exceed 30 kPa, and to the depth of 1 m - 20 kPa. The root systems of conifers have the least impact on the slope reinforcement, usually increasing the soil shear strength by less than 5 kPa. These values coincide to a large extent with the range of shear strength increase obtained from the direct shear test as well as results of stability analysis given in literature and carried out as part of this work. The analysis of the literature indicates that the methods of measuring tree's root systems as well as their interpretation are very different, which often limits the possibilities of comparing test results. This indicates the need to systematize this type of tests and for this purpose a root distribution model (RDM) can be used, which can be integrated with any deformation bundle model (RBM). A combination of these two calculation models allows the range of soil reinforcement around trees to be determined and this information might be used in practice, while planning bioengineering procedures in areas exposed to surface mass movements. The functionality of this solution can be increased by considering the dynamics of plant develop¬ment in the calculations. This, however, requires conducting this type of research in order to obtain more data.

This chapter describes the technique and application of geographic profiling, a methodology for analyzing the geographic locations of a linked series of crimes to determine the unknown offender’s most probable residence area. The process focuses on the hunting behavior of the offender within the context of the crime sites and their spatial relationships. Rather than pinpointing a single location, it provides an optimal search strategy by making inferences from the locations and geometry of the connected crime sites. Geographic profiling can therefore be thought of as a spatially based information management tool for serial crime investigation. Tools based on geographic information systems (GIS), such as the Rigel geographic profiling system, allow the rapid computation and visualization of the geographic profile as a three-dimensional probability surface, which can then be combined with other geographically based information to narrow the offender search parameters for the criminal investigator.