Academic literature on the topic 'Oil spill dispersion'
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Journal articles on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Lunel, T. "THE BRAER SPILL: OIL FATE GOVERNED BY DISPERSION." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 1995, no. 1 (1995): 955–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-1995-1-955.
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ABSTRACT The fate of 86,000 metric tons (t) of Gullfaks crude oil at the Braer incident was governed by the process of natural dispersion. The overall impact of the spill was minimal in time and extent indicating that dispersing oil spilled at sea can reduce the impact of oil spills. Experimental work in the North Sea has shown that the characteristics of the oil played a critical role in promoting the dispersion process. The Braer incident provides support for the use of dispersants to reduce the environmental impact of a spill in cases where the oil type is less amenable to natural dispersion.
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Cong, Jing. "Mathematical Modeling of Oil Spill Dispersion in Marine Waters." Scientific and Social Research 4, no. 5 (2022): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.26689/ssr.v4i5.3663.
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During the extraction and transportation of oil in marine waters, oil spills may occur. It not only caused serious pollution in some sea areas but also have a grave impact on the marine environment. Studying the oil dispersion pattern is important for addressing oil spills accurately and timely. Therefore, through the mathematical knowledge, such as continuity equation and momentum equation, we establish a mathematical model for the dispersion of oil spills in marine water. The methods that are used include data statistics, construction of graphs and charts, example analogy, hierarchical analysis, and random calculation. The research and analysis are conducted for the oil spill process in marine oil fields.
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Na, Byoungjoon, Sangyoung Son, and Jae-Cheon Choi. "Modeling of Accidental Oil Spills at Different Phases of LNG Terminal Construction." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 4 (2021): 392. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9040392.
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Accidental oil spills not only deteriorate biodiversity but also cause immediate threats to coastal environments. This study quantitatively investigates the initial dispersion of spilled oil using the environmental fluid dynamics code (EFDC) model, loosely coupled with an endorsed oil spill model (MEDSLIK-II) accounting for time-dependent advection, diffusion, and physiochemical weathering of the surface oil slick. Focusing on local contributing factors (i.e., construction activities) to oil dispersion, the current model is applied to likely oil spills occurring at three different phases of the Songdo LNG terminal construction on a reclaimed site in South Korea. Applied phases pose detailed ship collision scenarios generated based on a proposed construction plan of the terminal. The effects of permeable revetments, required for reclamation, on the currents were also investigated and applied in subsequent oil spill modeling. For each scenario, the simulated results showed distinct patterns in the advection, dispersion, and transformation of the oil slick. Oil absorption into the coast, which causes immense damage to the coastal communities, is found to be highly dependent on the tidal currents, volume of oil spilled, and nearby construction activities.
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Fingas, Merv. "OIL SPILL DISPERSION STABILITY AND OIL RE-SURFACING." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2008, no. 1 (2008): 661–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2008-1-661.
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ABSTRACT This paper summarizes the data and the theory of oil-in-water emulsion stability resulting in oil spill dispersion re-surfacing. There is an extensive body of literature on surfactants and interfacial chemistry, including experimental data on emulsion stability. The phenomenon of resurfacing oil is the result of two separate processes: de stabilization of an oil-in-water emulsion and desorption of surfactant from the oil-water interface which leads to further de stabilization. The de stabilization of oil-in-water emulsions such as chemical oil dispersions is a consequence of the fact that no emulsions are thermodynamically stable. Ultimately, natural forces move the emulsions to a stable state, which consists of separated oil and water. What is important is the rate at which this occurs. An emulsion is said to be kinetically stable when significant separation (usually considered to be half or 50% of the dispersed phase) occurs outside of the usable time. There are several forces and processes that result in the destabilization and resurfacing of oil-in-water emulsions such as chemically dispersed oils. These include gravitational forces, surfactant interchange with water and subsequent loss of surfactant to the water column, creaming, coalescence, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, and sedimentation. Gravitational separation is the most important force in the resurfacing of oil droplets from crude oil-in-water emulsions such as dispersions. Droplets in an emulsion tend to move upwards when their density is lower than that of water. Creaming is the de stabilization process that is simply described by the appearance of the starting dispersed phase at the surface. Coalescence is another important de stabilization process. Two droplets that interact as a result of close proximity or collision can form a new larger droplet. The result is to increase the droplet size and the rise rate, resulting in accelerated de stabilization of the emulsion. Studies show that coalescence increases with increasing turbidity as collisions between particles become more frequent. Another important phenomenon when considering the stability of dispersed oil, is the absorption/desorption of surfactant from the oil/water interface. In dilute solutions, much of the surfactant in the dispersed droplets ultimately partitions to the water column and thus is lost to the dispersion process. This paper provides a summary of the processes and data from some experiments relevant to oil spill dispersions.
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Azzahrawaani, A., M. T. Hartanto, Y. Naulita, and Apriansyah. "Simulated circulation and particle trajectory analysis related to the oil spill event in the Karawang Coastal Waters." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1137, no. 1 (2023): 012012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1137/1/012012.
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Abstract The Karawang waters are situated at the north coast of West Java Province, where the wind-driven monsoonal current controls significantly the dispersion of oil spill. Here accident of oil spill was happened on 12 July 2019. The present study aims to simulate seasonal circulation and particle trajectory analysis related to oil spill dispersion, by performing a fine-resolution 1/96° coastal circulation model of CROCO. The model is validated SST (Sea Surface Temperature) detected form satellite, sea level, and surface current with high correlation (corr.>0.86). The Sentinel-1A imagery determined initial position of oil spill. Seasonal reversal currents are reproduced well by the model, consistence with past studies. The westward flows along the northern coastal area during the southeast monsoon (SEM) bring colder and saltier seawater. In contrast, the eastward flows during the northwest monsoon period, associated with warmer and fresher seawater. The massless particles related to oil spill dispersions are advected by the current westward along the coastal area. About one week after the accident, the oil spill closed to the Tanjung Karawang waters, where particle trajectories overlay with the observed Sentinel imagery. The model suggested that on 24 July 2019, particle trajectories released from oil spill accident arrived offshore Jakarta Bay.
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Buist, I. A., and S. L. Ross. "EMULSION INHIBITORS: A NEW CONCEPT IN OIL SPILL TREATMENT." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 1987, no. 1 (1987): 217–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-1987-1-217.
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ABSTRACT As a result of a two year program involving bench-scale, small-scale, and meso-scale testing, a new class of oil spill treating agents has been identified. These agents, called emulsion inhibitors, are highly oleophilic surfactants, which, when applied onto oil spills in very low concentrations, not only prevent mousse formation for significant periods of time but also cause a large reduction in oil-water inter-facial tension. Both of these promote the dispersion of the oil into the water column. The best chemicals to effect these results were found to be surfactants normally sold as oil spill “demulsifiers” (that is, surfactants that “break” oil spill mousses once collected). The best of these, a European-manufactured product, was found to prevent emulsification at dosages as low as one part inhibitor to 20,000 parts of fresh oil at 20° C. At dosages on the order of 1:1000, at temperatures higher than 10° C, the chemical also results in significant and rapid dispersion of the oil. For very low temperatures or highly weathered oil the performance of the chemical falls off sharply.
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Kvočka, Davor, Dušan Žagar, and Primož Banovec. "A Review of River Oil Spill Modeling." Water 13, no. 12 (2021): 1620. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13121620.
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River oil spills are generally more frequent and pose greater environmental and public health risk than coastal and offshore oil spills. However, the river oil spill research has received a negligible amount of academic attention in the past three decades, while at the same time the coastal and offshore oil spill research has expanded and evolved tremendously. This paper provides the state-of-the-art review of river oil spill modeling and summarizes the developments in the field from 1994 to present. The review has revealed that the majority of the gaps in knowledge still remain. Thus, there is a need for (i) experimental studies in order to develop and validate new models and better understand the main physicochemical processes, (ii) studies on inter-linking of the governing processes, such as hydrodynamics, advection–dispersion, and weathering processes, (iii) adaptation and validation of coastal and offshore oil spill models for applications in riverine environments, and (iv) development of river oil spill remote sensing systems and detection techniques. Finally, there is a need to more actively promote the importance of river oil spill research and modeling in the context of environmental and public health protection, which would form the basis for obtaining more research funding and thus more academic attention.
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Shen, Wei, Zhi Xia Wang, Rong Chang Chen, and Chun Ling Liu. "Properties, Preparation and Application of Oil Spill Dispersant." Advanced Materials Research 955-959 (June 2014): 140–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.955-959.140.
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The oil spill dispersant called “elimination agent of oil” is used to disperse the oil slicks to facilitate the natural elimination of oil. Oil spill dispersants are used to enhance the rate of natural dispersion of an oil spill at sea. There is growing acceptance worldwide that use of dispersants to counter the effects of an oil spill offers many advantages and can often result in a net environmental benefit when considered in relation to other response options. Timely spraying oil spill dispersants is the main measures to remove surface oil pollution and to prevent fires, when mechanical recycling cannot be used in case of emergency. Efficient and environmentally friendly oil spill dispersant meet both the emulsification dispersion and zero pollution to the environment, and has been more widely used and developed.
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Kang, Chenyang, Haining Yang, Guyi Yu, Jian Deng, and Yaqing Shu. "Simulation of Oil Spills in Inland Rivers." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 7 (2023): 1294. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11071294.
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The shipping volume in inland waterways has been rapidly increasing in recent years. However, it is still challenging to trace oil spills caused by maritime accidents. In this study, the oil spill dispersion trajectory in inland rivers was obtained by simulating the trajectory of oil particles under different waterway conditions based on a simulated flow field. Firstly, the flow field was simulated using a volume of fluid (VOF) model and the solution of an open-channel equation. Then, an oil particle diffusion and drift model was established using Python to simulate the diffusion of the oil. Finally, eight oil spill simulation scenarios were conducted with different channel shapes and cross-sections. The results showed that oil spills spread more extensively in a curved channel with a trapezoidal cross-section compared to other channel shapes and cross-sections. The findings of this research could be used to guide inland river environmental protection and oil spill trajectory tracking.
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Qian, Guo Dong, and Ming Li. "A Review of Research and Practice on the Application of Chemical Dispersant in Oil Spills." Advanced Materials Research 955-959 (June 2014): 189–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.955-959.189.
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Chemical dispersant has been widely used in oil spill response around the world as an effective method. The study reviews the mechanism of chemical dispersion, the factors influenced dispersant effectiveness, the test methods of dispersant effectiveness, and applications in oil spills around the world. Then some questions on the research for chemical dispersants used during oil spills in China were discussed.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Zhuang, Mobing. "Effects of Chemical Dispersion on Biodegradation of Petroleum." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2016. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1470757578.
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Zanier, Giulia. "High Resolution Model to Predict Oil Spill Dispersion in Harbour and Coastal Areas." Doctoral thesis, Università degli studi di Trieste, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10077/11124.
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2013/2014<br>Mostriamo un modello allo stato dell’arte, che considera i principali processi fisici che governano il greggio in mare nelle prime ore dopo il rilascio, (Zanier, et al., 2014). Le particelle e i tar sono trattati come particelle lagrangiane, ognuna con la propria densità e il proprio diametro; consideriamo le forze principali che agiscono su di esse ossia: galleggiamento, trascinamento e la forza di Coriolis. Il greggio in forma di film sottile è modellato tramite le equazioni proposte da Nihoul (Nihoul 1983/84). Il modello originale di Nihoul considera le forze principali (ossia gravità, stress indotto da vento e correnti marine) che agiscono sulla macchia e governano il suo trasporto e diffusione, sulla superficie del mare, nelle prime 24 ore dopo il rilascio. Il nostro miglioramento al modello consiste nell’introduzione della forza di Coriolis evitando di utilizzare formulazioni empiriche (Zanier, et al., 2015). Infine i principali processi di weathering che agiscono sulla macchia nelle prime 12-24 ore dopo il rilascio (ossia emulsificazione ed evaporazione) sono considerate in accordo con i modelli presenti in letteratura (Mackay, Peterson, et al., 1980 e Mackay, Buist, et al., 1980, rispettivamente). Per preservare un’accuratezza del secondo ordine del metodo numerico, i termini convettivi, nel modello Euleriano, sono discretizzati usando SMART uno schema numerico upwind del terzo ordine (Gaskell and Lau 1988). Il modello è validato con dei casi test standard.
Le correnti marine sono risolte con il modello LES-COAST (IEFLUIDS Università di Trieste), un modello numerico ad alta definizione, adatto per simulare flussi in aree costiere e portuali. Il modello LES-COAST risolve la forma filtrata delle equazioni di Navier-Stokes tridimensionali e non-idrostatiche, assumendo che valga l’approssimazione di Boussinesq; e l’equazione di trasporto degli scalari, salinità e temperatura. Il modello usa l’approccio della large eddy simulation per parametrizzare la turbolenza, le variabili sono filtrate con una funzione filtro, rappresentante la grandezza delle celle. I flussi di sottogriglia (SGS), che appaiono dopo l’operazione di filtraggio delle equazioni, sono parametrizzati con un modello di Smagorinsky anisotropo con due eddy viscosity, per adattare il modello a simulare flussi costieri dove le lunghezze scala orizzontali sono molto più grandi di quelle verticali (Roman et al., 2010 ). Le diffusività di sotto griglia della temperatura e salinità, cioè i numeri di Prandtl e Schmidt, sono imposti come $Pr_{sgs}=Sc_{sgs}=0.8$, assumendo che l’analogia di Reynolds sia valida per entrambi gli scalari. La complessità geometrica che caratterizza le aree costiere, è trattata con una combinazione di griglie curvilinee e il metodo dei contorni immersi (IBM) (Roman, Napoli, et al., 2009).
L’azione del vento sulla superficie libera del mare è imposta tramite una formula proposta da Wu (Wu, 1982), nella quale lo stress del vento sul mare è calcolato dalla velocità del vento a 10 m sopra il livello del mare. Allo stress aggiungiamo una varianza del 20% per agevolare la generazione di turbolenza e per tener conto che l’azione del vento non è costante nel tempo e nello spazio. Inoltre vicino agli ostacoli, come moli, navi e frangiflutti, lo stress del vento è ridotto linearmente, per considerare la riduzione del vento che si ha nelle zone di ricircolo. Sui contorni aperti le velocità e le quantità scalari sono ottenute innestando il modello LES-COAST con modelli di larga scala (Petronio, et al., 2013) oppure sono impostati secondo dati rilevati. Vicino ai bordi solidi le velocità sono modellate tramite funzioni parete (Roman, Armenio, et al., 2009).
Il modello di rilascio di petrolio e il modello idrodinamico sono stati applicati assieme per simulare degli ipotetici scenari di trasporto e diffusione del greggio in mare nel porto di Barcellona (Mar Mediterraneo Nord-Ovest, Spagna, Galea, et al. 2014) e nella baia di Panzano (Mar Adriatico, Nord, Italia).<br>We present a novel, state of the art model, which accounts for the relevant short-term physical processes governing oil spill at sea, (Zanier, et al., 2014). Particles and tars are modelled as Lagrangian phase having its own density and diameter; taking into account the main forces acting on them, namely: buoyancy, drag and Coriolis forces. Oil transported in form of thin-film is treated by means of an improved Nihoul’s model (Nihoul 1983/84). The latter considers the main forces (gravity, wind and sea currents stresses) governing oil slick spreading and transport in the first hours after spilling, up to 24h for large spill. Our main improvement to the classical model consists in the introduction of Coriolis effect, avoiding using empirical formulations (Zanier, et al., 2015). Finally the relevant short-term (12-24 hours) weathering processes (mainly emulsification and evaporation) are taken into account through established literature models (Mackay, Peterson, et al., 1980 and Mackay, Buist, et al., 1980, respectively). To preserve second-order accuracy of the overall numerical method, convective terms, in the Eulerian model, are discretized using SMART a third order accurate upwind numerical scheme (Gaskell and Lau 1988). We validate the model on standard test cases.
The underground hydrodynamics is resolved using LES-COAST (IEFLUIDS University of Trieste), a high definition numerical model suited for coastal or harbour areas. LES-COAST model solves the filtered form of three dimensional, non-hydrostatic Navier-Stokes equations under Boussinesq approximation and the transport equation for salinity and temperature. It makes use of Large Eddy Simulation approach to parametrize turbulence, the variables are filtered by way of a top-hat filter function represented by the size of the cells. The subgrid-scale fluxes (SGS), which appear after filtering operations, are parametrized by a two-eddy viscosity anisotropic Smagorinsky model, to better adapt to coastal flow in which horizontal length scale is larger than vertical one (Roman et al., 2010). The subgrid-scale eddy diffusivities of temperature and salinity, Prandtl and Schmidt numbers, are set $Pr_{sgs}=Sc_{sgs}=0.8$, by assuming that Reynolds analogy holds also for both scalars. Complex geometry that characterizes coastal flow is treated by a combination of curvilinear grid and Immersed Boundary Method (IBM) (Roman, Napoli, et al., 2009).
Wind action on the free surface is taken into account by means of the formula proposed by Wu (Wu, 1982), in which the wind stress on the sea surface is computed from the wind velocities at 10 m above the surface. A 20% of variance is added to the stress to ease the generation of turbulence and to take into account of wind stress variations in time and space. Moreover near obstacles such as docks, ships and breakwaters, the wind stress is linearly reduced considering the relevant reduction of stress in recirculation regions. On the open boundaries the velocities and scalars quantities are obtained by nesting LES-COAST within Large Circulation Models (Petronio, et al., 2013) or are imposed from in-situ measurements. Near the wall velocities are modelled using wall functions (Roman, Armenio, et al., 2009).
We apply the coupled oil spill model and hydrodynamical one to simulate hypothetical oil spill events in real case scenarios in Barcelona harbour (North-west Mediterranean Sea, Spain, Galea, et al. 2014) and in Panzano bay (North Adriatic Sea, Italy).<br>XXVII Ciclo<br>1986
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Fifani, Gina. "Lagrangian dispersion and oil spills : with a case study in the Eastern Mediterranean." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Sorbonne université, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021SORUS243.
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Les déversements d'hydrocarbures nécessitent une intervention immédiate qui commence par une bonne connaissance de la dynamique océanique de la région contaminée. L'approche Lagrangienne a été proposée comme un outil soutenant la gestion de la pollution marine. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'utiliser et développer des outils lagrangiens pour analyser deux événements de marée noire s'étendant sur une échelle plus petite que celle de la marée noire de DeepWater Horizon: une marée noire offshore en mer de Chine orientale (2018) et un accident côtier dans la Méditerranée orientale (2021). Le calcul des fronts lagrangiens s'est avéré robuste et plus informatif que l'advection directe d'un traceur numérique. L'inclusion de l'effet du vent s'avère également essentielle, étant capable de briser les fronts lagrangiens. Une nouvelle technique a été aussi proposée, ancrée dans la théorie de Lyapunov, par laquelle la vitesse de dérive d'un front lagrangien peut être estimée sur la base de la seule information en temps quasi réel. Cette information permet de prédire la position future du front lagrangien sur quelques jours et d'étudier les vitesses de dérive des fronts à l'échelle globale et méditerranéenne. Une contribution à une expérience lagrangienne en Méditerranée met en évidence le défaut lagrangien de l'altimétrie au nadir et le besoin de futures missions altimétriques tel SWOT<br>Due to their dire impacts on marine life, public health, and services, accidental oil spills require an immediate response. Effective action starts with a good knowledge of the ocean dynamics prevailing in the contaminated region. The Lagrangian approach has been proposed as a supportive tool in marine pollution management. The goal of this thesis is to use and develop Lagrangian tools to analyze two oil spill events extending on a scale smaller than that of the DeepWater Horizon oil spill. These are an offshore East China sea oil spill (2018) and a near-coast East Mediterranean accident (2021). The calculation of Lagrangian fronts have been more robust and more informative on the dispersion pathways than the direct advection of a numerical tracer. The inclusion of the wind effect is also found to be essential, being capable of suddenly breaking Lagrangian fronts. A new technique is also proposed, rooted in the Lyapunov theory, by which the drifting speed of a Lagrangian front can be estimated based on near real-time information alone. This information allows to predict the Lagrangian front future location over a few days and to study frontal drifting speeds at global and Mediterranean scales. A further contribution to a Lagrangian experiment in the Mediterranean highlights the Lagrangian shortcoming of nadir altimetry and the need for future altimetry missions like SWOT
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Zacharias, Daniel Constantino. "Desenvolvimento do STFM (Spill, Transport and Fate Model): Modelo computacional lagrangeano de transporte e degradação de manchas de óleo." Universidade de São Paulo, 2017. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/14/14133/tde-08052018-192547/.
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Os derramamentos de petróleo são consequência inevitável e indesejável da produção e transporte do petróleo e seus derivados. A maioria desses derramamentos são relativamente pequenos, mas alguns deles são grandes o suficiente para causar significativo impacto ambiental. Nessas situações, os modelos computacionais são ferramentas importantes para estimar a trajetória, dimensionamento e comportamento do óleo derramado no ambiente marinho, sendo determinantes na elaboração de planos de ação e trabalho das equipes de resposta. O transporte e destino de óleo offshore derramado são regidos majoritariamente, no curto período, por processos de transporte e de transformação físico-químicos e no longo período por processos de degradação biológica, de acordo com as condições ambientais locais (oceânicas e atmosféricas). Os principais processos que atuam sobre as manchas de óleo offshore incluem, no curto período, advecção, difusão turbulenta, espalhamento superficial, evaporação, dissolução, emulsificação, sedimentação e a interação de mancha de óleo com a linha da costa. O STFM (Spill, Transport and Fate Model) foi o modelo computacional desenvolvido nesse trabalho. Os algoritmos foram desenvolvidos com base em formulações físico-químicas propostas na literatura, sendo testadas as proposições de diversos autores e selecionadas as equações que apresentaram melhores resultado para integrar o conjunto físico-químico que compõe o STFM. Os resultados do trabalho mostraram que o STFM apresentou desempenho superior aos demais modelos testados na descrição do espalhamento e difusão dando mais estabilidade à mancha por utilizar a derivação de Dodge para a proposta de espalhamento de Fay e substituir o método usual de Randon Walk por Randon Flight (avançado no tempo) na forma canônica dada por Lynch. O algoritmo do STFM também traz outra evolução importante ao incluir um modelo de evaporação baseado nas equações empíricas de Fingas, substituindo as atuais parametrizações baseadas no ADIOS2 e nos métodos de pseudocomponentes.<br>Oil and its by-products spills are an inevitable and undesirable consequence of their production and transportation. Even though these spills are relatively small, some of them are large enough to cause significant environmental impact. Taken this into account, the computational models are important tools to estimate the trajectory, dimensioning and behavior of the oil spilled in the marine environment, being also determinants to elaborate action plans for response teams work. The transportation and fate of oil spills are governed in the short term by physical-chemical transport and transformation processes and in the long term by biological degradation processes, according to local environmental conditions (oceanic and atmospheric). The main processes that act on offshore oil spills include, in the short term, advection, turbulent diffusion, surface scattering, evaporation, dissolution, emulsification, sedimentation and the interaction of oil slick according to the coast line. The Spill, Transport and Fate Model (STFM) was the computational model developed in this work. The algorithms were developed based on physicochemical formulations proposed in literature, being the propositions of several authors tested and the equations which presented the best results were selected to integrate the physical-chemical set that makes up the STFM. The STFM results presented superior performance, giving more stability to the stain, compared to the other models tested in the scattering and diffusion description, by using the Dodge derivation for the Fay spreading proposal and by replacing the usual \"Randon Walk\" method by \"Randon Flight\" (advanced in time) in the canonical form given by Lynch. The STFM algorithm also brings forward another important evolution by including an evaporation model based on Fingas empirical equations, replacing the current parameterizations based on ADIOS2 and pseudo component methods.
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Chamberlain, Neil. "Wave-induced mixing within a gravity-driven surface current." Thesis, Imperial College London, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.325566.
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Boyé, Donald J. "The effect of weathering processes on the vertical turbulent dispersion characteristics of crude oil spilled on the sea." FIU Digital Commons, 1994. http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1777.
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Since the Exxon Valdez accident in 1987, renewed interest has come forth to better understand and predict the fate and transport of crude oil lost to marine environments. The short-term fate of an Arabian Crude oil was simulated in laboratory experiments using artificial seawater. The time-dependent changes in the rheological and chemical properties of the oil under the influence of natural weathering processes were characterized, including dispersion behavior of the oil under simulated ocean turbulence. Methodology included monitoring the changes in the chemical composition of the oil by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GCMS), toxicity evaluations for the oil dispersions by Microtox analysis, and quantification of dispersed soluble aromatics by fluorescence spectrometry.
Results for this oil show a sharp initial increase in viscosity, due to evaporative losses of lower molecular weight hydrocarbons, with the formation of stable water-in-oil emulsions occurring within one week. Toxicity evaluations indicate a decreased EC-50 value (higher toxicity) occurring after the oil has weathered eight hours, with maximum toxicity being observed after weathering seven days. Particle charge distributions, determined by electrophoretic techniques using a Coulter DELSA 440, reveal that an unstable oil dispersion exists within the size range of 1.5 to 2.5 um, with recombination processes being observed between sequential laser runs of a single sample.
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Place, Benjamin J. "Analytical method development for the identification, detection, and quantification of emerging environmental contaminants in complex matrices." Thesis, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/32606.
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The development of analytical methods for emerging contaminants creates many unique challenges for analytical chemists. By their nature, emerging contaminants have inherent data gaps related to their environmental occurrence, fate, and impact. This dissertation is a compilation of three studies related to method development for the structural identification of emerging contaminants, the detection and quantification of chemicals used in unprecedented quantities and applications, and the extraction of compounds from complex matrices where the solvent-solute-matrix interactions are not completely understood. The three studies present analytical methods developed for emerging contaminants in complex matrices, including: fluorochemical surfactants in aqueous film-forming foams, oil dispersant surfactants in seawater, and fullerene nanomaterials in carbonaceous solids.
Aqueous film-forming foams, used in military and commercial firefighting, represent environmentally-relevant commercial mixtures that contain a variety of fluorochemical surfactants. Combining the surfactant-selective ionization of fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry with high resolution mass spectrometry, chemical formulas for 11 different fluorochemical classes were identified. Then AFFF-related patents were used to determine the structures. Of the eleven classes of fluorochemicals, ten have little, if any, data on their environmental occurrence, fate, and potential impacts in the peer-reviewed literature. In addition, nine of the identified classes had either cationic or zwitterionic functionalities and are likely to have different transport properties compared to the well-studied anionic fluorochemicals, such as perfluorooctanoate.
After the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the summer of 2010, one of the emergency response methods for the mitigation of the oil's environmental impact was the use of unprecedented amounts of oil dispersant to break down the oil slick and encourage biodegradation. This event illustrated the need for rapid analytical method development in order to respond to the potential environmental disaster in a timely manner. Using large volume injection liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, an analytical method was developed for the trace analysis of the multiple dispersant surfactant classes and the potential degradation products of the primary surfactant. Limits of detection ranged from 49 ��� 3,000 ng/L. The method provided excellent recovery (86 ��� 119%) and precision (10 ��� 23% RSD), while also accommodating for the high salinity of seawater samples and analyte contamination.
Despite the fact that fullerene nanomaterials have been studied for almost three decades, research is still being conducted to fully understand the environmental properties of these materials. Previous studies to extract fullerenes from environmental matrices have resulted in low efficiency, high variability, or the extraction efficiencies have gone unreported. Extraction by ultrasonication with toluene and 1-methylnaphthalene increased the recovery 5-fold of a spiked, isotopically-labeled C������ surrogate from carbon lampblack as compared to that of the conventional approach of extracting with 100% toluene. The study revealed the importance of evaluating experimental variables such as extraction solvent composition and volume, and sample mass, as they have a significant impact on the quantitative extraction of fullerenes from environmental matrices.<br>Graduation date: 2013<br>Access restricted to the OSU Community at author's request from Aug. 15, 2012 - Aug. 15, 2013
Books on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Belore, Randall Charles. Mid-scale testing of dispersant effectiveness. S.L. Ross Environmental Research Limited, 1987.
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Delvigne, G. A. L. Measurement of vertical turbulent dispersion and diffusion of oil droplets and oiled particles: Final report. Engineering Hydraulics, 1987.
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Organization, International Maritime, and United Nations Environment Programme, eds. IMO/UNEP guidelines on oil spill dispersant application including environmental considerations. 2nd ed. International Maritime Organization, 1995.
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Belore, Randall Charles. Effectiveness of the repeat application of chemical dispersants on oil. Environmental Studies Revolving Funds, 1985.
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Petroleum, Institute of, ed. Guidelines on the use of oil spill dispersants. 2nd ed. Wiley on behalf of the Institute of Petroleum, 1986.
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Institute of Petroleum (Great Britain), ed. Guidelines on the use of oil spill dispersants. 2nd ed. Wiley on behalf of the Institute of Petroleum, 1987.
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Michael, Flaherty L., and ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response., eds. Oil dispersants: New ecological approaches. ASTM, 1989.
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R, Payne James, and Farlow John S, eds. Oil spill dispersants: Mechanisms of action and laboratory tests. C.K. Smoley, 1993.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Fingas, Merv. "A Review of Natural Dispersion Models." In Handbook of Oil Spill Science and Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118989982.ch20.
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Józsa, J. "Subsurface Shear Dispersion in River Oil Spill Modelling." In Computational Methods in Water Resources X. Springer Netherlands, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-9204-3_140.
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Bagnarol, Massimo, Massimo Celio, Stefania Del Frate,, Dario Giaiotti, Simone Martini, and Michela Mauro. "The ARPA FVG support to oil spill emergency response in the gulf of Trieste." In Ninth International Symposium “Monitoring of Mediterranean Coastal Areas: Problems and Measurement Techniques”. Firenze University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/979-12-215-0030-1.33.
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Along shipping lanes the density of the ships is very high resulting, in a non-negligible probability of pollutant release in the sea. So, it is extremely important to react promptly to an oil spill emergency, to avoid that the pollutant spreads. This work describes services that are ready to use in case of oil spill. Services integrate weather and marine forecasts into a numerical model simulating the dispersion of the oil slick. Details are presented, together with applications during simulated ship collisions or accidental released along the routes. The focus is on the Adriatic area.
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Pugliese Carratelli, Eugenio, Fabio Dentale, and Ferdinando Reale. "On the Effects of Wave-Induced Drift and Dispersion in the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill." In Monitoring and Modeling the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Record-Breaking Enterprise. American Geophysical Union, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011gm001109.
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Zafirakou, Antigoni. "Oil Spill Dispersion Forecasting Models." In Monitoring of Marine Pollution. IntechOpen, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81764.
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Fingas, Merv. "A Practical Guide to Chemical Dispersion for Oil Spills." In Oil Spill Science and Technology. Elsevier, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-85617-943-0.10016-4.
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Padinhattath, Sachind Prabha, Baiju Chenthamara, Jitendra Sangwai, and Ramesh L. Gardas. "Ionic Liquids in Advanced Oil Dispersion." In Ionic Liquids for Environmental Issues. Royal Society of Chemistry, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/bk9781839169625-00272.
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The poor biodegradability and increased toxicity of conventional chemical dispersants have necessitated the use of environmentally benign dispersants. Ionic liquids (ILs), popularly known as green solvents, have emerged as an alternative eco-friendly dispersant in recent years. This chapter summarises and evaluates IL-based formulations for crude oil dispersion. Experimental and computational studies on ILs in the formation of water-in-oil (W/O) or oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, their aggregation and micellization behaviour, demulsification, toxicological profile, and surface, interface and transport properties are discussed in detail. This chapter aims to understand molecular-level interactions of ILs with oil, explore their potential applications for oil spill remediation and provide relevant information for researchers to develop various eco-friendly IL-based systems.
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Rai, Premanjali. "Role of Nanocomposites in Environmental Remediation: Recent Advances and Challenges." In Advanced Materials and Nano Systems: Theory and Experiment (Part-1). BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/9789815050745122010008.
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Nanocomposites offer an exclusive advantage over bulk materials in terms of efficiency on account of their greater surface area, higher reactivity, ease of modification, good dispersion, and hence, multi-faceted applications. The various forms of nanocomposites derived from low-cost resources, especially carbon-based materials, are of unique interest. Activated carbons offer the unique advantage as the matrix for nanocomposites synthesis due to their graphite structure, thereby providing strength and the ease of modification on the surface of nanocomposites while introducing desired functional groups. Apart from this, they are widely popular for their large surface area and porosity. Therefore, carbon-based nanocomposites offer vivid applications in various fields, such as environmental remediation as adsorbents, suitable sorbents in the analytical determination of organics, targeted drug delivery, diagnostic agents, fuel cells and sensors, to name a few. Amongst these, the role of nanocomposites as sensors and environmental remediation tools has been studied extensively. The varied modes of action include adsorption, nano-catalysis, membrane filtration, etc ., for pollutants ranging from inorganic ions, heavy metals, pesticides, dyes, anti-bacterials, oil spills, and many more. However, there are constraints in their stability, cost, storage and disposal triggered by varying environmental conditions.This chapter presents a review of the synthesis, application and challenges of nanostructured composite materials in environmental remediation.
Conference papers on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Betancourt Quiroga, Fabian Omar, Arturo Palacio Pe´rez, Ann Wellens, and Alejandro Rodri´guez Valdes. "Statistical Evaluation of the Area Estimation of an Oil Spill Dispersion Model." In ASME 2003 22nd International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. ASMEDC, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2003-37495.
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Computer models have proved to be useful tools to assess complex processes in environmental sciences. One type of application are oil spills, where models are used to provide insight into the processes interfering with the dispersion of the spill and to predict the final area covered with oil; information indispensable for many policy applications. An oil spill model is here presented, based on the general transport equations. Existing expressions for applicable dispersion processes were analyzed, evaluated and taken into account into the basic model scheme. The model proved to be useful for the prediction of final area covered with oil. However, practical application of the proposed model needs a careful evaluation, including sensitivity studies and assessment of model validity in relation with observed data. Statistical evaluation of oil spill models has not received a lot of attention until now; appropriate model evaluation and validation techniques applied in other areas of environmental modeling will be applied to the presented oil spill model. The purpose of this paper is to describe and apply the methods developed for model evaluation, including evaluation results.
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Betancourt Quiroga, Fabian Omar, Arturo Palacio Pe´rez, and Alejandro Rodri´guez Valdes. "Mass Loss Evaluation in Oil Spill." In ASME 2002 21st International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2002-28168.
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A revision of the models used to study the behavior of the mass loss processes associated with petroleum spills on water and to compare those models with experimental data (3,23). The processes of mass transfer studied in this work are evaporation, dissolution, vertical dispersion, emulsification and the changes of properties associated with these. The comparison of the estimations with the field data allowed determining the utility and the degree of adjustment of the expressions.
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Bai, Yong, and Zatil Akmal Zukifli. "Environmental Impact Assessment for Offshore Pipelines." In ASME 2012 31st International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2012-83100.
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The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) emphasize and intended to access and evaluate the impacts on the environment of any possible alternative and initiative in decision making process. In this paper, the biggest impact of oil spills in the history, which is the BP oil spill are discuss. The calculation especially calculate the oil spread by the average of wind and wave. The spread are effected while an oil spill in the water surface and expose to the environment. This exposure might evaporated to the air or maybe spread into the water flow and might be dissolved in the water it self. In making these calculation successfull, the main equation disscuss here are the dispersion model. This model cover all aspects of dispersion and its consequences while it is burst once at the atmosphere. Besides, in order to find the oil evaporation and its spreadable, the calculation have been made which is the same equation to calculate the SHELL spills before.
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Brekke, Camilla, Stine Skrunes, and Martine M. Espeseth. "Oil spill dispersion in full-polarimetric and hybrid-polarity SAR." In 2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). IEEE, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/igarss.2017.8127128.
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Brandvik, Per Johan, Emlyn Davies, Daniel F. Krause, Pierre A. Beynet, Madhusuden Agrawal, and Peter Evans. "Subsea Mechanical Dispersion, Adding to the Toolkit of Oil Spill Response Technology." In SPE International Conference and Exhibition on Health, Safety, Security, Environment, and Social Responsibility. Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/179331-ms.
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Ryan, Victoria, Hemant Thurumella, Nick D’Arcy-Evans, et al. "Utilizing Computational Fluid Dynamics to Estimate Drift Extent-from Aerial Spraying of Dispersants." In Offshore Technology Conference. OTC, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/31826-ms.
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Abstract Aerial application of dispersants are an effective means of responding to oil spills in coastal waters and the deeper waters of the Outer Continental Shelf or Gulf of Mexico. To ensure the safety of responders and nearby wildlife, a buffer area is put in place around the spilled oil to be treated, within which spraying operations are conducted. In 2015, a research project was initiated to develop a prototype Decision Support Tool (DST) designed specifically for estimating the spray drift during the aerial application of dispersants on an oil spill. In 2019, an initiative was undertaken to further develop the DST and address known data gaps in the modeling used in the prototype, expand on the aircraft included in the tool, and include a contour plot output of dispersant deposition. The DST has been designed specifically for estimating the spray drift during the aerial application of dispersants on an oil spill through the use of complex Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. The DST program operational space was developed based on direct input from Oil Spill Response Operators (OSROs) for ten airframes currently used in the United States for aerial response operations, including both turbo propeller and turbo fan engine types. The DST employs a database of results generated using the latest in CFD modeling technology to examine flow structures and drift effects created by various operating conditions, coupled with specific configurations of different oil spill response aircraft and their spray systems (boom and nozzle configurations). The DST uses a Response Surface Curve (RSC) for each airframe to predict the drift extent of dispersant particles and mass deposition concentration, the RSC for each airframe was derived from a database of results generated using the latest CFD modeling technology. The studies conducted to generate data for the DST RSCs provided considerable insight into the relationships between the particle dispersant behavior for different airframe types. Trends were identified in particle dispersion behavior when airframes were flown with a heavy payload (full weight) compared to lighter payload (empty weight). These trends change depending on the airframe used and, more specifically, the location and arrangement of the boom used to release the droplets relative to the location of the main wing. Change in Particle Size Distribution (PSD) was also investigated for flight operations of one airframe and the impact on the drift extent reported. The DST will provide oil spill responders with information related to the extent of any areas potentially impacted by dispersant drift. This will assist the operational control personnel in establishing setback distances, information which becomes increasingly important as a spill escalates beyond a Tier 1 response where the size of the spill, and the resources committed, become significant. In addition, the DST generates a contour plot of mass deposition at ground level based on the operational and environmental parameters input to the program, providing the user with a graphical display of where the majority of the aerial dispersant is predicted to land. While the analysis and tool development are complete, a formal peer review has not been completed at the time of the paper publication.
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Ryan, Victoria, Hemant Thurumella, Nick D’Arcy-Evans, et al. "Utilizing Computational Fluid Dynamics to Estimate Drift Extent-from Aerial Spraying of Dispersants." In Offshore Technology Conference. OTC, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/31826-ms.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract Aerial application of dispersants are an effective means of responding to oil spills in coastal waters and the deeper waters of the Outer Continental Shelf or Gulf of Mexico. To ensure the safety of responders and nearby wildlife, a buffer area is put in place around the spilled oil to be treated, within which spraying operations are conducted. In 2015, a research project was initiated to develop a prototype Decision Support Tool (DST) designed specifically for estimating the spray drift during the aerial application of dispersants on an oil spill. In 2019, an initiative was undertaken to further develop the DST and address known data gaps in the modeling used in the prototype, expand on the aircraft included in the tool, and include a contour plot output of dispersant deposition. The DST has been designed specifically for estimating the spray drift during the aerial application of dispersants on an oil spill through the use of complex Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. The DST program operational space was developed based on direct input from Oil Spill Response Operators (OSROs) for ten airframes currently used in the United States for aerial response operations, including both turbo propeller and turbo fan engine types. The DST employs a database of results generated using the latest in CFD modeling technology to examine flow structures and drift effects created by various operating conditions, coupled with specific configurations of different oil spill response aircraft and their spray systems (boom and nozzle configurations). The DST uses a Response Surface Curve (RSC) for each airframe to predict the drift extent of dispersant particles and mass deposition concentration, the RSC for each airframe was derived from a database of results generated using the latest CFD modeling technology. The studies conducted to generate data for the DST RSCs provided considerable insight into the relationships between the particle dispersant behavior for different airframe types. Trends were identified in particle dispersion behavior when airframes were flown with a heavy payload (full weight) compared to lighter payload (empty weight). These trends change depending on the airframe used and, more specifically, the location and arrangement of the boom used to release the droplets relative to the location of the main wing. Change in Particle Size Distribution (PSD) was also investigated for flight operations of one airframe and the impact on the drift extent reported. The DST will provide oil spill responders with information related to the extent of any areas potentially impacted by dispersant drift. This will assist the operational control personnel in establishing setback distances, information which becomes increasingly important as a spill escalates beyond a Tier 1 response where the size of the spill, and the resources committed, become significant. In addition, the DST generates a contour plot of mass deposition at ground level based on the operational and environmental parameters input to the program, providing the user with a graphical display of where the majority of the aerial dispersant is predicted to land. While the analysis and tool development are complete, a formal peer review has not been completed at the time of the paper publication.
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Tzali, M., S. Sofianos, G. Kallos, et al. "Oil Spill Dispersion Forecasting System for the Region of Installation of the Burgas Alexandroulopis Pipeline Outlet(N.E. Aegean) in the Framework of “DIAVLOS” Project." In ORGANIZED BY THE HELLENIC PHYSICAL SOCIETY WITH THE COOPERATION OF THE PHYSICS DEPARTMENTS OF GREEK UNIVERSITIES: 7th International Conference of the Balkan Physical Union. AIP, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3322304.
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Winanto, Winanto, Mukhtarus Bahroinuddin, Endro Cahyono, and Margaretha Thaliharjanti. "A Dynamic Simulation Assessment for Relocating Flare System into Separated Platform Utilizing Idle Subsea Main Oil line." In SPE/IATMI Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition. SPE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/205741-ms.
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Abstract KLB is an offshore platform that consists of production wells and two train gas lift compressors. During well intervention, the KLB operation team must turn off the flaring system due to potential flare radiation of more than 500 BTU/hr-ft2at the working area and gas dispersion more than 50 %-LEL at the flare tip. The relocation of the KLB flaring system to the nearest platform keeps the KLB gas lift compressor operating during this activity. The relocation scenario can maintain the KLB platform production of 700 BOPD. KLA Flowstation is the nearest platform to the KLB. It is separated one kilometer, connected by an idle subsea oil pipeline, but there are no pigging facilities due to limited space at the KLB platform. Therefore, the comprehensive assessment to relocate the KLB flaring system is a) Flare system study using Flare Network software to simulate backpressure and Mach Number at tailpipe in the KLA and KLB flaring system; b). Dynamic transient simulation using Flow Assurance Software to calculate backpressure, liquid hold up, and slugging condition in the flare KO drum; and c). Flare radiation and dispersion study. The initial condition of the idle subsea oil pipeline was full of liquid as the preservation for a pipeline to prevent a further oil spill in case of a leak during the idle condition. The dewatering process for the idle subsea pipeline has been conducted by purging the pipeline utilizes 0.7 MMscfd gas lift with a pressure of 100 psig to displace liquid content to 20 bbl. The transient simulation for gas swapping was conducted at a gas rate of 4.1 MMscfd as the train compressor's flaring condition. The calculated backpressure at the KLB safety valve is 12.3 psig below the required maximum of 30 psig. The calculated liquid surge volume in the Flare KO drum during flaring is 17 bbl and can be handled by surge volume inside the KO drum. The predicted condensation inside the subsea pipeline shows that the maximum operation of the flaring system is limited to 30 days. The radiation and gas dispersion to the nearest facility is within a safe limit. The KLB teams successfully conducted the relocation of the flaring system from the KLB platform to the KLA platform. The result was no interruption of production, no risk of radiation, and no potential explosion during a well intervention. Experience in the last two activities has confirmed that this method can prevent revenue loss of 19 billion rupiahs. This study has initiated a new engineering standard and best practice for flaring systems as opposed to the current practice which states that the flare location shall be at the same location as the production facilities with no pocket piping in between. This study and field experience have proved that the flaring system can be located on a different platform by conducting engineering assessments to ensure process and process safety criteria are within Company and International Standard.
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Feng, Wenxing, Xiaoqiang Xiang, Guangming Jia, et al. "Applying the Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) to Improve Safety Management of Oil and Gas Pipeline Stations in China." In 2012 9th International Pipeline Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipc2012-90130.
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The oil and gas pipeline companies in China are facing unprecedented opportunities and challenges because of China’s increasing demand for oil and gas energy that is attributed to rapid economic and social development. Limitation of land resource and the fast urbanization lead to a determinate result that many pipelines have to go through or be adjacent to highly populated areas such as cities or towns. The increasing Chinese government regulation, and public concerns about industrial safety and environmental protection push the pipeline companies to enhance the safety, health and environmental protection management. In recent years, PetroChina Pipeline Company (PPC) pays a lot of attention and effort to improve employees and public safety around the pipeline facilities. A comprehensive, integrated HSE management system is continuously improved and effectively implemented in PPC. PPC conducts hazard identification, risk assessment, risk control and mitigation, risk monitoring. For the oil and gas stations in highly populated area or with numerous employees, PPC carries out quantitative risk assessment (QRA) to evaluate and manage the population risk. To make the assessment, “Guidelines for quantitative risk assessments” (purple book) published by Committee for the Prevention of Disasters of Netherlands is used along with a software package. The basic principles, process, and methods of QRA technology are introduced in this article. The process is to identify the station hazards, determinate the failure scenarios of the facilities, estimate the possibilities of leakage failures, calculate the consequences of failures and damages to population, demonstrate the individual risk and social risk, and evaluate whether the risk is acceptable. The process may involve the mathematical modeling of fluid and gas spill, dispersion, fire and explosion. One QRA case in an oil pipeline station is described in this article to illustrate the application process and discuss several key issues in the assessment. Using QRA technique, about 20 stations have been evaluated in PPC. On the basis of the results, managers have taken prevention and mitigation plans to control the risk. QRAs in the pipeline station can provide a quantitative basis and valuable reference for the company’s decision-making and land use planning. Also, QRA can play a role to make a better relationship between the pipeline companies and the local regulator and public. Finally, this article delivers limitations of QRA in Chinese pipeline stations and discusses issues of the solutions.
Reports on the topic "Oil spill dispersion"
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Evans, D., G. Mulholland, D. Gross, H. Baum, W. Walton, and K. Saito. Burning, smoke production, and smoke dispersion from oil spill combustion. National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.89-4091.
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