Journal articles on the topic 'Oil industries Ecuador'

In Ecuador, following the late 2000’s commodity boom, a populist government invested increased oil revenues into social spending, reducing inequality, and gaining a rare period of political stability. The Yasuní National Park has been the focal point of this dynamic since 2006 when the government endorsed a ground-breaking plan to protect the park called the Yasuni ITT initiative. The initiative’s demise in 2013 raises the question: what explains the government’s initial support of, and then rejection of the ITT initiative? Upon combining the theories of extractive imperative and limited access order, this paper’s thesis is that, given Ecuador’s choice to fund public services through extractive industry rents, reducing extractive industry rents through constraining extractive industries is too painful politically. These theories help to structure a narrative, producing insights into the political dynamic impacting the ITT initiative and its eventual collapse. This thesis pursues its investigation through a case study of Yasuní National Park.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how the expansionary phase of a business cycle driven by an exogenous commodity price shock (oil) affects R&D expenditures among Ecuadorian firms. Design/methodology/approach Using two rounds of the Ecuadorian National Science, Technology and Innovation Activities Survey (ACTI 2012 and 2015) and a data set on gross value added (GVA) by industry, we run a sample correction model applied to a panel data of 1,023 firms from 2009 to 2014. Findings In deciding whether to invest in R&D, the higher an industry’s GVA, the lower the predicted probability that firms in that industry would invest. Additionally, R&D investments are not procyclical, and there is marginal evidence that they might actually be countercyclical. These findings are consistent with Schumpeter (1939) and Ouyang (2011) and are likely due to an increased opportunity cost of R&D investment during the oil boom. Originality/value In this study, we examine a boom period and not a full business cycle. This boom is driven by an exogenous shock, deviating from much of the current literature, which focuses on endogenously driven business cycles. This paper examines how the oil shock impacted a variety of industries, and not just attractive ones. Additionally, this paper adds to the limited literature around R&D and business cycles in Latin America.

Ecuador has historically had a unique experience with water law, management, and policy as a result of its constitutional declaration of water access as a human right. In this paper, the legal, environmental, economic, and social aspects related to water management in Ecuador are analyzed. In doing so, the incorporation of local governance structures such as water users’ associations (WUAs) are characterized within a national model of authorization under SENAGUA, Ecuador’s former water agency, highlighting the importance of integrated management for meeting the country’s geographically and environmentally diverse needs. Additionally, the role of anthropogenic activities such as crude oil production, artisanal and small-scale gold (ASGM) mining, agriculture, sewage discharge, and domestic practices are evaluated in the context of policy implementation and environmental quality concerns. Finally, individual and community-level responses are explored, highlighting the importance of geographically specific perceptions of water rights and quality in the adoption of coping strategies. In these ways, a multi-faceted analysis of Ecuadorian water policy shaped by community-level engagement, geographic diversity, and influential economic sectors is developed. This study highlights the need for increased financial and legislative support around extractive and polluting industries such as agriculture, ASGM, and sewage treatment for long-term safety and sustainability of water access in Ecuador. Additionally, increased efforts to educate industry-specific workers, local management boards, and individuals about potential solutions to water-related challenges will help improve the efficiency of current legislation. Finally, this study underscores a need for additional research related to water quality and sustainability in Ecuador, as well as for the social, economic, and environmentally specific factors that influence water security outcomes in the country.

Mining and petroleum production are the source of many elements and base materials fundamental for our modern way of life. The flip side of these keystone industries is the environmental degradation they can cause if not properly managed. Metallic mining and petroleum production can contaminate the local ecosystem with sediments, chemicals used in the industrial processes and heavy metals, part of the metallic ore or oil reservoir. The objective of this project was to analyze the spatial distribution of the presence of different potentially hazardous elements that make up the metallic deposits and oil reservoirs in Ecuador, focused mainly on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) districts. Additionally, we were interested in analyzing this information under the local political and administrative contexts which are key to determining how likely it is that mismanagement of the local mineral deposits and petroleum exploitation projects will end up causing environmental degradation. An extensive and intensive literature search was conducted for information on the presence and concentration of 19 potentially harmful elements. We analyzed data on 11 metallic deposits throughout Ecuador and a major oilfield in the Ecuadorian Amazon basin. We used geographic information systems to analyze the spatial distribution of these reservoirs and their mineral compositions. The results indicated a widespread distribution and high concentration of elements potentially harmful for human health, such as mercury, cadmium and arsenic, throughout the metallic deposits in Ecuador. This is particularly true for long-exploited ASGM districts, such as Ponce-Enríquez, Portovelo-Zaruma and Nambija. This study highlights the importance of understanding geological diversity and its potential risks to better protect the biological diversity and public health of its inhabitants. Furthermore, we consider our work not as a call to stop ASGM mining nor petroleum production, but on the contrary as a strong call to plan every mining and petroleum production project considering these risks. Moreover, our work is a call to action by the local government and authorities to stop corruption and fulfill their duties overseeing the activities of mining and petroleum companies, stopping illegal mining, helping ASGM communities to improve their environmental standards, finding alternative income sources and protecting the local environment.

The paper deals with the use of the small spacecraft Ecuador-UTE (HC1PX) designed to conduct space experiments in autonomous flight conditions and, in particular, to measure the Earth's electromagnetic field and study the ionosphere. The spacecraft has a built-in target load module, including a precision magnetometer that measures the Earth's magnetic field. The measurement results are used to study the properties and state of the circumterranean environment including magnetic anomalies. The latter may indicate certain tectonic structures in the sedimentary stratum, which are indicators of oil and gas, and magnetic pole displacement processes. Measurement results can also be used for prediction and forecasting efforts in anomalous zones. The compiled analytical dependences for the anomalous zones can serve as a forecasting device when studying the magnetic tension of the Earth's geographic regions by means of a spacecraft. Measuring the magnetic anomalies of the Earth's surface is should prove necessary for factoring them in and developing national industries.

What are the institutional arrangements required to implement a genuine process of free, prior and informed consent (fpic)? This article provides a comparative perspective on the politics of consent in the context of relations between Indigenous peoples, states and extractive industries in Canada and Latin America. The case of Ecuador is presented as an emblematic example of a hybrid regime in which Indigenous communities have the right to free, prior and informed consultation, not consent, concerning planned measures affecting them, such as mineral, oil and gas exploitation. In the case of Yukon, Canada, the settlement of a comprehensive land claim with sub-surface mineral rights has provided the institutional basis for the implementation of a genuine fpic process, one that includes participatory decision-making power over natural resource development projects. The article concludes with a discussion on the necessary conditions for moving governments from a consultation to a consent regime.

El artículo hace un balance sobre los aspectos principales que se deducen del proceso de expansión de la frontera agrícola en la Amazonía ecuatoriana con énfasis en el nororiente en donde se desarrollan actividades de explotación petrolera desde la década de 1960. Tal proceso, al igual que la colonización, junto con el ingreso de las empresas agroindustriales y madereras tuvo como trasfondo el discurso oficial de la “Amazonía como territorio vacío”. Plantea además, el papel que ha jugado la reproducción de las economías campesinas en la expansión del capital y, consecuentemente, en la integración de tierras al mercado interno y al Estado nacional. En el artículo se advierte que gracias a los flujos de colonización y sus efectos acumulados sobre la dinámica de la población está cobrando fuerza la “urbanización” de la Amazonía. En este contexto, los pueblos indígenas, así como los asentamientos poblacionales (afectados por la contaminación ambiental petrolera) permanecen como actores subordinados y excluidos de los frutos del “desarrollo”. Por último, el trabajo presenta de manera breve los artículos que forman parte del No. 12 de la revista EUTOPÍA de FLACSO, sede Ecuador. Abstract This article analyses the main issues related with the expansion of the agricultural frontier in the Ecuadorian rainforest, emphasizing oil extraction impacts in the northeast region since 1960. Oil extraction, land colonization, the expansion of agro-processing and wood industries influenced the discourse of “Empty Territory Rainforest”. The article also points out the role of indigenous and peasant economies in capital expansion, as well as the integration of their land to the inner market and State ownership. Thereafter, colonization flows and their cumulative effects over the population dynamics is promoting “urbanization” of the Ecuadorian rainforest. In this context, the indigenous people, as well as human settlements, both affected by the environmental impacts of oil industry, remain as agents subordinated to and excluded from “development”. Lastly, the articles in Journal “EUTOPIA”, No. 12 edition, of FLACSO-ECUADOR are introduced.

In the Amazon Rainforest, a unique post-carbon plan to mitigate global warming and to protect the exceptional bio-cultural diversity was experimented in 2007–2013 by the Ecuadorian government. To preserve the rainforest ecosystems within the Yasuní-ITT oil block, the release of 410 million metric tons of CO2 would have been avoided. The neologism “yasunization” emerged as an Amazonian narrative on “unburnable carbon” to be replicated worldwide. Considering the unburnable carbon, petroleum-associated gas flaring represents the unleakable part. Flaring is an irrational practice that consists of burning waste gases, representing not only a leak of energy but also a pollution source. The general aim of the paper is to monitor gas flaring as a tool, revealing, at the same time, the implementation of environmental technologies in the oil sector and the compliance of sustainable policies in the Amazon region and the Yasuní Biosphere Reserve. Specific objectives are: (i) identifying and estimating gas flaring over seven years (2012–2018); (ii) mapping new flaring sites; iii) estimating potentially affected areas among ecosystems and local communities. We processed National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Nightfire annual dataset, based on the elaboration of imagery from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) and developed a GIS-based novel simple method to identify new flaring sites from daily detections. We found that 23.5% of gas flaring sites and 18.4% of volumes of all oil industries operating in Ecuador are located within the Yasuní Biosphere Reserve (YBR). Moreover, we detected 34 additional flaring sites not included in the NOAA dataset—12 in the YBR and one in Tiputini field, a key area for biological and cultural diversity conservation. We also found that at least 10 indigenous communities, 18 populated centers and 10 schools are located in the potentially affected area. Gas flaring can be used as a policy indicator to monitor the implementation of sustainable development practices in complex territories.

High dependency on fossil fuels, low energy efficiency, poor diversification of energy sources, and a low rate of access to electricity are challenges that need to be solved in many developing countries to make their energy systems more sustainable. Cogeneration has been identified as a key strategy for increasing energy generation capacity, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and improving energy efficiency in industry, one of the most energy-demanding sectors worldwide. However, more studies are necessary to define approaches for implementing cogeneration, particularly in countries with tropical climates (such as Ecuador). In Ecuador, the National Plan of Energy Efficiency includes cogeneration as one of the four routes for making energy use more sustainable in the industrial sector. The objective of this paper is two-fold: (1) to identify the potential of cogeneration in the Ecuadorian industry, and (2) to show the positive impacts of cogeneration on power generation capacity, GHG emissions reduction, energy efficiency, and the economy of the country. The study uses methodologies from works in specific types of industrial processes and puts them together to evaluate the potential and analyze the impacts of cogeneration at national level. The potential of cogeneration in Ecuador is ~600 MWel, which is 12% of Ecuador’s electricity generation capacity. This potential could save ~18.6 × 106 L/month of oil-derived fuels, avoiding up to 576,800 tCO2/year, and creating around 2600 direct jobs. Cogeneration could increase energy efficiency in the Ecuadorian industry by up to 40%.

En esta investigación, se analizó la eficiencia de combustión de veinte hornos a gas y fuel oil de refinerías alrededor del Ecuador, y treinta calderos de diferentes industrias en la ciudad de Quito, así como las emisiones de gases generadas y la rentabilidad de la inserción de precalentadores de aire para mejorar los procesos de combustión. El estudio se realizó en un período de 6 meses, obteniéndose los factores de emisión en los hornos a gas de 4,5 kg de SO2/kg de gas quemado; 22,4 de NOX/kg de gas quemado y 44,5 kg de CO/ kg de gas quemado; mientras que los factores de emisión hallados para los hornos a fuel oil fueron de 93,9 kg de SO2/kg de fuel oil; 24,9 kg de NOX/kg de fuel oil y 2,5 kg de CO/kg de fuel oil. Por otra parte, los factores típicos de emisión de los calderos fueron de 1,7 kg de SO2 /kg de diésel quemado; 1,5 kg de NOX/kg de diésel quemado y 1,0 kg de CO/kg de diésel quemado. Finalmente, la implementación de un precalentador de aire aumenta la eficiencia del caldero analizado (CD20) en un 4,1%, lo cual implicó un valor actual neto (VAN) de USD 8 325,77 y un TIR del 31 %, con lo cual se determinó la factibilidad y rentabilidad del proyecto.

Caryodendron orinocense, Karst., called in Venezuela nogal de Barquisimeto, is an euphorbiaceous tree which grows at the base of the Andes mountains in Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia, and which has potential as a food source. The fruit is a capsule containing three seeds, with an average weight of 10.2 g for the whole seed or 'nut' and an average weight of the edible portion of 4.9 g. The chemical composition (iron, phosphorus, sodium, potasium, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid and carotenes) and the antinutritional factors of the whole mature seeds were determined. The seeds presented neither trypsin inhibitors nor haemaglutinating activity. The edible portion contained 33.85% crude fat, and 17.16% protein (N x 6.25) on a dry weight basis and the following amounts of iron, calcium, thiamin and riboflavin: 22.36, 303.91, 0.24 and 0.2 mg/ 100 g, respec tively. These results suggest that the Caryodendron seeds have potential as a source of oil and proteins. Further studies are recommended.

The degradation dynamics of lignin and cellulose were analyzed by means of a solid state biodegradation experiment, using residues from the essential oil extraction of the Palo Santo tree (Bursera graveolens). As such, two native Xylaria spp. and an exotic mushroom Trametes versicolor were incubated on the spent substrate (Residues of B. Graveolens, BGR’s). The relatively high lignin and cellulose contents of the BGRs (9.1% and 19%, respectively) indicated the potential of this resource for the production of methane (biogas) and ethanol. However, the degradation of the lignin and cellulose content could be traced back to the relatively high activity of the enzymes laccase, cellulase, and xylanase, produced by the fungi. The results showed that laccase (30.0 U/L and 26.6 U/L), cellulase (27.3 U/L and 35.8 U/L) and xylanase (189.7U/L and 128.3 U/L) activities of Xylaria feejeensis and Xylaria cf. microceras were generally higher than T. versicolor (9.0 U/L, 29.5 U/L, 99.5 U/L respectively). Furthermore, the total carbon (TC: 47.3%), total nitrogen (TN: 1.5%), total phosphorus (TP: 0.2%) and total potassium (TK: 1.2%) dynamics were analyzed during the experiment and their importance for the degradation process highlighted. The results of this work might serve as guidance for future studies in dry forest areas, while furthering the understanding of the potential use of native fungi as ecologic lignocellulosic decomposers and for industrial proposes.

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 199070, “Water-Shutoff Technique Extends the Productive Life Cycle of Cretaceous U Sandstone: The Iro Field Case in Ecuador,” by Luis Roberto Bailón, SPE, Ney Holger Orellana, SPE, and Santiago Villegas, Repsol, et al., prepared for the 2020 SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, originally scheduled to be held in Bogota, Colombia, 17-19 March. The paper has not been peer reviewed. The water-shutoff technique is used in some wells of the U reservoir in the Iro field of the Oriente Basin in Ecuador as a remediation plan to restore production after an early water breakthrough. The production historical data, workovers, and sand-body correlation of wells are compared to understand reservoir behavior, shale-baffle-sealing continuity, the existence of different sand units, and the effect on production. Introduction The Iro field is in the south of Block 16. Production began in March of 1996. Iro is considered a mature field that produces heavy crude oil. The U sand-stone reservoir at Iro field is constituted by quartz grains subtransparent with fine grain sizes to medium, moderately classified, occasionally clay-like matrix. A thin limestone layer subdivides the U sandstone reservoir into two main stratigraphic units, Upper U and Lower U sandstone. Logging acquisition during the drilling campaign revealed heterogeneous sand-body deposition throughout the field. Depositional features of fluvial channels are developed from the base of the reservoirs, which are overlaid by sand bars. In addition, interbedded shale layers and baffles are present in the U reservoir, in some cases locally. However, the main shale layers are effective seals when they subdivide the Upper and Lower U sandstone units into two or more subunits. A good example is the shale layer that separates channels and bars in the Lower U sandstone unit. This identification was possible after the development of the well-drilling campaign, well correlation, and years of production behavior. Two subunits of the Lower U reservoir, Ui1 and Ui2, were classified as a result of the acquired data. Cased-Hole Logs (Pulsed Neutron) Given the maturity of the fields, during the last 2 years, a logging campaign of pulsed-neutron cased-hole logs has been performed. In the case of the Iro field, pulsed-neutron logs were run in six wells; three of these reached the Lower U reservoir. These three wells have a good correlation between the analog density and neutron curves of the cased-hole and the original openhole curves, providing certainty in the reading of the tool. The logging program obtained data of chemical-element spectra in capture and inelastic modes. This information was processed and analyzed to derive hydrocarbon saturation. In this way, by-passed oil can be identified as well as reservoir zones already drained by production of the same wells or by neigh-boring wells. Data in the Lower U reservoir show fluid movement.

Confessions of an Economic Hit Man is the story of why the so-calleddeveloping never seems to develop, as seen through the eyes of JohnPerkins, who was involved in “developing” several oil-rich nations. Theopening chapters deal with his childhood, which was permeated with elitismand ideas of how only the “right people” really mattered, his subsequentrebellion by defying his parents’ plan for his life, his initial contacts(through his wife) with government employment, and a 2-year Peace Corpsstint with an indigenous Indian tribe in Ecuador. While there, he wasrecruited by the National Security Agency. After his time was up, he washired by Chas. T. Main, Inc. to devise a 25-year forecast of seriously inflatedelectricity needs for Indonesia so that it would agree to take out an enormousloan. He did so, albeit with some misgivings, and his career as an economichit man (EMH) was launched.Claudine, his handler, made his task perfectly clear:We’re a small, exclusive club,” she said. “We’re paid – well paid – to cheatcountries around the globe out of billions of dollars. Alarge part of your jobis to encourage world leaders to become part of a vast network that promotesU.S. commercial interests. In the end, those leaders become ensnaredin a web of debt that ensures their loyalty. We can draw on them wheneverwe desire – to satisfy our political, economic, or military needs. In turn,these leaders bolster their political positions by bringing industrial parks,power plants, and airports to their people. Meanwhile, the owners of U.S.engineering and construction companies become very wealthy. (p. 17)Praised for his success, he was given “the opportunity, something fewmen ever receive, even at twice your age” (p. 57): to bring on boardPanama’s popular president, Omar Torrijos, who wanted all Panamanians,instead of only the small elite, to benefit. Torrijos’ assertion that sovereign ...

The essays in this Dialogues explore the expression of Latin American visual culture in the context of resource extraction and related conflicts over water, land, and community rights. The contributors to the forum—whose diverse disciplinary and professional backgrounds connect art history, anthropology, photography, and activism—consider how creative work in different media can convey the contradictions, ambiguities, and fluid nature of people's relationship with extractive industries. The essays explore how these forms of representation challenge both popular and academic ideas about resource conflicts. Some of the essays describe nonconventional forms of research dissemination, such as an exhibition on extractive landscapes featuring Peruvian contemporary visual artists and a book project about Colombian mining that combines documentary photography and ethnographic writing. Other essays explore the use of images and media technologies in campaigns against mineral and oil extraction in Peru and Ecuador, which sometimes rely on symbols of class struggle or indigeneity. The essays also explore the international reverberations of these campaigns and their influence on solidary activism, including the uncomfortable exchanges and uneasy alliances that result. The contributors critically examine innovative forms of translation and collaboration among scholars, activists, indigenous and environmental organizations, artists, journalists, and community members, as well as the tensions that may result from these collective endeavors. Together, the set of essays contribute to ongoing interdisciplinary discussion on three themes: representation, materiality, and translation. RESUMEN Los ensayos en estos diálogos exploran la expresión de la cultura visual latinoamericana en el contexto de la extracción de recursos, y similares conflictos sobre el agua, la tierra y los derechos comunitarios. Los colaboradores del foro, cuyas diversas trayectorias prácticas y profesionales relacionan la historia del arte, la antropología, la fotografía y el activismo, consideran cómo el trabajo creativo en diferentes medios puede transmitir las contradicciones, las ambigüedades y el carácter fluido de la relación entre personas e industrias extractivas. Los ensayos exploran cómo estas formas de representación cuestionan ideas populares y académicas sobre los conflictos de recursos. Algunos de los ensayos describen formas no convencionales de difusión de la investigación, como una exposición sobre paisajes extractivos con artistas visuales contemporáneos peruanos y un proyecto de libro sobre minería colombiana que combina fotografía documental y escritura etnográfica. Otros ensayos exploran el uso de imágenes y tecnologías de los medios en campañas contra la extracción de minerales y petróleo en Perú y Ecuador, que a veces se basan en símbolos de la lucha de clases o la indigeneidad. Los ensayos también exploran las repercusiones internacionales de estas campañas y su influencia en el activismo solidario, incluyendo los intercambios incómodos y las frágiles alianzas que resultan. Los colaboradores examinan críticamente formas innovadoras de traducción y colaboración entre académicos, activistas, organizaciones indígenas y ambientales, artistas, periodistas y miembros de la comunidad, así como las tensiones que pueden resultar de estos esfuerzos colectivos. En conjunto, los ensayos contribuyen a una conversación interdisciplinaria en curso sobre tres temas: la representación, la materialidad y la traducción. RESUMO Os ensaios desses Diálogos exploram a expressão da cultura visual latino-americana no contexto da extração de recursos e conflitos relacionados à água, à terra e aos direitos da comunidade. Os contribuintes do fórum – cujas diversas origens disciplinares e profissionais conectam história da arte, antropologia, fotografia e ativismo – consideram como o trabalho criativo em diferentes mídias pode transmitir as contradições, ambiguidades e natureza fluída da relação das pessoas com as indústrias extrativas. Os ensaios exploram como essas formas de representação desafiam ideias populares e acadêmicas sobre conflitos sobre recursos. Alguns dos ensaios descrevem formas não convencionais de divulgação de pesquisas, como uma exposição sobre paisagens extrativistas com artistas visuais contemporâneos peruanos e um projeto de livro sobre mineração colombiana que combina fotografia documental e escrita etnográfica. Outros ensaios exploram o uso de imagens e tecnologias de mídia em campanhas contra extração de minerais e petróleo no Peru e no Equador, que às vezes dependem de símbolos da luta de classes ou da indigeneidade. Os ensaios também exploram as repercussões internacionais dessas campanhas e sua influência no ativismo solidário, incluindo as desconfortáveis trocas e alianças desconfortáveis que resultam. Os contribuintes examinam criticamente formas inovadoras de tradução e colaboração entre acadêmicos, ativistas, organizações indígenas e ambientais, artistas, jornalistas e membros da comunidade, bem como as tensões que podem resultar desses esforços coletivos. Juntos, o conjunto de ensaios contribui para a discussão interdisciplinar em curso sobre três temas: representação, materialidade e tradução.

The energy sector is an important factor that influences life quality and economic prosperity. Differences in infrastructure, technology and even in culture of each country make it imperative to include their own characteristics into energy analyses, making it necessary to identify the different types of sources of CO2 emissions and their magnitudes. The aim of this paper is to present a foresight analysis of the productive and energy matrices dynamics in Ecuador for the period 2016–2030 and to propose public policy that contributes to sustainable development. In a first stage, the research has an explanatory character, referring to construction of a model, which uses an extended variation of the Kaya Identity where the volume of CO2 emissions may be examined quantifying contributions of productive sectors activity, sectorial energy intensity, energy matrix, and CO2 emission features. Subsequently, the research acquires a predictive-experimental nature, using exploratory scenarios. That allows linking historic and present events with hypothetical futures. In consequence, driving forces of the scenario can be explained and analysed using quantitative modelling based on the Kaya Identity and qualitative narratives. Within this study two scenarios were built. The Business as Usual scenario, without modifying the structure of productive and energy matrices, and the Alternative scenario that seeks to reduce the consumption of oil derivatives in land transport, which consumes 50% of the country’s energy demand. The Alternative scenario, which promotes the use of biofuels, projects to reduce the CO2 emissions from 45.58 to 43.41 Mt of CO2 equivalent for 2030. The policy on biofuels in Ecuador is at an early stage. So, biofuels offer important opportunities: i) diversification of the energy matrix, ii) contribution to energy security, iii) promotion of the growth of the industrial sector, and iv) substitution of fossil fuels and mitigation of the greenhouse gas effects.