Academic literature on the topic 'Object constancy'

The use of virtual environments (VE) for many research and commercial purposes relies on its ability to generate environments that faithfully reproduce the physical world. However, due to its limitations the VE can have a number of flaws that adversely affect its use and believability. One of the more important aspects of this problem is whether the size of an object in the VE is perceived as it would be in the physical world. One of the fundamental phenomena for correct size is size-constancy, that is, an object is perceived to be the same size regardless of its distance from the observer. This is in spite of the fact that the retinal size of the object shrinks with increasing distance from the observer. We examined size-constancy in the CAVE and found that size-constancy is a strong and dominant perception in our subject population when the test object is accompanied by surrounding environmental objects. Furthermore, size-constancy changes to a visual angle performance (i.e., object size changed with distance from the subject) when these surrounding objects are removed from the scene. As previously described for the physical world, our results suggest that it is necessary to provide surrounding objects to aid in the determination of an object's depth and to elicit size-constancy in VE. These results are discussed regarding their implications for viewing objects in projection-based VE and the environments that play a role in the perception of object size in the CAVE.

Three experiments are described in which two pictures of isolated man-made objects were presented in succession. The subjects’ task was to decide, as rapidly as possible, whether the two pictured objects had the same name. With a stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) of above 200 msec two types of facilitation were observed: (1) the response latency was reduced if the pictures showed the same object, even though seen from different viewpoints (object benefit); (2) decision time was reduced further if the pictures showed the same object from the same angle of view (viewpoint benefit). These facilitation effects were not affected by projecting the pictures to different retinal locations. Significant benefits of both types were also obtained when the projected images differed in size. However, in these circumstances there was a small but significant performance decrement in matching two similar views of a single object, but not if the views were different. Conversely, the object benefit, but not the viewpoint benefit, was reduced when the SOA was only 100 msec. The data suggest the existence of (at least) two different visual codes, one non-retinotopic but viewer-centred, the other object-centred.

AbstractThe perceived distance between objects has been found to decrease over time in memory, demonstrating a partial failure of space constancy. Such mislocalization has been attributed to a generalized compression effect in memory. We confirmed this drift with a pair of remembered dot positions but did not find a compression of perceived distance when the space between the dots was filled with a connecting line. When the dot pairs were viewed eccentrically the compression in memory was substantially less. These results are in line with a combination of factors previously demonstrated to cause distortion in spatial memory — foveal bias and memory averaging — rather than a general compression of remembered visual space. Our findings indicate that object shape does not appear to be vulnerable to failures of space constancy observed with remembered positions.

Color images depend on the color of the capture illuminant and object reflectance. As such image colors are not stable features for object recognition, however stability is necessary since perceived colors (the colors we see) are illuminant independent and do correlate with object identity. Before the colors in images can be compared, they must first be preprocessed to remove the effect of illumination. Two types of preprocessing have been proposed: first, run a color constancy algorithm or second apply an invariant normalization. In color constancy preprocessing the illuminant color is estimated and then, at a second stage, the image colors are corrected to remove color bias due to illumination. In color invariant normalization image RGBs are redescribed, in an illuminant independent way, relative to the context in which they are seen (e.g. RGBs might be divided by a local RGB average). In theory the color constancy approach is superior since it works in a scene independently: color invariant normalization can be calculated post-color constancy but the converse is not true. However, in practice color invariant normalization usually supports better indexing. In this paper we ask whether color constancy algorithms will ever deliver better indexing than color normalization. The main result of this paper is to demonstrate equivalence between color constancy and color invariant computation. The equivalence is empirically derived based on color object recognition experiments. colorful objects are imaged under several different colors of light. To remove dependency due to illumination these images are preprocessed using either a perfect color constancy algorithm or the comprehensive color image normalization. In the perfect color constancy algorithm the illuminant is measured rather than estimated. The import of this is that the perfect color constancy algorithm can determine the actual illuminant without error and so bounds the performance of all existing and future algorithms. Post-color constancy or color normalization processing, the color content is used as cue for object recognition. Counter-intuitively perfect color constancy does not support perfect recognition. In comparison the color invariant normalization does deliver near-perfect recognition. That the color constancy approach fails implies that the scene effective illuminant is different from the measured illuminant. This explanation has merit since it is well known that color constancy is more difficult in the presence of physical processes such as fluorescence and mutual illumination. Thus, in a second experiment, image colors are corrected based on a scene dependent "effective illuminant". Here, color constancy preprocessing facilitates near-perfect recognition. Of course, if the effective light is scene dependent then optimal color constancy processing is also scene dependent and so, is equally a color invariant normalization.

There have been several proposals for the mechanism by which we are able to recognize an object across a number of viewpoints. Viewpoint-dependent accounts suggest that recognition may be based on an incremental transformation (e.g., mental rotation) strategy, while a variety of viewpoint-independent mechanisms for object recognition have also been proposed. Recent research in neurobiology, based on the two cortical visual systems account, suggest that the processes of viewpoint-dependent and viewpoint-independent object recognition may rely on separate anatomical regions, and that brain lesions may leave patients with selective access to particular types of representation. Evidence from a variety of neuropsychological disorders are reviewed to support the position that viewpoint-independent object recognition depends upon the integrity of occipitotemporal structures. In addition, it is suggested that viewpoint-dependent processes (perhaps depending on occipitoparietal structures) may supplement this primary system under nonoptimal circumstances. (JINS, 1997, 3, 288–298.)

The relative motions of points in a structure-from-motion display involving parallel projection provide depth information in an object-centered framework: differences in velocity do not reflect differences in distance from an eyepoint. In contrast, size constancy is generally regarded to be a perspective effect, based on the relationship between projected size and distance from an eyepoint. Five subjects judged the relative sizes of objects in structure-from-motion scenes. Although the scenes were displayed without perspective, judged size was related to the simulated separation in depth of the objects. These results suggest that relative depths recovered from object-centered information are incorporated into a viewer-centered framework.

Studies of lightness constancy typically involve the comparison of two objects of the same shade that have been placed under different illuminations. In this study, we introduce factors such as object identity and immediate prior experience to measure the effect of these manipulations on constancy. In the first experiment, conditions sufficient to reproduce classical constancy failure (illumination difference, target values, articulation level) were determined. In the second experiment a lightness judgment was made for a gray target that was then seen to move into another illumination level for the second match. Motion was used in an attempt to stress the target?s identity. The shade was still judged significantly lighter when placed under the higher than under the lower illumination. Failure of constancy thus occurred even when object identity was not in question. In the third experiment a priming paradigm was used, to assess the strength of constancy: one shade would appear in one illumination level and another shade in the other illumination level. Motion was used to trick observers into thinking that only a single object was presented. The estimated shade varied as a function of the shade of the prime. In the last experiment, observers were asked to make another match when the object was removed from view: the match of its true color independent of illumination. The value of this match-from-memory was based on the value obtained in the higher illumination level. Taken together, the experiments show that through object identity, immediate prior experience can influence lightness in systematic fashion.

`Object constancy' is the name given to the brain's ability to overcome the myriad environmental obstacles to visual perception and produce a stable, consistent internal representation of object shape. Changes in object orientation represent one such confound. It can be inferred from the time taken to recognise misoriented objects that we encode specific object views based on our experience of those objects and their typical orientations ('viewpoint-dependent recognition'). Such studies also suggest that we may recognise certain objects in a manner that is not dependent on their orientation ('viewpoint-invariant recognition'). Further studies indicate that the time to resolve two angularly disparate shapes (`mental rotation') increases as a function of their angular disparity. It is hypothesised, based on these findings, that viewpoint-dependent recognition and mental rotation share a common mechanism for transforming the global stimulus percept into alignment, but that viewpointinvariant recognition is achieved by some other, non-transformational means. This thesis presents studies that examine the cortical correlates of viewpoint-dependent and viewpointinvariant object recognition using novel objects to eliminate the confounding effects of prior experience. It also presents a study that directly compares the cortical correlates of mental rotation, viewpoint-dependent and viewpoint-invariant recognition. Further comparison of these object constancy processes is then made using electrophysiological markers of visuospatial transformation. The findings of these studies indicate that viewpoint-dependent recognition and mental rotation recruit a bilateral parietal-premotor network for the manipulation of global stimulus percepts, hypothesised to be the same mechanism as that used for physical object manipulation and prehension. Viewpoint-invariant recognition does not appear to recruit such a mechanism, and this process appears to be less expensive in terms of cognitive resources than transformational object constancy mechanisms. Thus, implementation of a viewpoint-invariant mechanism to recognise misoriented objects is preferable, but may not be possible where stimulus features are few or ambiguous. In recognising misoriented objects, viewpoint-dependent and viewpoint-invariant mechanisms initially proceed in parallel, but successful recognition of object invariant features may be sufficient to terminate the viewpoint-dependent mechanism.

El modelado de la reflectancia de las superficies es una clave importante para la comprensión de escenas. Un modelo de reflectancia preciso, basado en las leyes de la física, nos permite alcanzar resultados realísticos y físicamente plausibles. Además, el uso de tal modelo nos permite establecer un conocimiento más profundo acerca de la interacción de la luz con las superficies de los objetos, y resulta crucial para una variedad de aplicaciones de visión por computador. Debido a la alta complejidad de los modelos de reflectancia, la gran mayoría de las aplicaciones existentes de visión por computador basan sus métodos en suposiciones simplificadoras, tales como la reflectancia lambertiana o la iluminación uniforme para ser capaz de resolver sus problemas. Sin embargo, en escenas del mundo real, los objetos tienden a exhibir reflexiones más complejas (difusas y especulares), y además se ven afectados por las características y la cromaticidad de los iluminantes. En esta tesis, se incorpora un modelo de reflexión más realista para aplicaciones de visión por computador. Para abordar tal fenómeno físico complejo, extendemos los modelos de reflectancia de los objetos del estado-del-arte mediante la introducción de un Modelo de Reflexión Dicromático Multi-Iluminante (MIDR). Usando MIDR somos capaces de modelar y descomponer la reflectancia de un objeto con especularidades complejas bajo múltiples iluminantes que presentan sombras e interreflexiones. Se demuestra que este modelo nos permite realizar una recolorización realista de los objetos iluminados por luces de colores y múltiples iluminantes. Además se propone un método "local" de estimación del iluminante para modelar las escenas con iluminación no uniforme (por ejemplo, una escena al aire libre con un cielo azul y un sol amarillo, una escena interior con iluminación combinada con la iluminación al aire libre a través de una ventana, o cualquier otro caso en el que dos o más luces con diferentes colores iluminan diferentes partes de la escena). El método propuesto aprovecha un modelo probabilístico basado en grafos y resuelve el problema rededefiniendo la estimación como un problema de minimización de energía. Este método nos proporciona estimaciones locales del iluminante que mejoran en gran medida a los métodos del estado-del-arte en constancia de color. Por otra parte, hemos capturado nuestro propia base de datos multi-iluminante, que consiste de escenas complejas y condiciones de iluminación al aire libre o de laboratorio. Con ésta se demuestra la mejora lograda usando nuestro método con respecto a los métodos del estado-del-arte para la estimación automática del iluminante local. Se demuestra que tener un modelo más realista y preciso de la iluminación de la escena y la reflectancia de los objetos, mejora en gran medida la calidad en muchas tareas de visión por ordenador y gráficos por computador. Mostramos ejemplos de mejora en el balance automático de blanco, reiluminación de escenas y en la recolorización de objetos. La teoría propuesta se puede emplear también para mejorar la denominación automática de colores, la detección de objetos, el reconocimiento y la segmentación, que están entre las tendencias más populares de la visión por computador.
Surface reflectance modeling is an important key to scene understanding. An accurate reflectance model which is based on the laws of physics allows us to achieve realistic and physically plausible results. Using such model, a more profound knowledge about the interaction of light with objects surfaces can be established which proves crucial to variety of computer vision application. Due to high complexity of the reflectance model, the vast majority of the existing computer vision applications base their methods on simplifying assumptions such as Lambertian reflectance or uniform illumination to be able to solve their problem. However, in real world scenes, objects tend to exhibit more complex reflections (diffuse and specular) and are furthermore affected by the characteristics and chromaticity of the illuminants. In this thesis, we incorporate a more realistic reflection model in computer vision applications. To address such complex physical phenomenon, we extend the state-of-the-art object reflectance models by introducing a Multi-Illuminant Dichromatic Reflection model (MIDR). Using MIDR we are able to model and decompose the reflectance of an object with complex specularities under multiple illuminants presenting shadows and inter-reflections. We show that this permits us to perform realistic re-coloring of objects lit by colored lights, and multiple illuminants. Furthermore, we propose a “local” illuminant estimation method in order to model the scenes with non-uniform illumination (e.g., an outdoor scene with a blue sky and a yellow sun, a scene with indoor lighting combined with outdoor lighting through a window, or any other case in which two or more lights with distinct colors illuminating different parts of the scene). The proposed method takes advantage of a probabilistic and graph-based model and solves the problem by re-defining the estimation problem as an energy minimization. This method provides us with local illuminant estimations which improve greatly over state-of-the-art color constancy methods. Moreover, we captured our own multi-illuminant dataset which consists of complex scenes and illumination conditions both outdoor and in laboratory conditions. We show improvement achieved using our method over state-of-the-art methods for local illuminant estimation. We demonstrate that having a more realistic and accurate model of the scene illumination and object reflectance greatly improves the quality of many computer vision and computer graphics tasks. We show examples of improved automatic white balance, scene relighting, and object re-coloring. The proposed theory can be employed in order to improve color naming, object detection, recognition, and segmentation which are among the most popular computer vision trends.

Research in the field of cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology on spatial cognition and mental imagery has increased considerably over the last few decades. While at the beginning of the XX century studying imagery was considered an object of derision – a ―sheer bunk‖ (Watson, 1928) – at the present, imagery researchers have successfully developed models and improved behavioral and neurophysiological measures (e.g., Kosslyn et al., 2006). Mental rotation constituted a major advance in terms of behavioral measures sensitive to imaginative operations executed on visual representations (i.e., Shepard & Cooper, 1982). The linearity of modulation between response times and angular disparity of the images allowed a quantitative estimate of imagery processes. The experiments described in the present thesis were motivated by the intent to continue and extend the understanding of such fascinating mental phenomena. The evolution of the present work took initial steps from the adoption of a behavioral paradigm, the hand laterality judgment task, as privileged tool for studying motor imagery in healthy individuals and brain-damaged patients. The similarity with mental rotation tasks and the implicit nature of the task made it the best candidate to test hypotheses regarding the mental simulation of body movements. In this task, response times are linearly affected by the angular departures the hand pictures are shown in, as for mental rotation, and their distributions are asymmetric between left and right hands. Drawing from these task features a widely held view posits that laterality judgment of rotated hand pictures requires participants to imagine hand-arm movements, although they receive no instruction to do so (e.g., Parsons, 1987a; Parsons, 1994). In Chapter 1, I provided a review of the relevant literature on visual and motor imagery. Particular aspects of the mental rotation literature are also explored. In Chapter 2, I examined the hand laterality task and the vast literature of studies that employed this task as means to test motor imagery processes. An alternative view to the motor imagery account is also discussed (i.e., the disembodied account). In Chapter 3, I exploited the hand laterality task, and a visual laterality task (Tomasino et al., 2010) to test motor and visual imagery abilities in a group of healthy aged individuals. In Chapter 4, I described an alternative view that has been proposed by others to explain the pattern of RTs in the hand laterality task: The multisensory integration account (Grafton & Viswanathan, 2014). In this view, hand laterality is recognized by pairing information between the seen hand's visual features and the observer's felt own hand. In Chapter 5, I tested and found evidence for a new interpretation of the particular configuration of response times in the hand laterality task. I demonstrated a spatial compatibility effect for rotated pictures of hands given by the interaction between the direction of stimulus rotation (clockwise vs. counterclockwise) and the laterality of the motor response. These effects changed by following temporal dynamics that were attributed to shifts of spatial attention. In the same chapter, I conducted other psychophysics experiments that confirmed the role of spatial attention and that ruled out the view of multisensory integration as the key aspect in determining the asymmetries of the response times' distribution. In Chapter 6, I conducted a study with patients suffering from Unilateral Neglect in which they performed the hand laterality task and a visual laterality task. The findings indicated that patients failed to integrate visual information with spatially incompatible responses irrespective of the type of task, and depending on egocentric stimulus-response spatial codes. A general discussion is presented in Chapter 7.

Critics who have noted the importance of Stoic constancy in Shakespeare 's Roman plays have failed to recognise the full complexity of the idea. It has two forms, both derived from the Stoic principle of homologia (consistency), and centred on the ideal of being always the same: Seneca's constantia sapientis, the rocklike or godlike virtue of the Stoic sage who is unmoved and unchanged by external circumstances; and Cicero's decorum (De officiis I), virtue as the consistent playing of an appropriate part. Seneca is more concerned with heroic self-sufficiency, Cicero with social virtue, but both forms of the ideal contain a tension between concern for inner truth and external appearances. In the late sixteenth century Stoic constancy becomes a subject of fierce debate as it is revived by the Neostoics, who stress the opposition of constancy and "opinion." Shakespeare's view of this debate may derive particularly from Montaigne, who moves from a Neostoic position to a sceptical critique of constancy as unattainable by inconstant man, and as less desirable than self-knowledge and flexibility. Reading North's Plutarch with these themes in mind, Shakespeare sees in the lives of Brutus, Antony, and Coriolanus an Aristotelian pattern of ideal, defective, and excessive constancy - a pattern which he modifies, in the light of his understanding of Seneca, Cicero, and Montaigne, in the three Roman plays. He explores the tension which exists between the Senecan and Ciceronian forms of constancy, and indeed within each of them: a tension between heroic Stoic virtue ("untir'd spirits") and public role-playing ("forrral constancy"). Julius Caesar shows Roman constancy as essentially "formal," resting on pretence and self-deception; in Rome, ironically, constancy depends on "opinion." Coriolanus, by taking constancy to an extreme, demonstrates the self-destructive contradictions within it. Antony and Cleopatra, by contrast, embrace a Montaigne-like ideal of "infinite variety" and inconsistent decorum; Antony fails, but Cleopatra achieves in death a paradoxical fusion of constancy and mutability.

Perceived object colour tends to stay constant under changes in illumination. This phenomenon is called colour constancy. Colour constancy is an essential component of colour perception and is typically studied in the laboratory via asymmetric colour matching experiments, in which the observer views two colours under two different illuminations side by side and makes matches between them. This situation is unlike colour constancy in the real world, which must typically involve a comparison between the colour one views and the colour one remembers - in other words, colour memory must be required. Furthermore, most colour constancy studies use twodimensional Mondrian images as experimental stimuli. These stimuli enable easy computer control of colour but exclude most of the natural perceptual cues such as binocular disparity, 3D luminance shading, mutual reflection, surface texture, glossy highlights, all of which may contribute to colour perception. My aim, in this project, is to study the colour perception of real objects in a more natural environment. To do so, I have developed an experimental setup which preserves the advantages conferred by easy computer-driven control of colour as well as the natural binocular and monocular cues to 3D shape. The setup also permits the use of real solid objects as stimuli, and the manipulation of their apparent surface colour as well as the background illumination. Thus, using this setup, I have been able to employ both 2D and 3D natural objects as stimuli and investigate aspects of colour perception related to colour constancy and colour memory as well as object familiarity. In developing and analysing these experiments, I have also introduced a new index of colour constancy which explicitly incorporates colour memory. My experiments reveal the following main principles: 1) colour constancy relies on colour memory, and is as good as colour memory allows; 2) colour and shape perception interact in both object similarity and discrimination tasks, indicating that colour and shape cannot be studied completely independently of each other; 3) object familiarity affects colour perception, for both foreground and background objects; 4) object familiarity also affects colour perception at perceptual levels, as measured by the reaction times and the range of appropriate colours accepted for an object.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
O tema central desta investigação, desenvolvida através de pesquisa bibliográfica, é a prática da pesquisa em educação no Brasil. O objetivo principal foi apresentar as análises sobre os aspectos teóricos-metodológicos dessa prática. A pesquisa foi feita a partir de uma discussão conceitual sobre os fundamentos teórico-metodológicos da investigação científica em educação. As questões abordadas pela dissertação acerca dos pressupostos teórico-metodológicos indicam a presença da empiria como opção epistemológica na prática investigativa em educação. Com ênfase especial às críticas à presença da perspectiva empírica no trabalho de conhecimento da realidade educativa, a dissertação busca identificar as fragilidades teórico-metodológicas na pesquisa em educação. Por fim, em face destas questões, foi apresentada outra perspectiva epistemológica para se pensar a prática investigativa em educação, a partir das contribuições de Miriam Limoeiro Cardoso (1976, 1978, 1990). Em linhas gerais, ao longo da dissertação, foram levantadas questões, discussões que, de modo geral, são concernentes ao processo de produção de conhecimento, a partir da investigação na área da educação, no que tange aos aspectos teóricos, metodológicos, epistemológicos.
The central theme of this research, developed through bibliographic research, is the practice of educational research. The main objective was to present the analysis of the theoretical and methodological aspects of this practice. The research was done from a conceptual discussion on the theoretical and methodological foundations of scientific research in education. The questions presents by the dissertation about the theoretical and methodological assumptions indicate the presence of empiricism as an option in epistemological research practice in education. With special emphasis on the presence of critical empirical perspective on working knowledge of educational reality, the dissertation seeks to identify the theoretical and methodological weaknesses in educational research. Finally, in the face of these issues was presented another epistemological perspective to think the research practice in education, from the contributions of Miriam Limoeiro Cardoso (1976, 1978, 1990). In general, throughout the dissertation, questions were raised, discussions that, in general, are concerned with the process of knowledge production, from research in the area of education, in relation to the theoretical, methodological, epistemological.

I have spent more than a quarter of a century living outside my homeland of Japan. In recent visits to Japan, I have noticed that my sense of belonging is growing stronger. This has caused me to question whether this is simply nostalgia or something deeper. I wonder whether my prolonged exposure to other cultures has enhanced my appreciation of my own, or whether I am losing my cultural identity and the idea of home is becoming more attractive because it feels familiar and safe. Through my studio work, I seek to juxtapose the present with the past, to examine the role that memory plays in our notions of home, and particularly to discover how my memories influence my emotional response to geographical and cultural dislocation. In this exegesis, I examine the nature of memory and the idea that home is not merely a place on a map. My research investigates whether a particular material associated with a specific place—in my case, wood—can be fundamental to developing a better understanding of who we are, where we come from, and why we call one place home over another.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Visual Arts (DVA)
Queensland College of Art
Arts, Education and Law
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Scenario planning is management approach to deal with uncertainty in the business environment. The intention of the approach is to allow management of organisations to better understand and manage their environment. There are many examples of scenario planning in the practitioner literature that suggest that the approach works in practice. There is however little empirical evidence to support or explore the validity of such claims. The origin of this thesis was an exploratory study to understand the impact of interventions using scenario planning in the context of small and medium sized enterprises. In conducting empirical research, the researcher can reflect on what has become a 'learning journey', which identifies the cognitive processes managers employ to manage change arising from such interventions. The research identifies managerial recipes and transitional objects allowing volitional strategic change to occur. That is, the existing managerial understanding based on past experience and success acts as a bridge from the existing world to a new world, without which change cannot be rationalised and management would be incapacitated. I have called this the 'upframed recipe', expressing its elements of lasting validity, the transitional object.

AbstractThe history of Runet is not just a chronological account of the major events in the Russian Internet space. We take a historical approach in order to identify the boundaries of Runet as an object of investigation. This chapter offers a framework for the examination of Runet as a constantly changing socio-technical object. Due to the participatory nature of its continuous construction, Runet has been addressed as a “runaway object” (Engeström, 2008). In order to follow the development of this “runaway Runet,” we identify and follow five interrelated vectors: the technological vector, the cultural vector, the media vector, the user vector and the political vector. This allows us not only to describe the history of Runet but also to contribute to an understanding of what it is and whether there is an “end to Runet.”

The spectral power distribution reaching the eye from an object varies with the spectral output of the illumination source and the spectral reflectance of the object. If color vision is to serve in the identification of objects, it is desirable to have a system that responds to the spectral reflectance of the object, a stable attribute, independent of the spectral characteristics of the illumination. The significant stability of object color appearance despite changes in illumination conditions is commonly referred to as color constancy.

The eye can discount some features of an illuminant substitution but not others. Sorting out which features are discounted helps to organize constancy data, while avoiding possible overstatement of what the visual system can do. In outline form: (1) The eye cannot undo a breakdown of metamerism. (2) The eye discounts illuminant effects on object luminance well, whether (a) the light changes in intensity only, or (b) it changes in color as well. (3) The eye tends to discount the color of the illuminant, but (a) blue-yellow shifts are discounted better than (b) red-green shifts.1 (4) The eye tends not to discount illuminant effects on color contrast as quantified by (a) the red-green contrast parameter t ^ or (b) the blue-yellow contrast parameter d ^ .2 The poster reviews supporting data.

If the eye had three photopigments with narrow, nonoverlapping spectral sensitivities, integrated-reflectance (von Kries) adaptation could achieve perfect color constancy. However, human spectral sensitivities are broad and overlapping, which impairs constancy.1 A broad receptor sensitivity enables two lights to be metameric to that receptor system (i.e., two lights differing over the bandwidth of the receptor can produce the same response). Lights that are metameric to a trichromatic observer must be metameric to at least one receptor system. Hence the breadth of receptor sensitivities permits metamerism. When this takes the form of object-color metamerism, it will limit constancy by any mechanism. If the receptor sensitivities were broad but nonoverlapping, restricting the illuminant to three narrow bands2 in the respective spectral-sensitivity domains would eliminate object-color metamerism and would also permit von Kries color constancy. However, an overlap in human spectral sensitivities incurs off-diagonal elements in the (invertible) transformation between object reflectance and receptor stimulus. Hence, adjustment of a three-narrow band illuminant cannot be compensated by a von Kries (= diagonal) transformation. Since human red and green spectral sensitivities overlap greatly, the red-green opponent system shows mediocre color constancy even for three-band illuminants.1

The limits to lightness constancy can be measured by the accuracy with which human observers estimate the reflectance of an object as a function of various illumination conditions. Our paradigm is analogous to traditional psychophysical methods used for signal identification, with the reflectance representing the signal and the illumination serving as noise. We used computer graphic techniques to simulate monochrome scenes consisting of a plane grid of square pieces of paper with various initial reflectances. The squares were then non-uniformly illuminated. We measured the ability of observers to correctly identify the reflectance of a randomly chosen patch by selecting a matching piece of paper from a standard palette, also simulated. Performance was measured as a function of the number of patches, number of possible reflectance values, illumination contrast, and illumination spatial spectrum. With uniform illumination, observers could accurately identify only six reflectance values for the three conditions varying in number of patches. However, within this range of reflectance patches, reflectance identification was robust over the range of illumination contrasts and spatial frequencies tested. These results suggest interesting constraints to be considered in the formulation of algorithms for lightness constancy.

Robot-vision models of color constancy that are based on a linear approximation of illuminant and reflectance spectra are often generalized to the human visual system. Dannemiller's1 computational approach to color constancy is a good example. In this paper it is shown that such a procedure to estimate illuminant and reflectance spectra is less plausible for the human visual system than is implicitly assumed in robot-vision. The resemblance of the modeled hypothetical visual systems to the human visual system is misleading since it implies that surface reflectance is the illuminant-invariant object color descriptor the human visual system uses to achieve color constancy. However, an alternative type of descriptor is available that is not used to recover reflectance spectra. It has the advantage of allowing an interpretation that is preferable from the human point of view.

Object-color metamerism becomes visually apparent if two objects match under one light, but not under a second. In the present paper, a method is derived by which metameric object colors can be calculated, given the light under which they are to match, and the light under which they are to mismatch. The method is presented primarily as a practical guide to creating or avoiding metamerism, but may have theoretical implications related to color constancy.

The article considers the model of the space-frequency-time continuum, according to which the physical essence of Time is manifested as a fraction of electromagnetic energy spent on updating a material object in a cyclic process of copying-incarnation. For all structural levels of physical reality, the value of this fraction is a fundamental constant, which can be represented as the tangent of the loss angle, or expressed in radians, as the angle of inclination of the evolutionary spiral, which characterizes the rate of change of states or the duration of events and processes. The value of this constant can be calculated, and its value turns out to be identically equals to the square of the fine structure Constant (α2). The description of the method for identifying a new constant allows us to present the formula of Scientific Discovery as the Physical Essence of Time.

The education system of Ukraine is closely linked with the world education trends, therefore it requires constant renewal and expansion. One of the progressive areas of organizing studying process is creating the studying environment which will allow students to reveal their intellectual potential while searching for the necessary knowledge. That’s why the purpose of the article is analysis of the concept of augmented reality and prospects of its application in the process of training future engineers. The object of study is the system of training future engineers and the subject is using of augmented reality technologies in the process of training future engineers. The research method is analyzing the impact of the augmented reality technologies on the training future engineers. During the research, we have identified positive aspects of the augmented reality technologies in the process of training future engineers. We have defined the stages of creating some methodical system components of teaching fundamental disciplines in the higher technical school through interdisciplinary integration and technologies of augmented reality.

Cette étude porte sur une des innovations contemporaines liées à l’économie de la publication scientifique : les accords dits transformants, un objet relativement circonscrit au sein des relations entre consortiums de bibliothèques et éditeurs scientifiques, et temporellement situé entre 2015 et 2020. Ce type d’accords a pour objectif affiché d’organiser la transition du modèle traditionnel de l’abonnement à des revues (souvent proposées par regroupements thématiques ou collections) vers celui de l’accès ouvert en opérant une réaffectation des budgets qui y sont consacrés. Notre travail d’analyse sociologique constitue une première étude systématique de cet objet, fondée sur la recension de 197 accords. Le corpus ainsi constitué inclut des accords caractérisés par la coprésence d’une composante d’abonnement et d’une composante de publication en accès ouvert, même minimale (« jetons » de publication offerts, réduction sur les APC...). En conséquence, ont été exclus de l’analyse les accords portant uniquement sur du financement centralisé de publication en accès ouvert, que ce soit avec des éditeurs ne proposant que des revues avec paiement par l’auteur (PLOS, Frontiers, MDPI...) ou des éditeurs dont une partie du catalogue est constitué de revues en accès ouvert. L’accord le plus ancien de notre corpus a été signé en 2010, les plus récents en 2020 – les accords ne commençant qu’en 2021, même annoncés au cours de l’étude, n’ont pas été retenus. Plusieurs résultats se dégagent de notre analyse. Tout d’abord, on note une grande diversité des acteurs impliqués avec 22 pays et 39 éditeurs, même si certains consortiums (Pays-Bas, Suède, Autriche, Allemagne) et éditeurs (CUP, Elsevier, RSC, Springer) en ont signé beaucoup plus que d’autres. Ensuite, la durée des accords, comprise entre une et six années, révèle une distribution très inégalitaire, avec plus de la moitié des accords (103) signés pour 3 ans, ainsi qu’une faible proportion pour 4 ans ou plus (22 accords). Enfin, en dépit d’appels répétés à la transparence, moins de la moitié des accords (96) ont un texte accessible au moment de cette étude, sans qu’on puisse observer une tendance récente à une plus grande disponibilité. L’analyse montre également des degrés d’ouverture très variables, allant d’une simple information sur le répertoire ESAC en passant par la mise à disposition d’un format annotable jusqu’à l’attribution d’un DOI et d’une licence de réutilisation (CC-BY), en incluant le détail des sommes monétaires. Parmi les 96 accords disponibles, dont 47 signés en 2020, 62 ont fait l’objet d’une analyse en profondeur. C’est à notre connaissance la première analyse à cette échelle, sur un type de matériel non seulement inédit, mais qui était auparavant soumis à des clauses de confidentialité. Fondée sur une lecture minutieuse, l’étude décrit de manière fine leurs propriétés, depuis la matérialité du document jusqu’aux formules financières, en passant par leur morphologie et l’ensemble des droits et devoirs des parties. Les contenus des accords sont donc analysés comme une collection dont nous cherchons à déterminer les points communs et les variations, à travers des codages explicites sur certaines de leurs caractéristiques. L’étude pointe également des incertitudes, et notamment leur caractère « transitionnel », qui demeure fortement discuté. D’un point de vue morphologique, les accords montrent une grande diversité en matière de taille (de 7 à 488 pages) et de structure. Néanmoins, par définition, ils articulent tous deux objets essentiels : d’une part, les conditions de réalisation d’une lecture d’articles de revues, sous forme d’abonnement, mêlant des préoccupations d’accès et de sécurité ; d’autre part, les modalités de publication en accès ouvert, articulant la gestion d’un nouveau type de workflow à toute une série d’options possibles. Parmi ces options, mentionnons notamment le périmètre des revues considérées (hybrides et/ou accès ouvert), les licences disponibles, le degré d’obligation de cette publication, les auteurs éligibles ou le volume d’articles publiables. L’un des résultats les plus importants de cette analyse approfondie est la mise au jour d’un découplage presque complet, au sein même des accords, entre l’objet abonnement et l’objet publication. Bien entendu, l’abonnement est systématiquement configuré dans un monde fermé, soumis à paiement qui déclenche des séries d’identification des circulations légitimes tant du contenu informationnel que des usagers. Il insiste notamment sur les interdictions de réutilisation ou même de copie des articles scientifiques. À l’opposé, la publication en accès ouvert est attachée à un monde régi par l’accès gratuit au contenu, ce qui induit des préoccupations de gestion du workflow et des modalités d’accessibilité. De plus, les différents éléments constitutifs de ces objets contractuels ne sont pas couplés : d’un côté, les lecteurs sont constitués de l’ensemble des membres des institutions abonnées, de l’autre, seuls les auteurs correspondants (« corresponding authors ») sont concernés ; les listes de revues accessibles à la lecture et celles réservées à la publication en accès ouvert sont le plus souvent distinctes ; les workflows ont des objectifs et des organisations matérielles totalement différentes, etc. L’articulation entre les deux objets contractuels relève uniquement d’une formule de distribution financière qui, outre des combinaisons particulières entre l’un et l’autre, permet d’attribuer des étiquettes distinctes aux accords (offset agreement, publish & read, read & publish, read & free articles, read & discount). Au-delà de cette distribution, l’étude des arrangements financiers montre une gamme de dispositions allant d’une prévisibilité budgétaire totale, donc identique aux accords d’abonnement antérieurs, à une incertitude sur le volume de publication ou sur le montant définitif des sommes échangées. Les modalités concrètes de calcul des montants associés à la publication en accès ouvert sont relativement variées. S’il existe effectivement des formules récurrentes (volume d’articles multiplié par un prix individuel, reprise de la moyenne des sommes totales d’APC des années précédentes...), le calcul des sommes en jeu est toujours le résultat d’une négociation singulière entre un consortium et un éditeur scientifique, et aboutit parfois à des formules originales et complexes. À ce titre, l’espace des possibles en matière de formules financières n’est jamais totalement clos. Par ailleurs, la volonté des consortiums d’opérer une « transformation » de leurs accords vers la publication à coût constant renvoie à des définitions diversifiées du « coût » (inclusion ou non des dépenses d’APC préexistantes) et de la constance (admission ou pas d’une « inflation » à 2 ou 3%). De plus, nous n’avons observé aucune disposition contractuelle permettant d’anticiper les sommes en jeu au-delà de l’horizon temporel de l’accord courant. La grande diversité des accords provient d’une part des conditions initiales des relations entre consortiums et éditeurs scientifiques – les sommes dépensées en abonnement étant le point de départ des nouveaux accords –, d’autre part des objectifs de chaque partie. Même si cette étude excluait volontairement les négociations, les accords portent des traces de ces objectifs. Ainsi, de nombreux accords sont de nature explicitement expérimentale, quand certains visent un contrôle budgétaire strict, ou d’autres ambitionnent, dans la période plus récente, la publication du plus grand nombre possible d’articles en accès ouvert. C’est dans ce dernier cas qu’on touche à l’ambiguïté des attentes générales sur les accords transformants. En effet, pour les consortiums, la dimension « transformante » consiste essentiellement à transférer les sommes traditionnellement allouées à l’abonnement vers la publication en accès ouvert. Mais l’objectif n’est jamais de transformer le modèle économique des revues, c'est-à-dire de faire basculer des revues sous abonnement ou hybrides en revues entièrement en accès ouvert. D’ailleurs, aucune clause ne vise une telle fin – à l’exception du modèle d’accord proposé par l’éditeur ACM. Du côté des éditeurs, et notamment de Springer, le caractère cumulatif des accords nationaux passés vise à projeter un monde de la publication où l’accès ouvert devient de fait quantitativement très dominant, sans pour autant modifier de manière pérenne le modèle économique de leurs revues. Notre étude montre que les accords transformants actuels ne permettent pas d’assurer de manière durable une transition de l’économie de la publication vers l’accès ouvert, dans la mesure où ils n’offrent pas de garantie sur le contrôle des dépenses ni sur la pérennité de l’ouverture des contenus. L’avenir des relations entre consortium et éditeur demeure largement indéterminé.Cette étude porte sur une des innovations contemporaines liées à l’économie de la publication scientifique : les accords dits transformants, un objet relativement circonscrit au sein des relations entre consortiums de bibliothèques et éditeurs scientifiques, et temporellement situé entre 2015 et 2020. Ce type d’accords a pour objectif affiché d’organiser la transition du modèle traditionnel de l’abonnement à des revues (souvent proposées par regroupements thématiques ou collections) vers celui de l’accès ouvert en opérant une réaffectation des budgets qui y sont consacrés. Notre travail d’analyse sociologique constitue une première étude systématique de cet objet, fondée sur la recension de 197 accords. Le corpus ainsi constitué inclut des accords caractérisés par la coprésence d’une composante d’abonnement et d’une composante de publication en accès ouvert, même minimale (« jetons » de publication offerts, réduction sur les APC...). En conséquence, ont été exclus de l’analyse les accords portant uniquement sur du financement centralisé de publication en accès ouvert, que ce soit avec des éditeurs ne proposant que des revues avec paiement par l’auteur (PLOS, Frontiers, MDPI...) ou des éditeurs dont une partie du catalogue est constitué de revues en accès ouvert. L’accord le plus ancien de notre corpus a été signé en 2010, les plus récents en 2020 – les accords ne commençant qu’en 2021, même annoncés au cours de l’étude, n’ont pas été retenus. Plusieurs résultats se dégagent de notre analyse. Tout d’abord, on note une grande diversité des acteurs impliqués avec 22 pays et 39 éditeurs, même si certains consortiums (Pays-Bas, Suède, Autriche, Allemagne) et éditeurs (CUP, Elsevier, RSC, Springer) en ont signé beaucoup plus que d’autres. Ensuite, la durée des accords, comprise entre une et six années, révèle une distribution très inégalitaire, avec plus de la moitié des accords (103) signés pour 3 ans, ainsi qu’une faible proportion pour 4 ans ou plus (22 accords). Enfin, en dépit d’appels répétés à la transparence, moins de la moitié des accords (96) ont un texte accessible au moment de cette étude, sans qu’on puisse observer une tendance récente à une plus grande disponibilité. L’analyse montre également des degrés d’ouverture très variables, allant d’une simple information sur le répertoire ESAC en passant par la mise à disposition d’un format annotable jusqu’à l’attribution d’un DOI et d’une licence de réutilisation (CC-BY), en incluant le détail des sommes monétaires. Parmi les 96 accords disponibles, dont 47 signés en 2020, 62 ont fait l’objet d’une analyse en profondeur. C’est à notre connaissance la première analyse à cette échelle, sur un type de matériel non seulement inédit, mais qui était auparavant soumis à des clauses de confidentialité. Fondée sur une lecture minutieuse, l’étude décrit de manière fine leurs propriétés, depuis la matérialité du document jusqu’aux formules financières, en passant par leur morphologie et l’ensemble des droits et devoirs des parties. Les contenus des accords sont donc analysés comme une collection dont nous cherchons à déterminer les points communs et les variations, à travers des codages explicites sur certaines de leurs caractéristiques. L’étude pointe également des incertitudes, et notamment leur caractère « transitionnel », qui demeure fortement discuté. D’un point de vue morphologique, les accords montrent une grande diversité en matière de taille (de 7 à 488 pages) et de structure. Néanmoins, par définition, ils articulent tous deux objets essentiels : d’une part, les conditions de réalisation d’une lecture d’articles de revues, sous forme d’abonnement, mêlant des préoccupations d’accès et de sécurité ; d’autre part, les modalités de publication en accès ouvert, articulant la gestion d’un nouveau type de workflow à toute une série d’options possibles. Parmi ces options, mentionnons notamment le périmètre des revues considérées (hybrides et/ou accès ouvert), les licences disponibles, le degré d’obligation de cette publication, les auteurs éligibles ou le volume d’articles publiables. L’un des résultats les plus importants de cette analyse approfondie est la mise au jour d’un découplage presque complet, au sein même des accords, entre l’objet abonnement et l’objet publication. Bien entendu, l’abonnement est systématiquement configuré dans un monde fermé, soumis à paiement qui déclenche des séries d’identification des circulations légitimes tant du contenu informationnel que des usagers. Il insiste notamment sur les interdictions de réutilisation ou même de copie des articles scientifiques. À l’opposé, la publication en accès ouvert est attachée à un monde régi par l’accès gratuit au contenu, ce qui induit des préoccupations de gestion du workflow et des modalités d’accessibilité. De plus, les différents éléments constitutifs de ces objets contractuels ne sont pas couplés : d’un côté, les lecteurs sont constitués de l’ensemble des membres des institutions abonnées, de l’autre, seuls les auteurs correspondants (« corresponding authors ») sont concernés ; les listes de revues accessibles à la lecture et celles réservées à la publication en accès ouvert sont le plus souvent distinctes ; les workflows ont des objectifs et des organisations matérielles totalement différentes, etc. L’articulation entre les deux objets contractuels relève uniquement d’une formule de distribution financière qui, outre des combinaisons particulières entre l’un et l’autre, permet d’attribuer des étiquettes distinctes aux accords (offset agreement, publish & read, read & publish, read & free articles, read & discount). Au-delà de cette distribution, l’étude des arrangements financiers montre une gamme de dispositions allant d’une prévisibilité budgétaire totale, donc identique aux accords d’abonnement antérieurs, à une incertitude sur le volume de publication ou sur le montant définitif des sommes échangées. Les modalités concrètes de calcul des montants associés à la publication en accès ouvert sont relativement variées. S’il existe effectivement des formules récurrentes (volume d’articles multiplié par un prix individuel, reprise de la moyenne des sommes totales d’APC des années précédentes...), le calcul des sommes en jeu est toujours le résultat d’une négociation singulière entre un consortium et un éditeur scientifique, et aboutit parfois à des formules originales et complexes. À ce titre, l’espace des possibles en matière de formules financières n’est jamais totalement clos. Par ailleurs, la volonté des consortiums d’opérer une « transformation » de leurs accords vers la publication à coût constant renvoie à des définitions diversifiées du « coût » (inclusion ou non des dépenses d’APC préexistantes) et de la constance (admission ou pas d’une « inflation » à 2 ou 3%). De plus, nous n’avons observé aucune disposition contractuelle permettant d’anticiper les sommes en jeu au-delà de l’horizon temporel de l’accord courant. La grande diversité des accords provient d’une part des conditions initiales des relations entre consortiums et éditeurs scientifiques – les sommes dépensées en abonnement étant le point de départ des nouveaux accords –, d’autre part des objectifs de chaque partie. Même si cette étude excluait volontairement les négociations, les accords portent des traces de ces objectifs. Ainsi, de nombreux accords sont de nature explicitement expérimentale, quand certains visent un contrôle budgétaire strict, ou d’autres ambitionnent, dans la période plus récente, la publication du plus grand nombre possible d’articles en accès ouvert. C’est dans ce dernier cas qu’on touche à l’ambiguïté des attentes générales sur les accords transformants. En effet, pour les consortiums, la dimension « transformante » consiste essentiellement à transférer les sommes traditionnellement allouées à l’abonnement vers la publication en accès ouvert. Mais l’objectif n’est jamais de transformer le modèle économique des revues, c'est-à-dire de faire basculer des revues sous abonnement ou hybrides en revues entièrement en accès ouvert. D’ailleurs, aucune clause ne vise une telle fin – à l’exception du modèle d’accord proposé par l’éditeur ACM. Du côté des éditeurs, et notamment de Springer, le caractère cumulatif des accords nationaux passés vise à projeter un monde de la publication où l’accès ouvert devient de fait quantitativement très dominant, sans pour autant modifier de manière pérenne le modèle économique de leurs revues. Notre étude montre que les accords transformants actuels ne permettent pas d’assurer de manière durable une transition de l’économie de la publication vers l’accès ouvert, dans la mesure où ils n’offrent pas de garantie sur le contrôle des dépenses ni sur la pérennité de l’ouverture des contenus. L’avenir des relations entre consortium et éditeur demeure largement indéterminé.

The article discusses technological approaches to training in Higher Education Institution. The essence of technological approach to training consists in the transformation of educational processes into process with the guaranteed result. It supplements scientific approaches of pedagogy, psychology, sociology and other directions of science and practice. Purpose. To reveal how technological approaches to training in higher education institution influence on knowledge got by students. Scientific novelty. The article reveals development of the personality, creative abilities and it is necessary to use technological approaches of training, various creative tasks, research projects at the lectures. On the first and second years of education the pedagogical technology which is based on motivation of educational cognitive activity through communication and cooperation influences on the intellectual and behavioral status of students. Training is more effective, than the better methodology and technology of educational process will be coordinated with technology of assimilation the knowledge. It is important that all students in a higher educational institution could acquire material and began to use it in practice in the work. The signs of technology, a model of pedagogical technology, the scheme of technological creation of educational process and the results of expense of time in digestion of material by students are described in the article. Technological approach modernizes training on a basis of activity of students. Thanks to it, students achieve goals in the form of assimilation the knowledge in easier and productive way. When using technological approach there is an involvement of each student in educational process, knowledge is put into practice, there is always an access to necessary information (including the Internet), there is a communication and cooperation not only with the lecturer, but also with fellow students and what is more important is a constant test of the forces for overcoming the arising problems. Features of pedagogical technologies consist in activity of the lecturers and students. The activity of the lecturers is in that he knows well psychological and personal features of students and can introduce amendments on the training process course. The lecturer, as directly, and by means of technical means carries out the organizing, operating, motivating and controlling functions in the course of training. Practical significance. The practical importance consists in the use in practice of technological approaches to training in Higher Education Institution that promotes the guaranteed achievement of the set educational objects, the organization of all course of training in compliance to the purposes and tasks, assessment of the current results and their correction in case of need and also final assessment of results.