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Journal articles on the topic 'Numerosity adaptation'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Tsouli, Andromachi, Yuxuan Cai, Martijn van Ackooij, Shir Hofstetter, Ben M. Harvey, Susan F. te Pas, Maarten J. van der Smagt, and Serge O. Dumoulin. "Adaptation to visual numerosity changes neural numerosity selectivity." NeuroImage 229 (April 2021): 117794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117794.

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2

Tsouli, Andromachi, Yuxuan Cai, Martijn van Ackooij, Shir Hofstetter, Ben M. Harvey, Susan F. te Pas, Maarten J. van der Smagt, and Serge O. Dumoulin. "Neural numerosity selectivity changes after visual numerosity adaptation." Journal of Vision 20, no. 11 (October 20, 2020): 486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.20.11.486.

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3

LIU, Wei, Zhi-Jun ZHANG, and Ya-Jun ZHAO. "Numerosity Adaptation Effect on the Basis of Perceived Numerosity." Acta Psychologica Sinica 44, no. 10 (April 16, 2013): 1297–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1041.2012.01297.

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4

Liu, Wei, Zhi-Jun Zhang, Bing-Chen Li, Ya-Jun Zhao, and Yi Tang. "Numerosity adaptation along the Y-Axis affects numerosity perception along the X-Axis: does numerosity adaptation activate MNLs?" Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 77, no. 4 (March 19, 2015): 1358–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0863-z.

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5

Maldonado Moscoso, Paula A., Guido M. Cicchini, Roberto Arrighi, and David C. Burr. "Adaptation to hand-tapping affects sensory processing of numerosity directly: evidence from reaction times and confidence." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1927 (May 27, 2020): 20200801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0801.

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Like most perceptual attributes, the perception of numerosity is susceptible to adaptation, both to prolonged viewing of spatial arrays and to repeated motor actions such as hand-tapping. However, the possibility has been raised that adaptation may reflect response biases rather than modification of sensory processing. To disentangle these two possibilities, we studied visual and motor adaptation of numerosity perception while measuring confidence and reaction times. Both sensory and motor adaptation robustly distorted numerosity estimates, and these shifts in perceived numerosity were accompanied by similar shifts in confidence and reaction-time distributions. After adaptation, maximum uncertainty and slowest response-times occurred at the point of subjective (rather than physical) equality of the matching task, suggesting that adaptation acts directly on the sensory representation of numerosity, before the decisional processes. On the other hand, making reward response-contingent, which also caused robust shifts in the psychometric function, caused no significant shifts in confidence or reaction-time distributions. These results reinforce evidence for shared mechanisms that encode the quantity of both internally and externally generated events, and advance a useful general technique to test whether contextual effects like adaptation and serial dependence really affect sensory processing.

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6

Arrighi, Roberto, Irene Togoli, and David C. Burr. "A generalized sense of number." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1797 (December 22, 2014): 20141791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1791.

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Much evidence has accumulated to suggest that many animals, including young human infants, possess an abstract sense of approximate quantity, a number sense . Most research has concentrated on apparent numerosity of spatial arrays of dots or other objects, but a truly abstract sense of number should be capable of encoding the numerosity of any set of discrete elements, however displayed and in whatever sensory modality. Here, we use the psychophysical technique of adaptation to study the sense of number for serially presented items. We show that numerosity of both auditory and visual sequences is greatly affected by prior adaptation to slow or rapid sequences of events. The adaptation to visual stimuli was spatially selective (in external, not retinal coordinates), pointing to a sensory rather than cognitive process. However, adaptation generalized across modalities, from auditory to visual and vice versa. Adaptation also generalized across formats : adapting to sequential streams of flashes affected the perceived numerosity of spatial arrays. All these results point to a perceptual system that transcends vision and audition to encode an abstract sense of number in space and in time.

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7

Liu, Wei, Zhi-Jun Zhang, Ya-Jun Zhao, Zhi-Fang Liu, and Bing-Chen Li. "Effects of Awareness on Numerosity Adaptation." PLoS ONE 8, no. 10 (October 16, 2013): e77556. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077556.

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8

Burr, David, Giovanni Anobile, and Marco Turi. "Adaptation Affects Both High and Low (Subitized) Numbers Under Conditions of High Attentional Load." Seeing and Perceiving 24, no. 2 (2011): 141–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187847511x570097.

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AbstractIt has recently been reported that, like most sensory systems, numerosity is subject to adaptation. However, the effect seemed to be limited to numerosity estimation outside the subitizing range. In this study we show that low numbers, clearly in the subitizing range, are adaptable under conditions of high attentional load. These results support the idea that numerosity is detected by a perceptual mechanism that operates over the entire range of numbers, supplemented by an attention-based system for small numbers (subitizing).

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9

ZHANG, Zhijun, Wei LIU, Yajun ZHAO, Jingshu ZHANG, and Binxing WU. "Cortical Remapping Features of Numerosity Adaptation Aftereffects." Acta Psychologica Sinica 46, no. 1 (2014): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1041.2014.00005.

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10

Turi, Marco, David C. Burr, Roberta Igliozzi, David Aagten-Murphy, Filippo Muratori, and Elizabeth Pellicano. "Children with autism spectrum disorder show reduced adaptation to number." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 25 (June 8, 2015): 7868–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1504099112.

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Autism is known to be associated with major perceptual atypicalities. We have recently proposed a general model to account for these atypicalities in Bayesian terms, suggesting that autistic individuals underuse predictive information or priors. We tested this idea by measuring adaptation to numerosity stimuli in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). After exposure to large numbers of items, stimuli with fewer items appear to be less numerous (and vice versa). We found that children with ASD adapted much less to numerosity than typically developing children, although their precision for numerosity discrimination was similar to that of the typical group. This result reinforces recent findings showing reduced adaptation to facial identity in ASD and goes on to show that reduced adaptation is not unique to faces (social stimuli with special significance in autism), but occurs more generally, for both parietal and temporal functions, probably reflecting inefficiencies in the adaptive interpretation of sensory signals. These results provide strong support for the Bayesian theories of autism.

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11

Grasso, Paolo A., Giovanni Anobile, and Roberto Arrighi. "Numerosity adaptation partly depends on the allocation of implicit numerosity-contingent visuo-spatial attention." Journal of Vision 21, no. 1 (January 25, 2021): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.21.1.12.

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12

Mayo, J. Patrick. "Inactivation and adaptation of number neurons." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32, no. 3-4 (August 2009): 342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x09990070.

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AbstractSingle-neuron recordings may help resolve the issue of abstract number representation in the parietal lobes. Two manipulations in particular – reversible inactivation and adaptation of apparent numerosity – could provide important insights into the causal influence of “numeron” activity. Taken together, these tests can significantly advance our understanding of number processing in the brain.

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13

Grasso, Paolo A., Giovanni Anobile, Camilla Caponi, and Roberto Arrighi. "Implicit visuospatial attention shapes numerosity adaptation and perception." Journal of Vision 21, no. 8 (August 27, 2021): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.21.8.26.

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14

Burr, David, Giovanni Anobile, Irene Togoli, Nicola Domenici, and Roberto Arrighi. "Motor adaptation affects perception of time and numerosity." Journal of Vision 19, no. 10 (September 6, 2019): 164b. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/19.10.164b.

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15

Tsouli, Andromachi, Serge O. Dumoulin, Susan F. te Pas, and Maarten J. van der Smagt. "Adaptation reveals unbalanced interaction between numerosity and time." Cortex 114 (May 2019): 5–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.02.013.

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16

He, Lixia, Ke Zhou, Tiangang Zhou, Sheng He, and Lin Chen. "Topology-defined units in numerosity perception." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 41 (September 28, 2015): E5647—E5655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512408112.

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What is a number? The number sense hypothesis suggests that numerosity is “a primary visual property” like color, contrast, or orientation. However, exactly what attribute of a stimulus is the primary visual property and determines numbers in the number sense? To verify the invariant nature of numerosity perception, we manipulated the numbers of items connected/enclosed in arbitrary and irregular forms while controlling for low-level features (e.g., orientation, color, and size). Subjects performed discrimination, estimation, and equality judgment tasks in a wide range of presentation durations and across small and large numbers. Results consistently show that connecting/enclosing items led to robust numerosity underestimation, with the extent of underestimation increasing monotonically with the number of connected/enclosed items. In contrast, grouping based on color similarity had no effect on numerosity judgment. We propose that numbers or the primitive units counted in numerosity perception are influenced by topological invariants, such as connectivity and the inside/outside relationship. Beyond the behavioral measures, neural tuning curves to numerosity in the intraparietal sulcus were obtained using functional MRI adaptation, and the tuning curves showed that numbers represented in the intraparietal sulcus were strongly influenced by topology.

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17

Aulet, Lauren, and Stella Lourenco. "Visual adaptation reveals non-opponent multichannel coding for numerosity." Journal of Vision 20, no. 11 (October 20, 2020): 307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.20.11.307.

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18

Arrighi, Roberto, Paula Maldonado, Guido Marco Cicchini, and David Burr. "Adaptation to hand-tapping affects directly sensory processing of numerosity." Journal of Vision 20, no. 11 (October 20, 2020): 1036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.20.11.1036.

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19

Castaldi, E., D. Aagten-Murphy, M. Tosetti, D. Burr, and M. C. Morrone. "Effects of adaptation on numerosity decoding in the human brain." NeuroImage 143 (December 2016): 364–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.020.

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20

Anobile, Giovanni, Guido Marco Cicchini, Filippo Gasperini, and David C. Burr. "Typical numerosity adaptation despite selectively impaired number acuity in dyscalculia." Neuropsychologia 120 (November 2018): 43–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.10.006.

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21

Fornaciai, M., G. M. Cicchini, and D. C. Burr. "Adaptation to number operates on perceived rather than physical numerosity." Cognition 151 (June 2016): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.03.006.

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22

Durgin, Frank H. "Texture density adaptation and the perceived numerosity and distribution of texture." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 21, no. 1 (1995): 149–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.149.

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23

Burr, David C., Giovanni Anobile, and Roberto Arrighi. "Psychophysical evidence for the number sense." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1740 (January 2018): 20170045. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0045.

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It is now clear that most animals, including humans, possess an ability to rapidly estimate number. Some have questioned whether this ability arises from dedicated numerosity mechanisms, or is derived indirectly from judgements of density or other attributes. We describe a series of psychophysical experiments, largely using adaptation techniques, which demonstrate clearly the existence of a number sense in humans. The number sense is truly general, extending over space, time and sensory modality, and is closely linked with action. We further show that when multiple cues are present, numerosity emerges as the natural dimension for discrimination. However, when element density increases past a certain level, the elements become too crowded to parse, and the scene is perceived as a texture rather than array of elements. The two different regimes are psychophysically discriminable in that they follow distinct psychophysical laws, and show different dependencies on eccentricity, luminance levels and effects of perceptual grouping. The distinction is important, as the ability to discriminate numerosity, but not texture, correlates with formal maths skills. This article is part of the discussion meeting issue ‘The origins of numerical abilities’.

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24

Luwel, Koen, Lieven Verschaffel, Patrick Onghena, and Erik De Corte. "Flexibility in strategy use: Adaptation of numerosity judgement strategies to task characteristics." European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 15, no. 2 (January 2003): 247–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09541440244000139.

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25

Fornaciai, Michele, and Joonkoo Park. "Attractive Serial Dependence in the Absence of an Explicit Task." Psychological Science 29, no. 3 (January 30, 2018): 437–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797617737385.

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Attractive serial dependence refers to an adaptive change in the representation of sensory information, whereby a current stimulus appears to be similar to a previous one. The nature of this phenomenon is controversial, however, as serial dependence could arise from biased perceptual representations or from biased traces of working memory representation at a decisional stage. Here, we demonstrated a neural signature of serial dependence in numerosity perception emerging early in the visual processing stream even in the absence of an explicit task. Furthermore, a psychophysical experiment revealed that numerosity perception is biased by a previously presented stimulus in an attractive way, not by repulsive adaptation. These results suggest that serial dependence is a perceptual phenomenon starting from early levels of visual processing and occurring independently from a decision process, which is consistent with the view that these biases smooth out noise from neural signals to establish perceptual continuity.

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26

Luwel, Koen, Lieven Verschaffel, Patrick Onghena, and Erik De Corte. "Strategic Aspects of Numerosity Judgment: The Effect of Task Characteristics." Experimental Psychology 50, no. 1 (January 2003): 63–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027//1618-3169.50.1.63.

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In previous investigations we documented that people use several strategies to determine different numerosities of blocks that are presented in a square grid. One of these strategies is the clever subtraction strategy, wherein the number of empty squares in the grid is subtracted from the total number of squares in the grid. In the present study we investigated participants’ flexibility in strategy use when varying the shape of the grid. Analysis of the results in terms of the theoretical framework of Lemaire and Siegler (1995 ) regarding strategic change shows that this contextual variable affected the frequency, execution time, and accuracy of subjects’ use of the subtraction strategy. The usefulness of this framework for analyzing the nature of the adaptation to contextual variations is discussed. From a methodological point of view, this study documents the potential of Beem’s (1993 , 1999) segmented linear regression models for assessing subjects’ strategy use in cognitive tasks.

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27

Aagten-Murphy, David, and David Burr. "Adaptation to numerosity requires only brief exposures, and is determined by number of events, not exposure duration." Journal of Vision 16, no. 10 (August 31, 2016): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/16.10.22.

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28

Nieder, Andreas. "Evolution of cognitive and neural solutions enabling numerosity judgements: lessons from primates and corvids." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1740 (January 2018): 20160514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0514.

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Brains that are capable of representing numerosity, the number of items in a set, have arisen repeatedly and independently in different animal taxa. This review compares the cognitive and physiological mechanisms found in a nonhuman primate, the rhesus macaque, and a corvid songbird, the carrion crow, in order to elucidate the evolutionary adaptations underlying numerical competence. Monkeys and corvids are known for their advanced cognitive competence, despite them both having independently and distinctly evolved endbrains that resulted from a long history of parallel evolution. In both species, numerosity is represented as an analogue magnitude by an approximate number system that obeys the Weber–Fechner Law. In addition, the activity of numerosity-selective neurons in the fronto-parietal association cortex of monkeys and the telencephalic associative area nidopallium caudolaterale of crows mirrors the animals' performance. In both species' brains, neuronal activity is tuned to a preferred numerosity, encodes the numerical value in an approximate fashion, and is best represented on a logarithmic scale. Collectively, the data show an impressive correspondence of the cognitive and neuronal mechanisms for numerosity representations across monkeys and crows. This suggests that remotely related vertebrates with distinctly developed endbrains adopted similar physiological solutions to common computational problems in numerosity processing. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘The origins of numerical abilities'.

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29

Togoli, Irene, and Roberto Arrighi. "Evidence for an A-Modal Number Sense: Numerosity Adaptation Generalizes Across Visual, Auditory, and Tactile Stimuli." Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 15 (August 11, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.713565.

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Humans and other species share a perceptual mechanism dedicated to the representation of approximate quantities that allows to rapidly and reliably estimate the numerosity of a set of objects: an Approximate Number System (ANS). Numerosity perception shows a characteristic shared by all primary visual features: it is susceptible to adaptation. As a consequence of prolonged exposure to a large/small quantity (“adaptor”), the apparent numerosity of a subsequent (“test”) stimulus is distorted yielding a robust under- or over-estimation, respectively. Even if numerosity adaptation has been reported across several sensory modalities (vision, audition, and touch), suggesting the idea of a central and a-modal numerosity processing system, evidence for cross-modal effects are limited to vision and audition, two modalities that are known to preferentially encode sensory stimuli in an external coordinate system. Here we test whether numerosity adaptation for visual and auditory stimuli also distorts the perceived numerosity of tactile stimuli (and vice-versa) despite touch being a modality primarily coded in an internal (body-centered) reference frame. We measured numerosity discrimination of stimuli presented sequentially after adaptation to series of either few (around 2 Hz; low adaptation) or numerous (around 8 Hz; high adaptation) impulses for all possible combinations of visual, auditory, or tactile adapting and test stimuli. In all cases, adapting to few impulses yielded a significant overestimation of the test numerosity with the opposite occurring as a consequence of adaptation to numerous stimuli. The overall magnitude of adaptation was robust (around 30%) and rather similar for all sensory modality combinations. Overall, these findings support the idea of a truly generalized and a-modal mechanism for numerosity representation aimed to process numerical information independently from the sensory modality of the incoming signals.

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30

Zimmermann, Eckart, and Gereon R. Fink. "Numerosity perception after size adaptation." Scientific Reports 6, no. 1 (September 21, 2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep32810.

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31

Grasso, Paolo A., Irene Petrizzo, Camilla Caponi, Giovanni Anobile, and Roberto Arrighi. "Visual P2p component responds to perceived numerosity." Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 16 (November 1, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.1014703.

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Numerosity perception is a key ability for human and non-human species, probably mediated by dedicated brain mechanisms. Electrophysiological studies revealed the existence of both early and mid-latency components of the Electrophysiological (EEG) signal sensitive to numerosity changes. However, it is still unknown whether these components respond to physical or perceived variation in numerical attributes. We here tackled this point by recording electrophysiological signal while participants performed a numerosity adaptation task, a robust psychophysical method yielding changes in perceived numerosity judgments despite physical numerosity invariance. Behavioral measures confirmed that the test stimulus was consistently underestimated when presented after a high numerous adaptor while perceived as veridical when presented after a neutral adaptor. Congruently, EEG results revealed a potential at around 200 ms (P2p) which was reduced when the test stimulus was presented after the high numerous adaptor. This result was much prominent over the left posterior cluster of electrodes and correlated significantly with the amount of adaptation. No earlier modulations were retrievable when changes in numerosity were illusory while both early and mid-latency modulations occurred for physical changes. Taken together, our results reveal that mid-latency P2p mainly reflects perceived changes in numerical attributes, while earlier components are likely to be bounded to the physical characteristics of the stimuli. These results suggest that short-term plastic mechanisms induced by numerosity adaptation may involve a relatively late processing stage of the visual hierarchy likely engaging cortical areas beyond the primary visual cortex. Furthermore, these results also indicate mid-latency electrophysiological correlates as a signature of the internal representation of numerical information.

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32

Schwiedrzik, Caspar M., Benjamin Bernstein, and Lucia Melloni. "Motion along the mental number line reveals shared representations for numerosity and space." eLife 5 (January 15, 2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/elife.10806.

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Perception of number and space are tightly intertwined. It has been proposed that this is due to ‘cortical recycling’, where numerosity processing takes over circuits originally processing space. Do such ‘recycled’ circuits retain their original functionality? Here, we investigate interactions between numerosity and motion direction, two functions that both localize to parietal cortex. We describe a new phenomenon in which visual motion direction adapts nonsymbolic numerosity perception, giving rise to a repulsive aftereffect: motion to the left adapts small numbers, leading to overestimation of numerosity, while motion to the right adapts large numbers, resulting in underestimation. The reference frame of this effect is spatiotopic. Together with the tuning properties of the effect this suggests that motion direction-numerosity cross-adaptation may occur in a homolog of area LIP. ‘Cortical recycling’ thus expands but does not obliterate the functions originally performed by the recycled circuit, allowing for shared computations across domains.

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33

Corbett, Jennifer E., Berfin Aydın, and Jaap Munneke. "Adaptation to average duration." Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, October 8, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13414-020-02134-8.

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Abstract There has been a recent surge of research examining how the visual system compresses information by representing the average properties of sets of similar objects to circumvent strict capacity limitations. Efficient representation by perceptual averaging helps to maintain the balance between the needs to perceive salient events in the surrounding environment and sustain the illusion of stable and complete perception. Whereas there have been many demonstrations that the visual system encodes spatial average properties, such as average orientation, average size, and average numerosity along single dimensions, there has been no investigation of whether the fundamental nature of average representations extends to the temporal domain. Here, we used an adaptation paradigm to demonstrate that the average duration of a set of sequentially presented stimuli negatively biases the perceived duration of subsequently presented information. This negative adaptation aftereffect is indicative of a fundamental visual property, providing the first evidence that average duration is encoded along a single visual dimension. Our results not only have important implications for how the visual system efficiently encodes redundant information to evaluate salient events as they unfold within the dynamic context of the surrounding environment, but also contribute to the long-standing debate regarding the neural underpinnings of temporal encoding.

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34

Anobile, Giovanni, David C. Burr, Marika Iaia, Chiara V. Marinelli, Paola Angelelli, and Marco Turi. "Independent adaptation mechanisms for numerosity and size perception provide evidence against a common sense of magnitude." Scientific Reports 8, no. 1 (September 11, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31893-6.

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35

Anobile, Giovanni, Roberto Arrighi, Irene Togoli, and David Charles Burr. "A shared numerical representation for action and perception." eLife 5 (August 9, 2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/elife.16161.

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Humans and other species have perceptual mechanisms dedicated to estimating approximate quantity: a sense of number. Here we show a clear interaction between self-produced actions and the perceived numerosity of subsequent visual stimuli. A short period of rapid finger-tapping (without sensory feedback) caused subjects to underestimate the number of visual stimuli presented near the tapping region; and a period of slow tapping caused overestimation. The distortions occurred both for stimuli presented sequentially (series of flashes) and simultaneously (clouds of dots); both for magnitude estimation and forced-choice comparison. The adaptation was spatially selective, primarily in external, real-world coordinates. Our results sit well with studies reporting links between perception and action, showing that vision and action share mechanisms that encode numbers: a generalized number sense, which estimates the number of self-generated as well as external events.

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36

Heng, Joseph A., Michael Woodford, and Rafael Polania. "Efficient sampling and noisy decisions." eLife 9 (September 15, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/elife.54962.

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Human decisions are based on finite information, which makes them inherently imprecise. But what determines the degree of such imprecision? Here, we develop an efficient coding framework for higher-level cognitive processes in which information is represented by a finite number of discrete samples. We characterize the sampling process that maximizes perceptual accuracy or fitness under the often-adopted assumption that full adaptation to an environmental distribution is possible, and show how the optimal process differs when detailed information about the current contextual distribution is costly. We tested this theory on a numerosity discrimination task, and found that humans efficiently adapt to contextual distributions, but in the way predicted by the model in which people must economize on environmental information. Thus, understanding decision behavior requires that we account for biological restrictions on information coding, challenging the often-adopted assumption of precise prior knowledge in higher-level decision systems.

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37

Kaufmann, Lena V., Undine Schneeweiß, Eduard Maier, Thomas Hildebrandt, and Michael Brecht. "Elephant facial motor control." Science Advances 8, no. 43 (October 28, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq2789.

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We studied facial motor control in elephants, animals with muscular dexterous trunks. Facial nucleus neurons (~54,000 in Asian elephants, ~63,000 in African elephants) outnumbered those of other land-living mammals. The large-eared African elephants had more medial facial subnucleus neurons than Asian elephants, reflecting a numerically more extensive ear-motor control. Elephant dorsal and lateral facial subnuclei were unusual in elongation, neuron numerosity, and a proximal-to-distal neuron size increase. We suggest that this subnucleus organization is related to trunk representation, with the huge distal neurons innervating the trunk tip with long axons. African elephants pinch objects with two trunk tip fingers, whereas Asian elephants grasp/wrap objects with larger parts of their trunk. Finger “motor foveae” and a positional bias of neurons toward the trunk tip representation in African elephant facial nuclei reflect their motor strategy. Thus, elephant brains reveal neural adaptations to facial morphology, body size, and dexterity.

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