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Journal articles on the topic 'Negative electron affinity (NEA)'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 6 September 2023

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1

Malta, D. P., J. B. Posthill, T. P. Humphreys, and R. J. Markunas. "Interpretation of secondary electron contrast from negative electron affinity diamond surfaces." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 53 (August 13, 1995): 120–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100136970.

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Diamond is a wide band-gap semiconductor with many unique physical properties that make it an attractive technological material. One such property is the negative electron affinity (NEA) behavior of the surface when properly terminated with hydrogen or a thin metal layer. The NEA diamond surface exhibits an unusually large secondary electron (SE) yield which is desirable for applications in cold cathode electron emitters of flat panel displays. Examination of NEA diamond surfaces by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has indicated that a unique mechanism appears to be responsible for the SE contrast in which sub-surface microstructural information is contained. This paper provides a brief interpretation of the origin of SE contrast from the NEA diamond surface.The electron affinity of a semiconductor surface, χ, is defined by the position of the vacuum energy level, E0, relative to the conduction band minimum, Ec (Fig. la). If χ>0, excited conduction band electrons must migrate to the surface and arrive with sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the surface energy barrier in order to escape into vacuum.
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2

XIE, AI-GEN, YANG YU, YA-YI CHEN, YU-QING XIA, and HAO-YU LIU. "THEORETICAL RESEARCH OF SECONDARY ELECTRON EMISSION FROM NEGATIVE ELECTRON AFFINITY SEMICONDUCTORS." Surface Review and Letters 26, no. 04 (May 2019): 1850181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218625x18501810.

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Based on primary range [Formula: see text], relationships among parameters of secondary electron yield [Formula: see text] and the processes and characteristics of secondary electron emission (SEE) from negative electron affinity (NEA) semiconductors, the universal formulas for [Formula: see text] at [Formula: see text] and at [Formula: see text] for NEA semiconductors were deduced, respectively; where [Formula: see text] is incident energy of primary electron. According to the characteristics of SEE from NEA semiconductors with [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], deduced universal formulas for [Formula: see text] at [Formula: see text] and at [Formula: see text] for NEA semiconductors and experimental data, special formulas for [Formula: see text] at 0.5[Formula: see text] of several NEA semiconductors with [Formula: see text] were deduced and proved to be true experimentally, respectively; where [Formula: see text] is the [Formula: see text] at which [Formula: see text] reaches maximum secondary electron yield. It can be concluded that the formula for [Formula: see text] of NEA semiconductors with [Formula: see text] was deduced and could be used to calculate [Formula: see text], and that the method of calculating the 1/[Formula: see text] of NEA semiconductors with [Formula: see text] is plausible; where [Formula: see text] is the probability that an internal secondary electron escapes into vacuum upon reaching the surface of emitter, and 1/[Formula: see text] is mean escape depth of secondary electron.
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3

Kashima, M., S. Ishiyama, D. Sato, A. Koizumi, H. Iijima, T. Nishitani, Y. Honda, H. Amano, and T. Meguro. "Adsorption structure deteriorating negative electron affinity under the H2O environment." Applied Physics Letters 121, no. 18 (October 31, 2022): 181601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0125344.

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Photocathodes with negative electron affinity (NEA) characteristics have various advantages, such as small energy spread, high spin polarization, and ultrashort pulsing. Nitride semiconductors, such as GaN and InGaN, are promising materials for NEA photocathodes because their lifetimes are longer than those of other materials. In order to further prolong the lifetime, it is important to better understand the deterioration of NEA characteristics. The adsorption of residual gases and back-bombardment by ionized residual gases shorten the lifetime. Among the adsorbed residual gases, H2O has a significant influence. However, the adsorption structures produced by the reaction with H2O are not comprehensively studied so far. In this study, we investigated adsorption structures that deteriorated the NEA characteristics by exposing InGaN and GaAs to an H2O environment and discussed the differences in their lifetimes. By comparing the temperature-programmed desorption curves with and without H2O exposure, the generation of CsOH was confirmed. The desorption of CsOH demonstrated different photoemission behaviors between InGaN and GaAs results. InGaN recovered its NEA characteristics, whereas GaAs did not. Considering the Cs desorption spectra, it is difficult for an NEA surface on InGaN to change chemically, whereas that for GaAs changes easily. The chemical reactivity of the NEA surface is different for InGaN and GaAs, which contributes to the duration of photoemission. We have attempted to prolong the lifetime of InGaN by recovering its NEA characteristics. We found that InGaN with NEA characteristics can be reused easily without thermal treatment at high temperatures.
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4

Yasuda, Hidehiro, Tomohiro Nishitani, Shuhei Ichikawa, Shuhei Hatanaka, Yoshio Honda, and Hiroshi Amano. "Development of Pulsed TEM Equipped with Nitride Semiconductor Photocathode for High-Speed Observation and Material Nanofabrication." Quantum Beam Science 5, no. 1 (February 1, 2021): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/qubs5010005.

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The development of pulsed electron sources is applied to electron microscopes or electron beam lithography and is effective in expanding the functions of such devices. The laser photocathode can generate short pulsed electrons with high emittance, and the emittance can be increased by changing the cathode substrate from a metal to compound semiconductor. Among the substrates, nitride-based semiconductors with a negative electron affinity (NEA) have good advantages in terms of vacuum environment and cathode lifetime. In the present study, we report the development of a photocathode electron gun that utilizes photoelectron emission from a NEA-InGaN substrate by pulsed laser excitation, and the purpose is to apply it to material nanofabrication and high-speed observation using a pulsed transmission electron microscope (TEM) equipped with it.
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5

Feigl, C. A., B. Motevalli, A. J. Parker, B. Sun, and A. S. Barnard. "Classifying and predicting the electron affinity of diamond nanoparticles using machine learning." Nanoscale Horizons 4, no. 4 (2019): 983–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9nh00060g.

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Using a combination of electronic structure simulations and machine learning we have shown that the characteristic negative electron affinity (NEA) of hydrogenated diamond nanoparticles exhibits a class-dependent structure/property relationship.
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6

Koizumi, Atsushi, Daiki Sato, Haruka Shikano, Hokuto Iijima, and Tomohiro Nishitani. "Dependence of electron emission current density on excitation power density from Cs/O-activated negative electron affinity InGaN photocathode." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B 40, no. 6 (December 2022): 062202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/6.0002124.

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The dependence of the electron emission current density on the excitation power density of a Cs/O-activated negative electron affinity (NEA) InGaN photocathode was investigated. The emission current density of the NEA-InGaN photocathode increased monotonically with the excitation power density in the measured range. The emission current density reached 5.6 × 103 A/cm2 at an excitation power density of 2.6 × 106 W/cm2. Using the electron thermal energy estimated by comparing simulation and experimental results [D. Sato, H. Shikano, A. Koizumi, T. Nishitani, Y. Honda, and H. Amano, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 39, 062209 (2021)], the reduced brightness of 4 × 108 A/m2 sr V was derived.
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7

INAGAKI, Yuta, Kazuya HAYASE, Ryosuke CHIBA, Hokuto IIJIMA, and Takashi MEGURO. "Contribution of Treatment Temperature on Quantum Efficiency of Negative Electron Affinity (NEA)-GaAs." IEICE Transactions on Electronics E99.C, no. 3 (2016): 371–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1587/transele.e99.c.371.

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8

Cai, Zhi Peng, Wen Zheng Yang, Wei Dong Tang, and Xun Hou. "Theoretical Energy Distributions of Electrons from a Large Exponential-Doping GaAs Photocathode." Advanced Materials Research 415-417 (December 2011): 1302–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.415-417.1302.

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Theoretical calculation indicates that the large exponential-doping GaAs photocathodes have a much narrower electron energy distribution than traditional GaAs NEA cathodes, and the excellent performance attributes to the special structure characters of the band-bending region and lower negative electron affinity of the new-type GaAs photocathodes. The effects of surface doping concentration and work function on the energy distribution are discussed in details, and the FWHM of the energy distribution is less than 100meV. The simulation results indicate that the large exponential-doping mode further improves the features of the electron energy spreads for GaAs photocathodes, which may meet the further demand of next generation of electron guns.
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9

Yater, J. E. "Secondary electron emission and vacuum electronics." Journal of Applied Physics 133, no. 5 (February 7, 2023): 050901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0130972.

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Secondary electron emission serves as the foundation for a broad range of vacuum electronic devices and instrumentation, from particle detectors and multipliers to high-power amplifiers. While secondary yields of at least 3–4 are required in practical applications, the emitter stability can be compromised by surface dynamics during operation. As a result, the range of practical emitter materials is limited. The development of new emitter materials with high yield and robust operation would advance the state-of-the-art and enable new device concepts and applications. In this Perspective article, I first present an analysis of the secondary emission process, with an emphasis on the influence of material properties. From this analysis, ultra-wide bandgap (UWBG) semiconductors and oxides emerge as superior emitter candidates owing to exceptional surface and transport properties that enable a very high yield of low-energy electrons with narrow energy spread. Importantly, exciting advances are being made in the development of promising UWBG semiconductors such as diamond, cubic boron nitride (c-BN), and aluminum nitride (AlN), as well as UWBG oxides with improved conductivity and crystallinity. These advances are enabled by epitaxial growth techniques that provide control over the electronic properties critical to secondary electron emission, while advanced theoretical tools provide guidance to optimize these properties. Presently, H-terminated diamond offers the greatest opportunity because of its thermally stable negative electron affinity (NEA). In fact, an electron amplifier under development exploits the high yield from this NEA surface, while more robust NEA diamond surfaces are demonstrated with potential for high yields in a range of device applications. Although c-BN and AlN are less mature, they provide opportunities to design novel heterostructures that can enhance the yield further.
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10

Bae, Jai Kwan, Matthew Andorf, Adam Bartnik, Alice Galdi, Luca Cultrera, Jared Maxson, and Ivan Bazarov. "Operation of Cs–Sb–O activated GaAs in a high voltage DC electron gun at high average current." AIP Advances 12, no. 9 (September 1, 2022): 095017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0100794.

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Negative Electron Affinity (NEA) activated GaAs photocathodes are the most popular option for generating a high current ([Formula: see text]1 mA) spin-polarized electron beam. Despite its popularity, a short operational lifetime is the main drawback of this material. Recent works have shown that the lifetime can be improved by using a robust Cs–Sb–O NEA layer with minimal adverse effects. In this work, we operate GaAs photocathodes with this new activation method in a high voltage environment to extract a high current. We demonstrate that improved chemical resistance of Cs–Sb–O activated GaAs photocathodes allowed them to survive a day-long transport process from a separate vacuum system using a vacuum suitcase. During beam running, we observed spectral dependence on lifetime improvement. In particular, we saw a 45% increase in the lifetime at 780 nm on average for Cs–Sb–O activated GaAs compared to Cs–O activated GaAs.
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11

Guo, Jing, Ming Zhu Yang, and Mei Shan Wang. "Theoretical Study on Absorption Properties of InxGa1-xAs with Different in Component." Applied Mechanics and Materials 423-426 (September 2013): 439–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.423-426.439.

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The band gaps and the absorption properties of InxGa1-xAs used as the infrared-extension negative electron affinity (NEA) photocathode are discussed based on first principle. The analysis about the band gaps of the InxGa1-xAs with different In component proves that the models and the computational accuracy are reliable. It is found that the absorption peak P1 moves to the high energy region and the absorption coefficient becomes smaller with the increase of the In component x when the photon energy is less than 4 eV. Absorption peak P3 moves to the high energy region and the absorption coefficient becomes bigger with the increase of the In component x when the photon energy is more than 6 eV. The analysis about the absorption property offers a theoretical foundation for the design of the NEA InxGa1-xAs photocathode according to the photoelectric emission mechanism.
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12

Tereshchenko, Oleg E., Vladimir A. Golyashov, Vadim S. Rusetsky, Andrey V. Mironov, Alexander Yu Demin, and Vladimir V. Aksenov. "A new imaging concept in spin polarimetry based on the spin-filter effect." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 28, no. 3 (March 30, 2021): 864–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577521002307.

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The concept of an imaging-type 3D spin detector, based on the combination of spin-exchange interactions in the ferromagnetic (FM) film and spin selectivity of the electron–photon conversion effect in a semiconductor heterostructure, is proposed and demonstrated on a model system. This novel multichannel concept is based on the idea of direct transfer of a 2D spin-polarized electron distribution to image cathodoluminescence (CL). The detector is a hybrid structure consisting of a thin magnetic layer deposited on a semiconductor structure allowing measurement of the spatial and polarization-dependent CL intensity from injected spin-polarized free electrons. The idea is to use spin-dependent electron transmission through in-plane magnetized FM film for in-plane spin detection by measuring the CL intensity from recombined electrons transmitted in the semiconductor. For the incoming electrons with out-of-plane spin polarization, the intensity of circularly polarized CL light can be detected from recombined polarized electrons with holes in the semiconductor. In order to demonstrate the ability of the solid-state spin detector in the image-type mode operation, a spin detector prototype was developed, which consists of a compact proximity focused vacuum tube with a spin-polarized electron source [p-GaAs(Cs,O)], a negative electron affinity (NEA) photocathode and the target [semiconductor heterostructure with quantum wells also with NEA]. The injection of polarized low-energy electrons into the target by varying the kinetic energy in the range 0.5–3.0 eV and up to 1.3 keV was studied in image-type mode. The figure of merit as a function of electron kinetic energy and the target temperature is determined. The spin asymmetry of the CL intensity in a ferromagnetic/semiconductor (FM-SC) junction provides a compact optical method for measuring spin polarization of free-electron beams in image-type mode. The FM-SC detector has the potential for realizing multichannel 3D vectorial reconstruction of spin polarization in momentum microscope and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy systems.
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13

Tereshchenko, Oleg E., Vladimir A. Golyashov, Vadim S. Rusetsky, Danil A. Kustov, Andrey V. Mironov, and Alexander Yu Demin. "Vacuum Spin LED: First Step towards Vacuum Semiconductor Spintronics." Nanomaterials 13, no. 3 (January 19, 2023): 422. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13030422.

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Improving the efficiency of spin generation, injection, and detection remains a key challenge for semiconductor spintronics. Electrical injection and optical orientation are two methods of creating spin polarization in semiconductors, which traditionally require specially tailored p-n junctions, tunnel or Schottky barriers. Alternatively, we introduce here a novel concept for spin-polarized electron emission/injection combining the optocoupler principle based on vacuum spin-polarized light-emitting diode (spin VLED) making it possible to measure the free electron beam polarization injected into the III-V heterostructure with quantum wells (QWs) based on the detection of polarized cathodoluminescence (CL). To study the spin-dependent emission/injection, we developed spin VLEDs, which consist of a compact proximity-focused vacuum tube with a spin-polarized electron source (p-GaAs(Cs,O) or Na2KSb) and the spin detector (III-V heterostructure), both activated to a negative electron affinity (NEA) state. The coupling between the photon helicity and the spin angular momentum of the electrons in the photoemission and injection/detection processes is realized without using either magnetic material or a magnetic field. Spin-current detection efficiency in spin VLED is found to be 27% at room temperature. The created vacuum spin LED paves the way for optical generation and spin manipulation in the developing vacuum semiconductor spintronics.
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14

Xia, Sihao, Lei Liu, Honggang Wang, Meishan Wang, and Yike Kong. "Theoretical study for heterojunction surface of NEA GaN photocathode dispensed with Cs activation." Modern Physics Letters B 30, no. 26 (September 30, 2016): 1650339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217984916503395.

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For the disadvantages of conventional negative electron affinity (NEA) GaN photocathodes activated by Cs or Cs/O, new-type NEA GaN photocathodes with heterojunction surface dispensed with Cs activation are investigated based on first-principle study with density functional theory. Through the growth of an ultrathin [Formula: see text]-type GaN cap layer on [Formula: see text]-type GaN emission layer, a [Formula: see text]–[Formula: see text] heterojunction is formed on the surface. According to the calculation results, it is found that Si atoms tend to replace Ga atoms to result in an [Formula: see text]-type doped cap layer which contributes to the decreasing of work function. After the growth of [Formula: see text]-type GaN cap layer, the atom structure near the [Formula: see text]-type emission layer is changed while that away from the surface has no obvious variations. By analyzing the E-Mulliken charge distribution of emission surface with and without cap layer, it is found that the positive charge of Ga and Mg atoms in the emission layer decrease caused by the cap layer, while the negative charge of N atom increases. The conduction band moves downwards after the growth of cap layer. Si atom produces donor levels around the valence band maximum. The absorption coefficient of GaN emission layer decreases and the reflectivity increases caused by [Formula: see text]-type GaN cap layer.
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15

Wang, Huan, Jiajun Linghu, Pengfei Zou, Xuezhi Wang, Hao Shen, and Bingru Hai. "Theoretical Study on the Photoemission Performance of a Transmission Mode In0.15Ga0.85As Photocathode in the Near-Infrared Region." Molecules 28, no. 13 (July 7, 2023): 5262. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135262.

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Benefiting from a high quantum efficiency, low thermal emittance, and large absorption coefficient, InxGa1−xAs is an excellent group III–V compound for negative electron affinity (NEA) photocathodes. As the emission layer, InxGa1−xAs, where x = 0.15, has the optimal performance for detection in the near-infrared (NIR) region. Herein, an NEA In0.15Ga0.85As photocathode with Al0.63Ga0.37As as the buffer layer is designed in the form of a transmission mode module. The electronic band structures and optical properties of In0.15Ga0.85As and Al0.63Ga0.37As are calculated based on density functional theory. The time response characteristics of the In0.15Ga0.85As photocathode have been fully investigated by changing the photoelectron diffusion coefficient, the interface recombination velocity, and the thickness of the emission layer. Our results demonstrate that the response time of the In0.15Ga0.85As photocathode can be reduced to 6.1 ps with an incident wavelength of 1064 nm. The quantum efficiency of the In0.15Ga0.85As photocathode is simulated by taking into account multilayer optical thin film theory. The results indicate that a high quantum efficiency can be obtained by parameter optimization of the emission layer. This paper provides significant theoretical support for the applications of semiconductor photocathodes in the near-infrared region, especially for the study of ultrafast responses in the photoemission process.
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16

Schaber, Jana, Rong Xiang, Jochen Teichert, André Arnold, Petr Murcek, Paul Zwartek, Anton Ryzhov, et al. "Influence of Surface Cleaning on Quantum Efficiency, Lifetime and Surface Morphology of p-GaN:Cs Photocathodes." Micromachines 13, no. 6 (May 29, 2022): 849. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13060849.

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Accelerator scientists have high demands on photocathodes possessing high quantum efficiency (QE) and long operational lifetime. p-GaN, as a new photocathode type, has recently gained more and more interest because of its ability to form a negative electron affinity (NEA) surface. Being activated with a thin layer of cesium, p-GaN:Cs photocathodes promise higher QE and better stability than the known photocathodes. In our study, p-GaN samples grown on sapphire or silicon were wet chemically cleaned and transferred into an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) chamber, where they underwent a subsequent thermal cleaning. The cleaned p-GaN samples were activated with cesium to obtain p-GaN:Cs photocathodes, and their performance was monitored with respect to their quality, especially their QE and storage lifetime. The surface topography and morphology were examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. We have shown that p-GaN could be efficiently reactivated with cesium several times. This paper systematically compares the influence of wet chemical cleaning as well as thermal cleaning at various temperatures on the QE, storage lifetime and surface morphology of p-GaN. As expected, the cleaning strongly influences the cathodes’ quality. We show that high QE and long storage lifetime are achievable at lower cleaning temperatures in our UHV chamber.
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17

Sanford, Colin A. "Electron optical characteristics of negative electron affinity cathodes." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 6, no. 6 (November 1988): 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.584118.

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18

McKenna, Keith P., and Alexander L. Shluger. "Electron-trapping polycrystalline materials with negative electron affinity." Nature Materials 7, no. 11 (October 12, 2008): 859–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmat2289.

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19

Yamada, Takatoshi, Kap-soon Chang, Ken Okano, and Akio Hiraki. "Electron emission from diamond having negative electron affinity." Electronics and Communications in Japan (Part II: Electronics) 81, no. 11 (November 1998): 54–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6432(199811)81:11<54::aid-ecjb7>3.0.co;2-2.

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20

Yamada, Takatoshi, Kap-soon Chang, Ken Okano, and Akio Hiraki. "Electron emission from diamond having negative electron affinity." Electronics and Communications in Japan (Part II: Electronics) 82, no. 8 (August 1999): 42–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6432(199908)82:8<42::aid-ecjb6>3.0.co;2-k.

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21

Bakin, V. V., A. A. Pakhnevich, A. G. Zhuravlev, A. N. Shornikov, I. O. Akhundov, O. E. Tereshechenko, V. L. Alperovich, H. E. Scheibler, and A. S. Terekhov. "Semiconductor surfaces with negative electron affinity." e-Journal of Surface Science and Nanotechnology 5 (2007): 80–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1380/ejssnt.2007.80.

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22

Guo, Tailiang, and Huairong Gao. "Negative electron affinity multi-alkali photocathodes." Applied Surface Science 70-71 (June 1993): 355–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4332(93)90457-m.

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23

Vergara, G., A. Herrera-Gómez, and W. E. Spicer. "Calculated electron energy distribution of negative electron affinity cathodes." Surface Science 436, no. 1-3 (August 1999): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0039-6028(99)00612-3.

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24

Chang, Benkang. "Gradient-doping negative electron affinity GaAs photocathodes." Optical Engineering 45, no. 5 (May 1, 2006): 054001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.2205171.

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25

Zou, Jijun, Xiaowan Ge, Yijun Zhang, Wenjuan Deng, Zhifu Zhu, Weilu Wang, Xincun Peng, Zhaoping Chen, and Benkang Chang. "Negative electron affinity GaAs wire-array photocathodes." Optics Express 24, no. 5 (February 24, 2016): 4632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.24.004632.

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26

Krainsky, I. L., and V. M. Asnin. "Negative electron affinity mechanism for diamond surfaces." Applied Physics Letters 72, no. 20 (May 18, 1998): 2574–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.121422.

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27

Williams, M. D., M. D. Feuer, S. C. Shunk, N. J. Sauer, and T. Y. Chang. "Negative electron affinity based vacuum collector transistor." Journal of Applied Physics 71, no. 6 (March 15, 1992): 3042–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.350990.

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28

Loh, Kian Ping, Isao Sakaguchi, Mikka Nishitani-Gamo, Takashi Taniguchi, and Toshihiro Ando. "Negative electron affinity of cubic boron nitride." Diamond and Related Materials 8, no. 2-5 (March 1999): 781–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0925-9635(98)00293-3.

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29

Takeuchi, D., S. G. Ri, H. Kato, C. E. Nebel, and S. Yamasaki. "Negative electron affinity on hydrogen terminated diamond." physica status solidi (a) 202, no. 11 (September 2005): 2098–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pssa.200561927.

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30

Ghani, Muhammad Usman, M. Imran Jamil, Afaq Ahmad, and Saad Tariq. "Electron affinity measurement of hydrogen negative ion." Pakistan Journal of Emerging Science and Technologies (PJEST) 4, no. 2 (May 15, 2023): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.58619/pjest.v4i2.101.

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Photodetachment Microscopy experiment was first carried out in the presence of an electric field by Blondel et al in 1996 for Bromine negative ion. It measures the spatial distribution of ejected electrons on the detector screen which is a direct view of the spatial structure of the wave function of an atomic electron in the form of a ring pattern. From a semi-classical point of view, this ring pattern is formed because of the interference between two electron waves; one is direct while the other is reflected from an electric field. Following Blondel's photodetachment microscopy experiment, a formula that displays the Newton Rings is derived using a theoretical imaging technique or hydrogen negative ion near a plane interface. The interface means an elastic plane in the vicinity of the source of photoelectrons. The direct and reflected electron waves in this formula generate quantum interference in the form of Newton Rings. It is found that the number of rings increases as we increase the photon energy of the laser light. This finding is in accordance with the very well-known Einstein photoelectric effect which finally provides help to find the electron affinity of the hydrogen negative ion very accurately.
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31

Santos, Edval J. P. "Integration of microstructures onto negative electron affinity cathodes: Fabrication and operation of an addressable negative electron affinity cathode." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 11, no. 6 (November 1993): 2362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.586987.

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32

Schneider, J. E. "Patterned negative electron affinity photocathodes for maskless electron beam lithography." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 16, no. 6 (November 1998): 3192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.590349.

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33

Xie, Ai-Gen, Zheng Pan, Hong-Jie Dong, and Chen-Nan Song. "Secondary electron emission from insulators and negative electron affinity semiconductors." Results in Physics 20 (January 2021): 103745. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2020.103745.

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Gao, Huairong, and Qing-Bin Lu. "Investigation of electron emission stability of negative electron affinity cathodes." Vacuum 41, no. 7-9 (January 1990): 1753–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0042-207x(90)94076-3.

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Li, Jieru, Daniel Niesner, and Thomas Fauster. "Negative electron affinity of adamantane on Cu(111)." Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 33, no. 13 (January 25, 2021): 135001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-648x/abd99a.

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Qiao Jian-Liang, Tian Si, Chang Ben-Kang, Du Xiao-Qing, and Gao Pin. "Activation mechanism of negative electron affinity GaN photocathode." Acta Physica Sinica 58, no. 8 (2009): 5847. http://dx.doi.org/10.7498/aps.58.5847.

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Du Xiaoqing, 杜晓晴, 常本康 Chang Benkang, 钱芸生 Qian Yunsheng, 富容国 Fu Rongguo, 高频 Gao Pin, and 乔建良 Qiao Jianliang. "Activation Technique of GaN Negative Electron Affinity Photocathode." Chinese Journal of Lasers 37, no. 2 (2010): 385–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3788/cjl20103702.0385.

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Guo Xiangyang, 郭向阳, 王晓晖 Wang Xiaohui, 常本康 Chang Benkang, 张益军 Zhang Yijun, and 乔建良 Qiao Jianliang. "Preparation Technique of Negative-Electron-Affinity GaN Photocathode." Acta Optica Sinica 31, no. 2 (2011): 0219003. http://dx.doi.org/10.3788/aos201131.0219003.

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Sedlacek, J. A., E. Kim, S. T. Rittenhouse, P. F. Weck, H. R. Sadeghpour, and J. P. Shaffer. "Rb adsorbate-induced negative electron affinity on quartz." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 875 (July 2017): 112014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/875/12/112014.

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Gao, Xingyu, Lei Liu, Dongchen Qi, Shi Chen, A. T. S. Wee, Ti Ouyang, Kian Ping Loh, Xiaojiang Yu, and Herbert O. Moser. "Water-Induced Negative Electron Affinity on Diamond (100)." Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112, no. 7 (February 2008): 2487–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp0726337.

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Liu, Zhi, Yun Sun, P. Pianetta, and R. F. W. Pease. "Narrow cone emission from negative electron affinity photocathodes." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 23, no. 6 (2005): 2758. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2101726.

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Sanford, Colin A. "Electron emission properties of laser pulsed GaAs negative electron affinity photocathodes." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 8, no. 6 (November 1990): 1853. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.585172.

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Bandis, C., and B. B. Pate. "Electron Emission Due to Exciton Breakup from Negative Electron Affinity Diamond." Physical Review Letters 74, no. 5 (January 30, 1995): 777–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.74.777.

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Ohshima, Takashi, and Makoto Kudo. "Electron Beam Brightness from Negative-Electron-Affinity Photocathodes for Scanning Electron Microscopy Application." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 43, no. 12 (December 9, 2004): 8335–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/jjap.43.8335.

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QIAO Jian-liang, 乔建良, 徐源 XU Yuan, 高有堂 GAO You-tang, 牛军 NIU Jun, and 常本康 CHANG Ben-kang. "Cs Adsorption Mechanism for Negative Electron Affinity GaN Photocathode." ACTA PHOTONICA SINICA 45, no. 4 (2016): 425001. http://dx.doi.org/10.3788/gzxb20164504.0425001.

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Wu, C. I., and A. Kahn. "Negative electron affinity at the Cs/AlN(0001) surface." Applied Physics Letters 74, no. 10 (March 8, 1999): 1433–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.123573.

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Eyckeler, M. "Negative electron affinity of cesiated p-GaN(0001) surfaces." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 16, no. 4 (July 1998): 2224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.590152.

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Powers, M. J., M. C. Benjamin, L. M. Porter, R. J. Nemanich, R. F. Davis, J. J. Cuomo, G. L. Doll, and Stephen J. Harris. "Observation of a negative electron affinity for boron nitride." Applied Physics Letters 67, no. 26 (December 25, 1995): 3912–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115315.

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van der Weide, J., Z. Zhang, P. K. Baumann, M. G. Wensell, J. Bernholc, and R. J. Nemanich. "Negative-electron-affinity effects on the diamond (100) surface." Physical Review B 50, no. 8 (August 15, 1994): 5803–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevb.50.5803.

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Guo-xin, Chen, P. P. Ong, and Lin Ting. "DFT approach for electron affinity of negative atomic ions." Chemical Physics Letters 290, no. 1-3 (June 1998): 211–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2614(98)00552-1.

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