Journal articles: 'Natural rewards'

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Jamali, Shole, Mohsen Parto Dezfouli, AmirAli Kalbasi, Mohammad Reza Daliri, and Abbas Haghparast. "Selective Modulation of Hippocampal Theta Oscillations in Response to Morphine versus Natural Reward." Brain Sciences 13, no. 2 (February 14, 2023): 322. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13020322.

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Despite the overlapping neural circuits underlying natural and drug rewards, several studies have suggested different behavioral and neurochemical mechanisms in response to drug vs. natural rewards. The strong link between hippocampal theta oscillations (4–12 Hz) and reward-associated learning and memory has raised the hypothesis that this rhythm in hippocampal CA1 might be differently modulated by drug- and natural-conditioned place preference (CPP). Time–frequency analysis of recorded local field potentials (LFPs) from the CA1 of freely moving male rats previously exposed to a natural (in this case, food), drug (in this case, morphine), or saline (control) reward cue in the CPP paradigm showed that the hippocampal CA1 theta activity represents a different pattern for entrance to the rewarded compared to unrewarded compartment during the post-test session of morphine- and natural-CPP. Comparing LFP activity in the CA1 between the saline and morphine/natural groups showed that the maximum theta power occurred before entering the unrewarded compartment and after the entrance to the rewarded compartment in morphine and natural groups, respectively. In conclusion, our findings suggest that drug and natural rewards could differently affect the theta dynamic in the hippocampal CA1 region during reward-associated learning and contextual cueing in the CPP paradigm.

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Gomide, Paula Inez Cunha, and Cesar Ades. "Effects of Reward and Familiarity of Reward Agent on Spontaneous Play in Preschoolers: A Field Study." Psychological Reports 65, no. 2 (October 1989): 427–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1989.65.2.427.

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A field experiment was conducted with preschool children to test the effect of rewards on a familiar, spontaneous play activity, in conditions as close as possible to the children's natural school context, and to examine the role of familiarity of the person who administered rewards. In three experimental conditions, children were rewarded either by their own teacher or by an unknown adult for playing with toys at the school playground and stayed with either the teacher or the unknown adult in the remaining part of reward sessions. Spontaneous play was significantly reduced by the reward relative to baseline levels and recovered after a 3-wk interval. However, no difference due to familiarity/unfamiliarity of reward agent could be found. Results, discussed in terms of an incentive contrast hypothesis, attest to the generality and external validity of the undermining effects of rewards.

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Nakamura, K., and T. Ono. "Lateral hypothalamus neuron involvement in integration of natural and artificial rewards and cue signals." Journal of Neurophysiology 55, no. 1 (January 1, 1986): 163–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1986.55.1.163.

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Involvement of rat lateral hypothalamus (LHA) neurons in integration of motivation, reward, and learning processes was studied by recording single-neuron activity during cuetone discrimination, learning behavior to obtain glucose, or electrical rewarding intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) of the posterior LHA. To relate the activity of an LHA neuron to glucose, ICSS, and anticipatory cues, the same licking task was used to obtain both rewards. Each neuron was tested with rewards alone and then with rewards signaled by cuetone stimuli (CTS), CTS1+ = 1,200 Hz for glucose, CTS2+ = 4,300 Hz for ICSS, and CTS- = 2,800 Hz for no reward. The activity of 318 neurons in the LHA was analyzed. Of these, 212 (66.7%) responded to one or both rewarding stimuli (glucose, 115; ICSS, 193). Usually, both rewards affected the same neuron in the same direction. Of 96 neurons that responded to both rewards, the responses of 72 (75%) were similar, i.e., either both excitatory or both inhibitory. When a tone was associated with glucose or ICSS reward, 81 of the 212 neurons that responded to either or both rewards and none of 106 neurons that failed to respond to either reward acquired a response to the respective CTS. Usually, the response to a tone was in the same direction as the reward response. Of 45 neurons that responded to both glucose and CTS1+, 38 (84.4%) were similar, and of 66 that responded to both ICSS and CTS2+, 47 (71.2%) were similar. The neural response to a tone was acquired rapidly after licking behavior was learned and was extinguished equally rapidly before licking stopped in extinction. The latency of the neural response to CTS1+ was 10-150 ms (58.7 +/- 40.9 ms, mean +/- SE, n = 31), and that of the first lick was 100-370 ms (204.8 +/- 59.1 ms, n = 31). The latency of neural responses to CTS2+ was 10-230 ms (68.3 +/- 53.5 ms, n = 33), and that of the first lick was 90-370 ms (212.4 +/- 58.5 ms, n = 33). There was no significant difference between the neural response latencies for the two cue tones nor between the lick latencies for the different rewards. Neurons inhibited by glucose or ICSS reward were distributed widely in the LHA, whereas most excited neurons were in the posterodorsal subarea; fewer were in the anteroventral subarea. Neurons responding to the CTS for glucose or ICSS were found more frequently in the posterior region.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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Bastian, Abda Billah Faza Muhammadkan, Wildan Alim Nurhidayah, and Yogi Damai Syaputra. "Memberikan Reward sebagai Upaya Meningkatkan Motivasi Belajar Anak." Jurnal al-Shifa Bimbingan Konseling Islam 3, no. 1 (June 30, 2022): 40–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.32678/alshifa.v3i1.7875.

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This study aims to find out how to increase children's learning motivation after being given areward. Rewards given to children are in the form of object rewards, praise rewards, symbolic rewards (star stamps) and touch rewards. The research method uses descriptive qualitative methods with data collection techniques through observation, interviews and documentation. Data analysis techniques use the Miles and Huberman model. The results of the studys how that giving rewards helps increase student learning motivation. Most students like reward items suchas snacks, because they are useful for them. Symbolic rewards such as star stamps also greatly enhance student learning. This is natural because the child willfeel proud of the symbol and show off this achievement to his friends and parents. Reward praise and touch can also improve some students. However, some students think that praise or touch is normal, so it doesn't increase their motivation to learn

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Lardeux, Sylvie, Dany Paleressompoulle, Remy Pernaud, Martine Cador, and Christelle Baunez. "Different populations of subthalamic neurons encode cocaine vs. sucrose reward and predict future error." Journal of Neurophysiology 110, no. 7 (October 1, 2013): 1497–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00160.2013.

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The search for treatment of cocaine addiction raises the challenge to find a way to diminish motivation for the drug without decreasing it for natural rewards. Subthalamic nucleus (STN) inactivation decreases motivation for cocaine while increasing motivation for food, suggesting that STN can dissociate different rewards. Here, we investigated how rat STN neurons respond to cues predicting cocaine or sucrose and to reward delivery while rats are performing a discriminative stimuli task. We show that different neuronal populations of STN neurons encode cocaine and sucrose. In addition, we show that STN activity at the cue onset predicts future error. When changing the reward predicted unexpectedly, STN neurons show capacities of adaptation, suggesting a role in reward-prediction error. Furthermore, some STN neurons show a response to executive error (i.e., “oops neurons”) that is specific to the missed reward. These results position the STN as a nexus where natural rewards and drugs of abuse are coded differentially and can influence the performance. Therefore, STN can be viewed as a structure where action could be taken for the treatment of cocaine addiction.

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Feng, Yufei, Xiaoyu Yang, Xiaodan Zhu, and Michael Greenspan. "Neuro-symbolic Natural Logic with Introspective Revision for Natural Language Inference." Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 10 (2022): 240–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00458.

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Abstract We introduce a neuro-symbolic natural logic framework based on reinforcement learning with introspective revision. The model samples and rewards specific reasoning paths through policy gradient, in which the introspective revision algorithm modifies intermediate symbolic reasoning steps to discover reward-earning operations as well as leverages external knowledge to alleviate spurious reasoning and training inefficiency. The framework is supported by properly designed local relation models to avoid input entangling, which helps ensure the interpretability of the proof paths. The proposed model has built-in interpretability and shows superior capability in monotonicity inference, systematic generalization, and interpretability, compared with previous models on the existing datasets.

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Pastor-Bernier, Alexandre, Arkadiusz Stasiak, and Wolfram Schultz. "Reward-specific satiety affects subjective value signals in orbitofrontal cortex during multicomponent economic choice." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 30 (July 20, 2021): e2022650118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022650118.

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Sensitivity to satiety constitutes a basic requirement for neuronal coding of subjective reward value. Satiety from natural ongoing consumption affects reward functions in learning and approach behavior. More specifically, satiety reduces the subjective economic value of individual rewards during choice between options that typically contain multiple reward components. The unconfounded assessment of economic reward value requires tests at choice indifference between two options, which is difficult to achieve with sated rewards. By conceptualizing choices between options with multiple reward components (“bundles”), Revealed Preference Theory may offer a solution. Despite satiety, choices against an unaltered reference bundle may remain indifferent when the reduced value of a sated bundle reward is compensated by larger amounts of an unsated reward of the same bundle, and then the value loss of the sated reward is indicated by the amount of the added unsated reward. Here, we show psychophysically titrated choice indifference in monkeys between bundles of differently sated rewards. Neuronal chosen value signals in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) followed closely the subjective value change within recording periods of individual neurons. A neuronal classifier distinguishing the bundles and predicting choice substantiated the subjective value change. The choice between conventional single rewards confirmed the neuronal changes seen with two-reward bundles. Thus, reward-specific satiety reduces subjective reward value signals in OFC. With satiety being an important factor of subjective reward value, these results extend the notion of subjective economic reward value coding in OFC neurons.

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He, Liuyi, Jifeng Luo, Yisong Tang, Zhiyan Wu, and Han Zhang. "Motivating User-Generated Content: The Unintended Consequences of Incentive Thresholds." MIS Quarterly 47, no. 3 (June 1, 2022): 1015–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.25300/misq/2022/17369.

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While monetary rewards have been widely used by online platforms to motivate user-generated content (UGC) contributions, users may not always demonstrate the expected behaviors. Unintended consequences of reward policies, exemplified by unchanged or reduced UGC contributions, may occur. Through two natural experiments, this study investigates the implications of providing users with an incentive structure that rewards users’ continued contribution according to the volume of UGC. Using a unique data set on two completion-contingent incentive programs from a popular online aesthetic medicine platform, we examine user responses to reward thresholds. We found that after users reach a threshold to obtain a monetary reward, they are less likely to continue contributing UGC, suggesting a minimal-effort effect. Our findings indicate that social approval from peers helps to mitigate unintended user responses to monetary reward policies. We also observed that monetary rewards primarily improve the quality and website traffic of low- to moderate-quality contributions.

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Dooren, Marierose M. M. van, Valentijn T. Visch, and Renske Spijkerman. "The Design and Application of Game Rewards in Youth Addiction Care." Information 10, no. 4 (April 6, 2019): 126. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info10040126.

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Different types of rewards are applied in persuasive games to encourage play persistence of its users and facilitate the achievement of desired real-world goals, such as behavioral change. Persuasive games have successfully been applied in mental healthcare and may hold potential for different types of patients. However, we question to what extent game-based rewards are suitable in a persuasive game design for a substance dependence therapy context, as people with substance-related disorders show decreased sensitivity to natural rewards, which may result in different responses to commonly applied game rewards compared to people without substance use disorders. In a within-subject experiment with 20 substance dependent and 25 non-dependent participants, we examined whether play persistence and reward evaluation differed between the two groups. Results showed that in contrast to our expectations, substance dependent participants were more motivated by the types of rewards compared to non-substance dependent participants. Participants evaluated monetary rewards more positively than playing for virtual points or social rewards. We conclude this paper with design implications of game-based rewards in persuasive games for mental healthcare.

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Ryvkin, Julia, Liora Omesi, Yong-Kyu Kim, Mali Levi, Hadar Pozeilov, Lital Barak-Buchris, Bella Agranovich, et al. "Failure to mate enhances investment in behaviors that may promote mating reward and impairs the ability to cope with stressors via a subpopulation of Neuropeptide F receptor neurons." PLOS Genetics 20, no. 1 (January 18, 2024): e1011054. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1011054.

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Living in dynamic environments such as the social domain, where interaction with others determines the reproductive success of individuals, requires the ability to recognize opportunities to obtain natural rewards and cope with challenges that are associated with achieving them. As such, actions that promote survival and reproduction are reinforced by the brain reward system, whereas coping with the challenges associated with obtaining these rewards is mediated by stress-response pathways, the activation of which can impair health and shorten lifespan. While much research has been devoted to understanding mechanisms underlying the way by which natural rewards are processed by the reward system, less attention has been given to the consequences of failure to obtain a desirable reward. As a model system to study the impact of failure to obtain a natural reward, we used the well-established courtship suppression paradigm in Drosophila melanogaster as means to induce repeated failures to obtain sexual reward in male flies. We discovered that beyond the known reduction in courtship actions caused by interaction with non-receptive females, repeated failures to mate induce a stress response characterized by persistent motivation to obtain the sexual reward, reduced male-male social interaction, and enhanced aggression. This frustrative-like state caused by the conflict between high motivation to obtain sexual reward and the inability to fulfill their mating drive impairs the capacity of rejected males to tolerate stressors such as starvation and oxidative stress. We further show that sensitivity to starvation and enhanced social arousal is mediated by the disinhibition of a small population of neurons that express receptors for the fly homologue of neuropeptide Y. Our findings demonstrate for the first time the existence of social stress in flies and offers a framework to study mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between reward, stress, and reproduction in a simple nervous system that is highly amenable to genetic manipulation.

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Zhang, Mengyue, Chenyue Zhao, Ziyu Mao, Meng Zhang, and Xiaoli Xing. "Outcome assessment of different reward stimuli in Internet gaming disorder by event-related potentials." PLOS ONE 19, no. 7 (July 24, 2024): e0307717. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307717.

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An imbalance in sensitivity to different types of reward stimuli may be an important cause of addiction that is mainly manifested in high sensitivity to addictive substance rewards and blunting of natural rewards. However, contradictions remain in the research results on the sensitivity of individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) to different reward stimuli. Based on participants’ neural responses to win and loss feedback (in door task), the event-related potential (ERP) technique was used to investigate the effects of different types of reward stimuli on the assessment of reward-processing outcomes in individuals with IGD. The results showed that in the gain condition, the FB-P3 amplitude induced by game stimuli in the IGD group was significantly higher than that in the control group, and the FN amplitude induced by money stimuli was significantly lower than that in the control group. However, the FB-P3 and FN amplitudes induced by food were not significantly different from those in the control group. In the loss condition, there were no between-group differences in the FB-P3 and FN amplitudes evoked by the three reward stimuli. This indicates that the IGD group showed increased hedonic responses to game stimuli and decreased hedonic responses to money but no differences in hedonic responses to food during the reward assessment phase. Therefore, heightened sensitivity to game rewards and diminished sensitivity to monetary rewards during outcome assessment may play a crucial role in the development of IGD.

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Garland, Eric L., Rachel M. Atchley, Adam W. Hanley, Jon-Kar Zubieta, and Brett Froeliger. "Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement remediates hedonic dysregulation in opioid users: Neural and affective evidence of target engagement." Science Advances 5, no. 10 (October 2019): eaax1569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax1569.

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Addiction neuroscience models posit that recurrent drug use increases reactivity to drug-related cues and blunts responsiveness to natural rewards, propelling a cycle of hedonic dysregulation that drives addictive behavior. Here, we assessed whether a cognitive intervention for addiction, Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement (MORE), could restructure reward responsiveness from valuation of drug-related reward back to valuation of natural reward. Before and after 8 weeks of MORE or a support group control, prescription opioid users (N = 135) viewed opioid and natural reward cues while an electroencephalogram biomarker of target engagement was assessed. MORE was associated with decreased opioid cue-reactivity and enhanced capacity to regulate responses to opioid and natural reward cues. Increased positive affective responses to natural reward cues were associated with decreased craving and mediated MORE’s therapeutic effects on opioid misuse. This series of randomized experiments provide the first neurophysiological evidence that an integrative behavioral treatment can remediate hedonic dysregulation among chronic opioid users.

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Goodwin, B. C., M. Browne, and M. Rockloff. "Measuring Preference for Supernormal Over Natural Rewards." Evolutionary Psychology 13, no. 4 (October 29, 2015): 147470491561391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1474704915613914.

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Olsen, Christopher M. "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions." Neuropharmacology 61, no. 7 (December 2011): 1109–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010.

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Kubovčík, Martin, Iveta Dirgová Luptáková, and Jiří Pospíchal. "Signal Novelty Detection as an Intrinsic Reward for Robotics." Sensors 23, no. 8 (April 14, 2023): 3985. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23083985.

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In advanced robot control, reinforcement learning is a common technique used to transform sensor data into signals for actuators, based on feedback from the robot’s environment. However, the feedback or reward is typically sparse, as it is provided mainly after the task’s completion or failure, leading to slow convergence. Additional intrinsic rewards based on the state visitation frequency can provide more feedback. In this study, an Autoencoder deep learning neural network was utilized as novelty detection for intrinsic rewards to guide the search process through a state space. The neural network processed signals from various types of sensors simultaneously. It was tested on simulated robotic agents in a benchmark set of classic control OpenAI Gym test environments (including Mountain Car, Acrobot, CartPole, and LunarLander), achieving more efficient and accurate robot control in three of the four tasks (with only slight degradation in the Lunar Lander task) when purely intrinsic rewards were used compared to standard extrinsic rewards. By incorporating autoencoder-based intrinsic rewards, robots could potentially become more dependable in autonomous operations like space or underwater exploration or during natural disaster response. This is because the system could better adapt to changing environments or unexpected situations.

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DePoy, Lauren M., Colleen A. McClung, and Ryan W. Logan. "Neural Mechanisms of Circadian Regulation of Natural and Drug Reward." Neural Plasticity 2017 (2017): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5720842.

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Circadian rhythms are endogenously generated near 24-hour variations of physiological and behavioral functions. In humans, disruptions to the circadian system are associated with negative health outcomes, including metabolic, immune, and psychiatric diseases, such as addiction. Animal models suggest bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and drugs of abuse, whereby desynchrony, misalignment, or disruption may promote vulnerability to drug use and the transition to addiction, while exposure to drugs of abuse may entrain, disrupt, or perturb the circadian timing system. Recent evidence suggests natural (i.e., food) and drug rewards may influence overlapping neural circuitry, and the circadian system may modulate the physiological and behavioral responses to these stimuli. Environmental disruptions, such as shifting schedules or shorter/longer days, influence food and drug intake, and certain mutations of circadian genes that control cellular rhythms are associated with altered behavioral reward. We highlight the more recent findings associating circadian rhythms to reward function, linking environmental and genetic evidence to natural and drug reward and related neural circuitry.

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Saha, Amrita, Ghulam Ahmed Ansari, Abhishek Laddha, Karthik Sankaranarayanan, and Soumen Chakrabarti. "Complex Program Induction for Querying Knowledge Bases in the Absence of Gold Programs." Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 7 (November 2019): 185–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00262.

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Recent years have seen increasingly complex question-answering on knowledge bases (KBQA) involving logical, quantitative, and comparative reasoning over KB subgraphs. Neural Program Induction (NPI) is a pragmatic approach toward modularizing the reasoning process by translating a complex natural language query into a multi-step executable program. While NPI has been commonly trained with the ‘‘gold’’ program or its sketch, for realistic KBQA applications such gold programs are expensive to obtain. There, practically only natural language queries and the corresponding answers can be provided for training. The resulting combinatorial explosion in program space, along with extremely sparse rewards, makes NPI for KBQA ambitious and challenging. We present Complex Imperative Program Induction from Terminal Rewards (CIPITR), an advanced neural programmer that mitigates reward sparsity with auxiliary rewards, and restricts the program space to semantically correct programs using high-level constraints, KB schema, and inferred answer type. CIPITR solves complex KBQA considerably more accurately than key-value memory networks and neural symbolic machines (NSM). For moderately complex queries requiring 2- to 5-step programs, CIPITR scores at least 3× higher F1 than the competing systems. On one of the hardest class of programs (comparative reasoning) with 5–10 steps, CIPITR outperforms NSM by a factor of 89 and memory networks by 9 times. 1

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Lee, Felissa K., and Daniel B. Turban. "Natural Rewards Self-Management, Personality, and Achievement Outcomes." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40, no. 9 (September 15, 2010): 2267–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00660.x.

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Dagher, Alain. "Human dopamine response to drugs and natural rewards." Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 25, no. 1_suppl (August 2005): S716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9591524.0717.

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Thiebaux, S., C. Gretton, J. Slaney, D. Price, and F. Kabanza. "Decision-Theoretic Planning with non-Markovian Rewards." Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 25 (January 29, 2006): 17–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1613/jair.1676.

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A decision process in which rewards depend on history rather than merely on the current state is called a decision process with non-Markovian rewards (NMRDP). In decision-theoretic planning, where many desirable behaviours are more naturally expressed as properties of execution sequences rather than as properties of states, NMRDPs form a more natural model than the commonly adopted fully Markovian decision process (MDP) model. While the more tractable solution methods developed for MDPs do not directly apply in the presence of non-Markovian rewards, a number of solution methods for NMRDPs have been proposed in the literature. These all exploit a compact specification of the non-Markovian reward function in temporal logic, to automatically translate the NMRDP into an equivalent MDP which is solved using efficient MDP solution methods. This paper presents NMRDPP (Non-Markovian Reward Decision Process Planner), a software platform for the development and experimentation of methods for decision-theoretic planning with non-Markovian rewards. The current version of NMRDPP implements, under a single interface, a family of methods based on existing as well as new approaches which we describe in detail. These include dynamic programming, heuristic search, and structured methods. Using NMRDPP, we compare the methods and identify certain problem features that affect their performance. NMRDPP's treatment of non-Markovian rewards is inspired by the treatment of domain-specific search control knowledge in the TLPlan planner, which it incorporates as a special case. In the First International Probabilistic Planning Competition, NMRDPP was able to compete and perform well in both the domain-independent and hand-coded tracks, using search control knowledge in the latter.

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Burke, Christopher J., and Philippe N. Tobler. "Reward skewness coding in the insula independent of probability and loss." Journal of Neurophysiology 106, no. 5 (November 2011): 2415–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00471.2011.

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Rewards in the natural environment are rarely predicted with complete certainty. Uncertainty relating to future rewards has typically been defined as the variance of the potential outcomes. However, the asymmetry of predicted reward distributions, known as skewness, constitutes a distinct but neuroscientifically underexplored risk term that may also have an impact on preference. By changing only reward magnitudes, we study skewness processing in equiprobable ternary lotteries involving only gains and constant probabilities, thus excluding probability distortion or loss aversion as mechanisms for skewness preference formation. We show that individual preferences are sensitive to not only the mean and variance but also to the skewness of predicted reward distributions. Using neuroimaging, we show that the insula, a structure previously implicated in the processing of reward-related uncertainty, responds to the skewness of predicted reward distributions. Some insula responses increased in a monotonic fashion with skewness (irrespective of individual skewness preferences), whereas others were similarly elevated to both negative and positive as opposed to no reward skew. These data support the notion that the asymmetry of reward distributions is processed in the brain and, taken together with replicated findings of mean coding in the striatum and variance coding in the cingulate, suggest that the brain codes distinct aspects of reward distributions in a distributed fashion.

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Bowman, E. M., T. G. Aigner, and B. J. Richmond. "Neural signals in the monkey ventral striatum related to motivation for juice and cocaine rewards." Journal of Neurophysiology 75, no. 3 (March 1, 1996): 1061–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1996.75.3.1061.

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1. The results of neuropsychological, neuropharmacological, and neurophysiological experiments have implicated the ventral striatum in reward-related processes. We designed a task to allow us to separate the effects of sensory, motor, and internal signals so that we could study the correlation between the activity of neurons in the ventral striatum and different motivational states. In this task, a visual stimulus was used to cue the monkeys as to their progress toward earning a reward. The monkeys performed more quickly and with fewer mistakes in the rewarded trials. After analyzing the behavioral results from three monkeys, we recorded from 143 neurons from two of the monkeys while they performed the task with either juice or cocaine reward. 2. In this task the monkey was required to release its grip on a bar when a small visual response cue changed colors from red (the wait signal) to green (the go signal). The duration of the wait signal was varied randomly. The cue became blue whenever the monkey successfully responded to the go signal within 1 s of its appearance. A reward was delivered after the monkey successfully completed one, two, or three trials. The schedules were randomly interleaved. A second visual stimulus that progressively brightened or dimmed signaled to the monkeys their progress toward earning a reward. This discriminative cue allowed the monkeys to judge the proportion of work remaining in the current ratio schedule of reinforcement. Data were collected from three monkeys while they performed this task. 3. The average reaction times became faster and error rates declined as the monkeys progressed toward completing the current schedule of reinforcement and thereby earning a reward, whereas the modal reaction time did not change. As the duration of the wait period before the go signal increased, the monkeys reacted more quickly but their error rates scarcely changed. From these results we infer that the effects of motivation and motor readiness in this task are generated by separate mechanisms rather than by a single mechanism subserving generalized arousal. 4. The activity of 138 ventral striatal neurons was sampled in two monkeys while they performed the task to earn juice reward. We saw tonic changes in activity throughout the trials, and we saw phasic activity following the reward. The activity of these neurons was markedly different during juice-rewarded trials than during correctly performed trials when no reward was forthcoming (or expected). The responses also were weakly, but significantly, related to the proximity of the reward in the schedules requiring more than one trial. 5. The monkeys worked to obtain intravenous cocaine while we recorded 62 neurons. For 57 of the neurons, we recorded activity while the monkeys worked in blocks of trials during which they self-administered cocaine after blocks during which they worked for juice. Although fewer neurons responded to cocaine than to juice reward (19 vs. 33%), this difference was not significant. The neuronal response properties to cocaine and juice rewards were independent; that is, the responses when one was the reward one failed to predict the response when the other was the reward. In addition, the neuronal activity lost most of its selectivity for rewarded trials, i.e, the activity did not distinguish nearly as well between cocaine and sham rewards as between juice and sham rewards. 6. Our results show that mechanisms by which cocaine acts do not appear to be the same as the ones activated when the monkeys were presented with an oral juice reward. This finding raises the intriguing possibility that the effects of cocaine could be reduced selectively without blocking the effects of many natural rewards.

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Alhadeff, Amber L., Nitsan Goldstein, Onyoo Park, Michelle L. Klima, Alexandra Vargas, and J. Nicholas Betley. "Natural and Drug Rewards Engage Distinct Pathways that Converge on Coordinated Hypothalamic and Reward Circuits." Neuron 103, no. 5 (September 2019): 891–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2019.05.050.

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McDevitt, Dillon S., Quinn W. Wade, Greer E. McKendrick, Jacob Nelsen, Mariya Starostina, Nam Tran, Julie A. Blendy, and Nicholas M. Graziane. "The Paraventricular Thalamic Nucleus and Its Projections in Regulating Reward and Context Associations." eneuro 11, no. 2 (February 2024): ENEURO.0524–23.2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/eneuro.0524-23.2024.

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The paraventricular thalamic nucleus (PVT) is a brain region that mediates aversive and reward-related behaviors as shown in animals exposed to fear conditioning, natural rewards, or drugs of abuse. However, it is unknown whether manipulations of the PVT, in the absence of external factors or stimuli (e.g., fear, natural rewards, or drugs of abuse), are sufficient to drive reward-related behaviors. Additionally, it is unknown whether drugs of abuse administered directly into the PVT are sufficient to drive reward-related behaviors. Here, using behavioral as well as pathway and cell-type specific approaches, we manipulate PVT activity as well as the PVT-to-nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh) neurocircuit to explore reward phenotypes. First, we show that bath perfusion of morphine (10 µM) caused hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential, increased rheobase, and decreased intrinsic membrane excitability in PVT neurons that project to the NAcSh. Additionally, we found that direct injections of morphine (50 ng) in the PVT of mice were sufficient to generate conditioned place preference (CPP) for the morphine-paired chamber. Mimicking the inhibitory effect of morphine, we employed a chemogenetic approach to inhibit PVT neurons that projected to the NAcSh and found that pairing the inhibition of these PVT neurons with a specific context evoked the acquisition of CPP. Lastly, using brain slice electrophysiology, we found that bath-perfused morphine (10 µM) significantly reduced PVT excitatory synaptic transmission on both dopamine D1 and D2 receptor–expressing medium spiny neurons in the NAcSh, but that inhibiting PVT afferents in the NAcSh was not sufficient to evoke CPP.

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Kelley, Ann E., and Kent C. Berridge. "The Neuroscience of Natural Rewards: Relevance to Addictive Drugs." Journal of Neuroscience 22, no. 9 (May 1, 2002): 3306–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.22-09-03306.2002.

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Benitez-Vieyra, Santiago, Juan Fornoni, Jessica Pérez-Alquicira, Karina Boege, and César A. Domínguez. "The evolution of signal–reward correlations in bee- and hummingbird-pollinated species of Salvia." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1782 (May 7, 2014): 20132934. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2934.

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Within-individual variation in floral advertising and reward traits is a feature experienced by pollinators that visit different flowers of the same plant. Pollinators can use advertising traits to gather information about the quality and amount of rewards, leading to the evolution of signal–reward correlations. As long as plants differ in the reliability of their signals and pollinators base their foraging decisions on this information, natural selection should act on within-individual correlations between signals and rewards. Because birds and bees differ in their cognitive capabilities, and use different floral traits as signals, we tested the occurrence of adaptive divergence of the within-individual signal–reward correlations among Salvia species that are pollinated either by bees or by hummingbirds. They are expected to use different floral advertising traits: frontal traits in the case of bees and side traits in the case of hummingbirds. We confirmed this expectation as bee- and hummingbird-pollinated species differed in which specific traits are predominantly associated with nectar reward at the within-individual level. Our findings highlight the adaptive value of within-individual variation and covariation patterns, commonly disregarded as ‘environmental noise’, and are consistent with the hypothesis that pollinator-mediated selection affects the correlation pattern among floral traits.

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Korivand, Soroush, Nader Jalili, and Jiaqi Gong. "Inertia-Constrained Reinforcement Learning to Enhance Human Motor Control Modeling." Sensors 23, no. 5 (March 1, 2023): 2698. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23052698.

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Locomotor impairment is a highly prevalent and significant source of disability and significantly impacts the quality of life of a large portion of the population. Despite decades of research on human locomotion, challenges remain in simulating human movement to study the features of musculoskeletal drivers and clinical conditions. Most recent efforts to utilize reinforcement learning (RL) techniques are promising in the simulation of human locomotion and reveal musculoskeletal drives. However, these simulations often fail to mimic natural human locomotion because most reinforcement strategies have yet to consider any reference data regarding human movement. To address these challenges, in this study, we designed a reward function based on the trajectory optimization rewards (TOR) and bio-inspired rewards, which includes the rewards obtained from reference motion data captured by a single Inertial Moment Unit (IMU) sensor. The sensor was equipped on the participants’ pelvis to capture reference motion data. We also adapted the reward function by leveraging previous research on walking simulations for TOR. The experimental results showed that the simulated agents with the modified reward function performed better in mimicking the collected IMU data from participants, which means that the simulated human locomotion was more realistic. As a bio-inspired defined cost, IMU data enhanced the agent’s capacity to converge during the training process. As a result, the models’ convergence was faster than those developed without reference motion data. Consequently, human locomotion can be simulated more quickly and in a broader range of environments, with a better simulation performance.

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Fernández-López, José A., Vicente Fernández-Lledó, and José M. Angosto. "New insights into red plant pigments: more than just natural colorants." RSC Advances 10, no. 41 (2020): 24669–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d0ra03514a.

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Karimpour-Vazifehkhorani, Alireza, Abbas Bakhshipour Rudsari, Akram Rezvanizadeh, Leila Kehtary- Harzang, and Kamyar Hasanzadeh. "Behavioral Activation Therapy on Reward Seeking Behaviors in Depressed People: An Experimental study." Journal of Caring Sciences 9, no. 4 (November 24, 2020): 195–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.34172/jcs.2020.030.

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Introduction: Behavioral activation therapy (BAT) is designed to help individuals’ approach and access sources of positive reinforcement in their life, which can serve a natural antidepressant function and efforts to help depressed people reengage in their life through focused activation strategies. Methods: In this study, 60 individuals were selected and randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. The intervention group received behavioral activation treatment, including eight treatment sessions and 5 weeks later, a follow-up study was conducted. The data were collected, using a Beck Depression Inventory-II and behavioral activation system (BIS)/ behavioral inhibition system (BAS) Carver and White questionnaires, before the intervention and after the intervention and five weeks after the intervention. SPSS 23 and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for data analysis. Results: Results showed a significant increase in the two components of the BAS including reward seeking and response to reward in the intervention group, which indicates an increase in positive affect and appetitive motivation for reward seeking and decreases the risk of depression. Also, the results showed a significant decrease in the BIS and depression in the intervention group, which indicates a decline in experiencing negative emotions. Conclusion: The implementation of BAT will cause depressed people to try to maximize future rewards and it’s effective in improving the reward seeking and reward response in depressed people because this treatment will increase the positive reinforcement and lead to learning cues that predict possible rewards in environments.

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Gutierrez, Ranier, Jose M. Carmena, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis, and S. A. Simon. "Orbitofrontal Ensemble Activity Monitors Licking and Distinguishes Among Natural Rewards." Journal of Neurophysiology 95, no. 1 (January 2006): 119–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00467.2005.

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Lubman, Dan I., Murat Yücel, Jonathan W. L. Kettle, Antonietta Scaffidi, Trudi MacKenzie, Julian G. Simmons, and Nicholas B. Allen. "Responsiveness to Drug Cues and Natural Rewards in Opiate Addiction." Archives of General Psychiatry 66, no. 2 (February 1, 2009): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.522.

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Zhang, Hongyu, Yiwei Wu, Lu Zhen, Yong Jin, and Shuaian Wang. "Optimization problems in liquefied natural gas transport and storage for multimodal transport companies." Electronic Research Archive 32, no. 8 (2024): 4828–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3934/era.2024221.

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<p>As a relatively clean energy source, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is experiencing a growing demand. The uneven global distribution of LNG often compels residents in regions without local sources to import it, underscoring the need to optimize the global LNG transportation network. Therefore, this study formulates a nonlinear mixed-integer programming model for a multimodal transport and storage problem to optimize LNG carrier allocation, LNG storage planning, and LNG transport planning, aiming to minimize the total cost of multimodal transport, minus the rewards offered by ports. In order to facilitate the solving of the model, some linearization methods are used to transform the nonlinear model into a linear model. To assess the efficiency of the linear model, we conduct computational experiments on small-scale instances with five inland cities, medium-scale instances with 15 inland cities, and large-scale instances with 60 inland cities. The results show that all small- and medium-scale instances can be solved to optimality within 427.50 s. Feasible solutions with a maximum gap value of 0.03% for large-scale instances can be obtained within 1 h. In addition, sensitivity analyses are conducted to identify the impacts of the cost of transporting LNG by vehicles, the charter cost of LNG carriers, and the rewards for shipping LNG. In general, higher cost of transporting LNG by vehicles and higher charter cost of LNG carriers lead to a higher objective value. It is also found that when the rewards for shipping LNG increase to a certain extent, such that the additional rewards exceed the additional multimodal transport cost incurred, the amount of LNG unloaded at the subsidized port increases.</p>

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Liu, Jinxin, Donglin Wang, Qiangxing Tian, and Zhengyu Chen. "Learn Goal-Conditioned Policy with Intrinsic Motivation for Deep Reinforcement Learning." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 36, no. 7 (June 28, 2022): 7558–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v36i7.20721.

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It is of significance for an agent to autonomously explore the environment and learn a widely applicable and general-purpose goal-conditioned policy that can achieve diverse goals including images and text descriptions. Considering such perceptually-specific goals, one natural approach is to reward the agent with a prior non-parametric distance over the embedding spaces of states and goals. However, this may be infeasible in some situations, either because it is unclear how to choose suitable measurement, or because embedding (heterogeneous) goals and states is non-trivial. The key insight of this work is that we introduce a latent-conditioned policy to provide goals and intrinsic rewards for learning the goal-conditioned policy. As opposed to directly scoring current states with regards to goals, we obtain rewards by scoring current states with associated latent variables. We theoretically characterize the connection between our unsupervised objective and the multi-goal setting, and empirically demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method which substantially outperforms prior techniques in a variety of tasks.

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Sumers, Theodore R., Mark K. Ho, Robert D. Hawkins, Karthik Narasimhan, and Thomas L. Griffiths. "Learning Rewards From Linguistic Feedback." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 35, no. 7 (May 18, 2021): 6002–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v35i7.16749.

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We explore unconstrained natural language feedback as a learning signal for artificial agents. Humans use rich and varied language to teach, yet most prior work on interactive learning from language assumes a particular form of input (e.g., commands). We propose a general framework which does not make this assumption, instead using aspect-based sentiment analysis to decompose feedback into sentiment over the features of a Markov decision process. We then infer the teacher's reward function by regressing the sentiment on the features, an analogue of inverse reinforcement learning. To evaluate our approach, we first collect a corpus of teaching behavior in a cooperative task where both teacher and learner are human. We implement three artificial learners: sentiment-based "literal" and "pragmatic" models, and an inference network trained end-to-end to predict rewards. We then re-run our initial experiment, pairing human teachers with these artificial learners. All three models successfully learn from interactive human feedback. The inference network approaches the performance of the "literal" sentiment model, while the "pragmatic" model nears human performance. Our work provides insight into the information structure of naturalistic linguistic feedback as well as methods to leverage it for reinforcement learning.

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Baunez, Christelle, Carine Dias, Martine Cador, and Marianne Amalric. "The subthalamic nucleus exerts opposite control on cocaine and 'natural' rewards." Nature Neuroscience 8, no. 4 (March 27, 2005): 484–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1429.

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Ridgway, Craig S. "English Teachers and Theatre: Sacrifices and Rewards of a Natural Combination." English Journal 75, no. 1 (January 1986): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/816546.

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Bijoch, Łukasz, Joanna Klos, Martyna Pękała, Kristina Fiołna, Leszek Kaczmarek, and Anna Beroun. "Diverse processing of pharmacological and natural rewards by the central amygdala." Cell Reports 42, no. 9 (September 2023): 113036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113036.

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Carrascosa-López, Conrado, Mauricio Carvache-Franco, José Mondéjar-Jiménez, and Wilmer Carvache-Franco. "Understanding Motivations and Segmentation in Ecotourism Destinations. Application to Natural Parks in Spanish Mediterranean Area." Sustainability 13, no. 9 (April 25, 2021): 4802. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13094802.

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Ecotourism is one of the tourism variants with more annual growth. Motivation has become a fundamental criterion for travel behavior. Segmentation is used to identify the market niches of different tourism products and services. This study collects these three elements and is designed to examine demand segmentation and motivations in ecotourism. The analysis was carried out in the Albufera and Serranía de Cuenca Natural Parks, both located in the Mediterranean area in Spain. The analysis sample consists in 349 surveys obtained in situ. For the data analysis, a factor analysis and nonhierarchical K-media segmentation were performed. The results show eight motivational dimensions: “Interpersonal relationships”, “Self-development”, “Escape”, “Building personal relationships”, “Nature”, “Ego-defensive function”, “Rewards”, and “Fun”. According to tourists’ motivations, three ecotourist segments are obtained: “Nature”, “Multiple motives”, and “Reward and Escape”. This research can assist companies and institutions to improve tourism service offers and perform efficient marketing planning.

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Galloway, Jonathan. "Driving Innovation: A Case for Targeted Competition Policy in Dynamic Markets." World Competition 34, Issue 1 (March 1, 2011): 73–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/woco2011004.

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Innovation consists of new ideas, methods, and products, and together, they drive economic growth and deliver benefits to society as a whole. Competitive intensity and rewards both drive innovation, but the importance of providing high rewards, which are secured by intellectual property rights (IPRs), is regularly overstated. Indeed, greater competition and the role of competition law are often claimed to have a 'chilling effect' on innovation in spite of facilitating greater dynamic efficiency. This article argues that competition and rewards, and indeed competition law and IPRs, are not mutually exclusive and suggests an approach to maximize innovation in dynamic markets whereby competition law applies to conduct beyond the natural scope of IPR protection. This article tests the suggested approach by applying it to a number of controversial practices in the pharmaceutical sector, as well as standard setting in high-technology markets, which give rise to competition concerns. This article concludes by advocating pro-active, justifiable competition intervention when conduct exceeds the natural scope of IPRs and thereby presents a case for targeted competition policy in dynamic markets.

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Ruszkowska, Marzena. "System kar i nagród stosowany w rodzinach zastępczych (na przykładzie powiatu bialskiego)." Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, no. 2 (August 1, 2017): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.3405.

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Foster family is one of the most beneficial forms of support for family in crisis. It should provide the same or a very similar care environment as the natural family. The functioning of the foster family is based on the use of a variety of educational methods, among which an important place is occupied by the system of rewards and punishments. Research carried out in the Biała Podlaska region in 95 foster families living in urban and rural areas showed that among rewards used in the foster environment there are: cash rewards, gifts, compliments, friendly gestures from caregivers, and others. Punishments used are pedagogical ones such as explanation, interpretation, and not pedagogical ones such as shouting, warning, prohibitions, bans on leaving the room or the house, picking up material things. The most common rewards are compliments, whereas the most common punishment is a warning.

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Flores-Ramirez, Francisco J., Israel Garcia-Carachure, David O. Sanchez, Celene Gonzalez, Samuel A. Castillo, Miguel A. Arenivar, Anapaula Themann, et al. "Fluoxetine exposure in adolescent and adult female mice decreases cocaine and sucrose preference later in life." Journal of Psychopharmacology 33, no. 1 (October 18, 2018): 145–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881118805488.

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Background: Preclinical evidence from male subjects indicates that exposure to psychotropic medications, during early development, results in long-lasting altered responses to reward-related stimuli. However, it is not known if exposure to the antidepressant fluoxetine, in female subjects specifically, changes sensitivity to natural and drug rewards, later in life. Aims: The aim of this work was to investigate if exposure to fluoxetine mediates enduring changes in sensitivity to the rewarding properties of cocaine and sucrose, using female mice as a model system. Methods: We exposed C57BL/6 female mice to fluoxetine (250 mg/L in their drinking water) for 15 consecutive days, either during adolescence (postnatal day 35–49) or adulthood (postnatal day 70–84). Twenty-one days later, mice were examined on their behavioral reactivity to cocaine (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 mg/kg) using the conditioned place preference paradigm, or assessed on the two-bottle sucrose (1%) test. Results: We found that regardless of age of antidepressant exposure, female mice pre-exposed to fluoxetine displayed reliable conditioning to the cocaine-paired compartment. However, when compared to respective age-matched controls, antidepressant pre-exposure decreased the magnitude of conditioning at the 5 and 7.5 mg/kg cocaine doses. Furthermore, fluoxetine pre-exposure reduced sucrose preference without altering total liquid intake. Conclusions: The data suggest that pre-exposure to fluoxetine, during adolescence or adulthood, results in a prolonged decrease in sensitivity to the rewarding properties of both natural and drug rewards in female C57BL/6 mice.

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Yang, Xingyi, Xiaopei Dai, and Hou Bin. "The Dynamics of Rewards and Penalties: Governmental Impact on Green Packaging Adoption in Logistics." Sustainability 16, no. 11 (June 5, 2024): 4835. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16114835.

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The widespread use of traditional packaging materials poses significant environmental challenges. Adopting green packaging is essential for reducing pollution and conserving natural resources. This paper aims to examine the effectiveness of government incentives and penalties in promoting the adoption of green packaging by logistics companies. We developed an evolutionary game theory model that involves governments and logistics companies, comparing the impacts of static and dynamic reward and penalty policies. The results indicate that (1) static policies often lead to oscillatory adoption rates of green packaging without achieving a stable equilibrium, while dynamic policies generally promote steadier adoption of sustainable practices. (2) Different combinations of dynamic policies have varying influences on logistics companies’ propensity to adopt green packaging solutions. Specifically, dynamic rewards and static penalties are particularly effective at encouraging logistics companies to adopt green packaging. (3) A combination of dynamic rewards and penalties tends to facilitate more rapid and consistent adoption of green packaging by logistics companies. (4) An increase in government supervision costs is associated with reduced regulatory actions and a lower prevalence of green packaging. These insights are critical for policymakers aiming to craft regulations that successfully encourage sustainability within logistics operations.

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Stout, Kevin R. "Weathering the Storm: Conditional Effects of Natural Disasters on Retrospective Voting in Gubernatorial Elections—A Replication and Extension." Research & Politics 5, no. 4 (October 2018): 205316801881376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2053168018813766.

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Previous research shows that uncontrollable events like natural disasters hinder incumbent leaders’ chances at re-election, but also suggests that competent responses to such crises can benefit incumbents. Replicating and extending the work of other researchers, I show that disasters are informative events in retrospective voting where leaders have the opportunity to demonstrate competence and be rewarded by voters while incapable leaders face punishment for their failure to respond to such a crisis. Governors see greater electoral rewards for demonstrating competence when disaster damage is high as well as when the political situation is more difficult. In the context of a leader’s decision-making process, this reveals a complex and conditional relationship between voters and the leaders they are evaluating.

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Goldman, Alan H. "Real People (Natural Differences and the Scope of Justice)." Canadian Journal of Philosophy 17, no. 2 (June 1987): 377–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00455091.1987.10716442.

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The idea that a just political system must ignore or nullify socially caused initial advantages in competing for positions and other social benefits is as old as political philosophy itself. Plato called for social mobility among his classes so that all could gravitate toward the classes for which their temperaments naturally suited them. The idea that the system must take positive steps to correct for these differences among individuals is likewise as old as the concept of public education, the supposed great equalizer. But the claim that society must correct also for natural differences among individuals – differences in intelligence, talents, beauty, and physical prowess – is far more recent, having been articulated most forcefully by Rawls. The reasoning underlying this further step toward a more radical notion of equal opportunity appeals to the fact that natural differences are equally arbitrary from a moral point of view as a basis for differential rewards as are socially caused differences. A person no more deserves to be born smart than rich. Why then should the former but not the latter be allowed to influence future benefits and rewards? A negative answer, however, creates a tension within a liberal theory of justice between the demand to nullify natural differences, or to use them to the benefit of those least well endowed, and the demand to respect distinct individuals that supposedly grounds such a theory.

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Amaral, Inês M., Laura Scheffauer, Angelika B. Langeder, Alex Hofer, and Rana El Rawas. "Rewarding Social Interaction in Rats Increases CaMKII in the Nucleus Accumbens." Biomedicines 9, no. 12 (December 12, 2021): 1886. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9121886.

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Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is known to be involved in the sensitized locomotor responses and drug-seeking behavior to psychostimulants. However, little is known about the contribution of CaMKII signaling in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in natural rewards such as social interaction. The present experiments explored the implication of CaMKII signaling in drug versus natural reward. In the NAc of rats expressing cocaine or social interaction conditioned place preference (CPP), αCaMKII activation was induced in those expressing social interaction but not cocaine CPP. In order to investigate the role of NAc CaMKII in the expression of reward-related learning of drug versus non-drug stimuli, we inhibited CaMKII through an infusion of KN-93, a CaMKII inhibitor, directly into the NAc shell or core, before the CPP test in a concurrent paradigm in which social interaction was made available in the compartment alternative to the one associated with cocaine during conditioning. Whereas vehicle infusions led to equal preference to both stimuli, inhibition of CaMKII by a KN-93 infusion before the CPP test in the shell but not the core of the NAc shifted the rats’ preference toward the cocaine-associated compartment. Altogether, these results suggest that social interaction reward engages CaMKII in the NAc.

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Nirmal, Nipurn, Kamal Kant Pant, and Anshu Singh. "SUSTAINABILITY SYSTEM TO BENEFIT BOTH GUEST AND HOTELS." PUSA Journal of Hospitality and Applied Sciences 10, no. 1 (March 22, 2024): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.48165/pjhas.2024.10.1.1.

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Background: The research paper was to develop a universal sustainability rewards program in an upscale business hotel. With growing concern for depleting natural resources this program aims at rewarding guests for conserving natural resources. Objective: The study was to identify the consumer behavior and perception towards sustainability and to curate a universal sustainable rewards program. This study proposes a conceptual framework that combines the principles of sustainability, customer loyalty, and corporate social responsibility to design a rewards program that promotes environmentally responsible behaviors among hotel guests. Methodology: Quantitative research design was used in which an energy survey of a two hotels was conducted through telephonic interview with the Incharge of the Hotel Engineering Department and a survey among five hundred general consumers was done to assess their attitudes and behaviors towards sustainability through a Google form. The data was analyzed by calculating frequency and percentage. Results: The findings indicated that sustainable practices have become increasingly important to guests (92%) and 98% feel that an encouraging program would be an effective way to promote sustainable behaviors. The study also identified the key features and benefits of a sustainability programs and around 90% of customers prioritize sustainability efforts and innovations when selecting their accommodations, reinforcing the on-going trend observed in consumer behaviour. Around 81.3% of respondents expressed their willingness to partake in a universal sustainability rewards program and provided recommendations for its successful implementation in hotels. The rewards program gives credit points for optimal conservation of resources. It is universal in nature, i.e. these points can be earned as well as utilized anywhere across the globe. Conclusion: The proposed program has the potential to enhance the hotel’s reputation as a socially responsible business, attract environmentally conscious guests, and contribute to the sustainable development of the hospitality industry.

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Soares-Cunha, C., B. Coimbra, S. Borges, M. M. Carvalho, A. J. Rodrigues, and N. Sousa. "The motivational drive to natural rewards is modulated by prenatal glucocorticoid exposure." Translational Psychiatry 4, no. 6 (June 2014): e397-e397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.45.

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Anselme, Patrick. "The effect of exposure to drugs on the processing of natural rewards." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 33, no. 3 (March 2009): 314–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.10.002.

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Berlinck, Roberto G. S., Eduardo Hajdu, Rosana M. da Rocha, Jaine H. H. L. de Oliveira, Isara L. C. Hernández, Mirna H. R. Seleghim, Ana Claudia Granato, et al. "Challenges and Rewards of Research in Marine Natural Products Chemistry in Brazil#." Journal of Natural Products 67, no. 3 (March 2004): 510–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np0304316.

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Zaharie, Monica Aniela, and Marco Seeber. "Are non-monetary rewards effective in attracting peer reviewers? A natural experiment." Scientometrics 117, no. 3 (September 20, 2018): 1587–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2912-6.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Natural rewards'

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