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Author: Grafiati

Published: 7 September 2024

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1

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs, ed. Public rewards from public lands: 2000. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2000.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Public rewards from public lands. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1995.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management, ed. Public rewards from public lands. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, the Bureau of Land Management, 1997.

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4

Bartsch, Ulrich. Financial risks and rewards in LNG projects: Qatar, Oman, and Yemen. 2nd ed. [Oxford]: Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, 1998.

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5

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2003: Montana. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2003.

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6

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 1999: Montana. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 1999.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2000: Montana. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2000.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 1997: Montana. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 1997.

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9

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Public rewards from public lands: 2007-2008. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2008.

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10

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs, ed. Public rewards from public lands: 1999. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, [Office of Public Affairs], 1999.

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11

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2000: Eastern States. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2000.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2003: Eastern States. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2003.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 1999: Eastern States. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 1999.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2004-2005: Montana. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2005.

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15

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center (U.S.). Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands: Alaska 1997. Washington D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1997.

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16

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center (U.S.). Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands: Colorado 1997. Washington D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1997.

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17

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center (U.S.). Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands: Colorado 2003. Washington D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 2003.

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18

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center. Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands 2004-2005: Eastern States. Washington, D.C: Bureau of Land Management, Office of Public Affairs, 2005.

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19

United States. Bureau of Land Management. Office of Public Affairs and National Science and Technology Center (U.S.). Branch of Publishing Services, eds. Public rewards from public lands: Arizona 2004-2005. Washington D.C: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 2005.

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20

Dutzik, Tony. Reaping the rewards: How state renewable electricity standards are cutting pollution, saving money, creating jobs and fueling a clean energy boom. [Washington, D.C.]: USPIRG, 2007.

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21

Szczepanski, Kallie. Bearing the burdens, reaping the rewards: Who benefits from Africa's national parks. Boston, MA: Program for the Study of the African Environment, African Studies Center, Boston University, 2010.

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22

Public rewards from public lands. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1995.

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23

Nutt, David J., and Liam J. Nestor. The dopamine system and addiction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198797746.003.0007.

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Substances of addiction work by triggering transient, exaggerated increases in dopamine in brain areas that process rewards. These surges in dopamine resemble, and can greatly surpass, physiological increases triggered by natural rewards (e.g. food). Research also suggests that dopamine functioning in the brain may predispose some individuals to initiating substance abuse—particularly the use of stimulants, which induce further deficits within the dopamine system. The development of substance addiction is associated with dysregulated dopaminergic transmission, which results in a hyposensitivity to non-drug rewards and, importantly, impairments in cognition that are involved in controlling impulsivity and drug urges.

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24

Nutt, David J., and Liam J. Nestor. Key elements of addiction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198797746.003.0003.

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Addiction is characterized by the compulsion to seek and take a substance, the loss of control in limiting substance intake, and the emergence of a negative emotional state (e.g. dysphoria, anxiety) when substance intake is prevented. Importantly, there are elements of addiction that emerge during the addiction trajectory (e.g. liking, wanting, habit, craving) that are a reflection of key changes in the homeostasis of brain networks that control different behaviours. These homeostatic changes ultimately lead to 1) a decreased sensitivity for natural rewards, 2) an enhanced sensitivity for conditioned substance cues and the expectation of substance use rewards, 3) a weakened control over substance use urges and substance-taking behaviour, and 4) substance tolerance and withdrawal. Significantly, these changes are targets for pharmacological and psychological treatment interventions in addiction.

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25

Evans, Lynette, and Francesca D'Ottavi. Bug LIfe and Bee Life (Destination Rewards). Insight Editions, 2013.

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26

Evans, Lynette, and Guy Troughton. Whose Egg? and Whose Nest? (Destination Rewards). Insight Editions, 2013.

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27

Hogh-Olesen, Henrik. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190927929.003.0001.

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Humans are aesthetic animals. We adorn ourselves. We decorate our things. We embellish our homes. This is a curious aesthetic behavioral pattern on which we spend vast amounts of time, energy, and resources and which manifests itself in virtually everything we do from mindless and meaningless ways of passing time to silliness, festivity, and vanity and to what is central to being human. The aesthetic impulse appears to be an innate disposition of human nature. An impulse is a natural, internal behavioral incentive, which does not need external rewards to exist, and a number of observations indicate that the aesthetic impulse is an inherent part of human nature and hence a primary impulse in its own right. The introduction addresses the ultimate whys of aesthetic behavior while outlining the structure and scope of the book.

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28

Huber, Robert, and Moira van Staaden, eds. Invertebrate Models of Natural and Drug‐Sensitive Reward. Frontiers Media SA, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88945-928-5.

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29

Hawcock, David, and Lee Montgomery. Bouncing Bugs ... Bee, Ant, and Spider (Destination Rewards). Insight Editions, 2013.

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30

Moore, Ronald, ed. Natural Beauty. Broadview Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350928534.

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Natural Beauty was selected for the Choice Outstanding Academic Title list for 2008! Natural Beauty presents a bold new philosophical account of the principles involved in making aesthetic judgments about natural objects. It surveys historical and modern accounts of natural beauty and weaves elements derived from those accounts into a “syncretic theory” that centers on key features of aesthetic experience—specifically, features that sustain and reward attention. In this way, Moore’s theory sets itself apart from both the purely cognitive and the purely emotive approaches that have dominated natural aesthetics until now. Natural Beauty shows why aesthetic appreciation of works of art and aesthetic appreciation of nature can be mutually reinforcing; that is, how they are cooperative rather than rival enterprises. Moore also makes a compelling case for how and why the experience of natural beauty can contribute to the larger project of living a good life.

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31

Sheehan, Kathleen. Pennsylvania Farm Park: Discovering Wildlife in Pennsylvania, the Rewards of Conservation. Special Kay Designs, LLC, 2021.

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32

Sheehan, Kathleen. Pennsylvania Farm Park: Discovering Wildlife in Pennsylvania, the Rewards of Conservation. Special Kay Designs, LLC, 2021.

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33

Sheehan, Kathleen. A Pennsylvania Farm Park: Discovering Wildlife in Pennsylvania, the Rewards of Conservation. Special Kay Designs, LLC, 2023.

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34

Beninger, Richard J. Dopamine and reward-related learning. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198824091.003.0002.

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Dopamine and reward-related learning describes how the intellectual influence of behaviorism declined in the middle of the twentieth century as descriptions of behavioral phenomena that violated the putative laws of learning accumulated. Incentive theory along with an ethological perspective that emphasized animals’ specific behavioral adaptations for survival in their natural environment provided an alternative. Thus, rewarding stimuli produce incentive learning, the acquisition of neutral stimuli of an increased ability to elicit approach and other responses. The reward-related learning effects of food were shown to depend on dopamine and dopamine was implicated in avoidance learning. Results suggest that in untrained animals, tested while in a dopamine-depleted state, conditioned incentive stimuli fail to acquire the ability to elicit approach and other responses; in trained animals tested while in a dopamine-depleted state, conditioned incentive stimuli gradually lose their ability to elicit approach and other responses.

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35

Hogh-Olesen, Henrik. The Aesthetic Animal. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190927929.001.0001.

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The Aesthetic Animal answers the ultimate questions of why we adorn ourselves; embellish our things and surroundings; and produce art, music, song, dance, and fiction. Humans are aesthetic animals that spend vast amounts of time and resources on seemingly useless aesthetic activities. However, nature would not allow a species to waste precious time and effort on activities completely unrelated to the survival, reproduction, and well-being of that species. Consequently, the aesthetic impulse must have some important biological functions. An impulse is a natural, internal behavioral incentive that does not need external reward to exist. A number of observations indicate that the aesthetic impulse is exactly such an inherent part of human nature, and therefore it is a primary impulse in its own right with several important functions. The aesthetic impulse may guide us toward what is biologically good for us and help us choose the right fitness-enhancing items in our surroundings. It is a valid individual fitness indicator, as well as a unifying social group marker, and aesthetically skilled individuals get more mating possibilities, higher status, and more collaborative offers. This book is written in a lively and entertaining tone, and it presents an original and comprehensive synthesis of the empirical field, synthesizing data from archeology, cave art, anthropology, biology, ethology, and experimental and evolutionary psychology and neuro-aesthetics.

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36

Nutt, David J., and Liam J. Nestor. Addiction (Oxford Psychiatry Library). Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198797746.001.0001.

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Part of the Oxford Psychiatry Library series, this resource is a clear and comprehensive overview of the brain science underpinning addiction that helps explain the current and future therapeutics for the range of addictions, using full colour images to enhance understanding. It focuses on the nature of addiction as a brain disorder that includes a range of different behavioural traits such as impulsivity and reward dependence, and discusses the critical role of kinetic and pharmacological factors. The also explains how the primary pharmacological targets of drugs of abuse are now understood, the relation to the variable nature of addiction to different substances, and how this may lead to new approaches to treatment.

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37

Batson, C. Daniel. What We’re Looking For. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190651374.003.0002.

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Whether a search for altruism is worth pursuing depends on what is meant by altruism. In recent years, seven different things have been called altruism. Four refer to specific forms of behavior, not to our motivational concern: (a) helpful behavior, (b) helping behavior, (c) high-cost helping, and (d) moral behavior. Three refer to motivation rather than behavior, but the first two of these view altruism as a special case of egoism: (e) helping in order to gain internal rather than external rewards and (f) helping in order to reduce one’s own distress caused by witnessing another’s distress. The altruism we’re looking for is (g) a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another’s welfare. Altruism in this sense is juxtaposed to egoism, a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing one’s own welfare. This last definition is the only one that focuses on the human–nature question raised in Chapter 1.

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38

Garnett, Stephen, Peter Latch, David Lindenmayer, and John Woinarski, eds. Recovering Australian Threatened Species. CSIRO Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/9781486307425.

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Australia’s nature is exceptional, wonderful and important. But much has been lost, and the ongoing existence of many species now hangs by a thread. Against a relentless tide of threats to our biodiversity, many Australians, and government and non-government agencies, have devoted themselves to the challenge of conserving and recovering plant and animal species that now need our help to survive. This dedication has been rewarded with some outstanding and inspiring successes: of extinctions averted, of populations increasing, of communities actively involved in recovery efforts. Recovering Australian Threatened Species showcases successful conservation stories and identifies approaches and implementation methods that have been most effective in recovering threatened species. These diverse accounts – dealing with threatened plants, invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals – show that the conservation of threatened species is achievable: that it can be done and should be done. They collectively serve to inform, guide and inspire other conservation efforts. This is a book of hope and inspiration. It shows that with dedication, knowledge and support, we can retain and restore our marvellous natural heritage, and gift to our descendants a world that is as diverse, healthy and beautiful as that which we have inherited. Joint recipient of the 2018 Whitley Certificate of Commendation for Conservation Zoology

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39

Howes, Andrew, Xiuli Chen, Aditya Acharya, and Richard L. Lewis. Interaction as an Emergent Property of a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799603.003.0011.

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In this chapter we explore the potential advantages of modeling the interaction between a human and a computer as a consequence of a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) that models human cognition. POMDPs can be used to model human perceptual mechanisms, such as human vision, as partial (uncertain) observers of a hidden state are possible. In general, POMDPs permit a rigorous definition of interaction as the outcome of a reward maximizing stochastic sequential decision processes. They have been shown to explain interaction between a human and an environment in a range of scenarios, including visual search, interactive search and sense-making. The chapter uses these scenarios to illustrate the explanatory power of POMDPs in HCI. It also shows that POMDPs embrace the embodied, ecological and adaptive nature of human interaction.

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40

Bergman, R. Lindsey. Treatment for Children with Selective Mutism. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780195391527.001.0001.

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Treatment for Children with Selective Mutism outlines the sequence and essential elements to guide clinicians through a comprehensive, integrated program for young children who display symptoms of SM. It explains how this approach utilizes behavioral interventions targeting gradual increases in speaking across settings in which the child initially has difficulty. The integrated nature of the therapy refers to the goal of incorporating input from the clinician with that from the parents and teacher, as well as others impacted by the lack of speech. Exposure exercises are based on behavioral techniques such as stimulus fading, shaping, and systematic desensitization that also allow for a less intense or gradual exposure to the speaking situation. These techniques are combined and used flexibly with a behavioral reward system for participation in treatment.

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41

Unwin, Lorna. Employer-Led In-Work Training and Skill Formation. Edited by John Buchanan, David Finegold, Ken Mayhew, and Chris Warhurst. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199655366.013.11.

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This chapter examines skill formation organized by employers in the workplace. Its starting point is that all types of work involve knowledge and skill and, therefore, all workplaces are potential learning environments. The chapter discusses developments in workplace learning theory as well as the international empirical evidence on employer attitudes to and investment in in-work training. Illustrations from case study research are provided. It argues that workplace learning is contingent on the level of interaction of individuals with the way work is organized and managed, the nature of the employment contract including reward and incentive structures, the level of discretion employees have to determine how they work, and the extent to which employees are involved in decision making. The chapter concludes with recommendations for policy and practice.

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42

Huber, Robert. Evolution of Natural and Drug-Sensitive Reward in Addiction : 31st Annual Karger Workshop in Evolutionary Neuroscience, Chicago, il, October 2019. Special Topic Issue: Brain, Behavior and Evolution 2020, Vol. 95, No. 5. Karger AG, S., 2021.

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43

Huber, Robert. Evolution of Natural and Drug-Sensitive Reward in Addiction : 31st Annual Karger Workshop in Evolutionary Neuroscience, Chicago, il, October 2019. Special Topic Issue: Brain, Behavior and Evolution 2020, Vol. 95, No. 5. Karger AG, S., 2021.

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44

Vuković, Vuk. Elite Networks. Oxford University PressNew York, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197774229.001.0001.

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Abstract Elite Networks presents a novel explanatory factor behind the rise and persistence of income inequality: extractive political power. It shows how the collusion between political and corporate power affects the distribution of incomes. Its most important goal is to offer a different perspective on the long-run origins of inequality by introducing the concept of elite networks and examining their effects on the distribution of power and incomes. Elite networks are informal social networks between politicians in power and top executives of politically connected firms where personal ties and long-term interactions build trust and loyalty between involved actors. Both groups draw benefits from these interactions. Politicians stay in power and may extract bribes and other favors, while firms are rewarded with exclusive government contracts, favorable regulation, and direct subsidies. Top corporate executives that are successful in acquiring these rents as a consequence of their elite network interactions are rewarded by their firms with higher salaries. This consequentially widens the dispersion of earnings between the top 1% of income earners (most of whom are corporate executives) and everyone else. The book recognizes that the long-run forces behind inequality were always rooted in centralized and extractive political power, generated via specific relationships between the society’s elites. Centralization of power enables the network effect that creates elite networks, which encourage rent-seeking opportunities to its members, consequentially increasing inequality. Inequality is not a modern nor a natural phenomenon, but a man-made phenomenon rooted deeply within the, often violent, quest for political power.

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45

Wilson, Catherine. Essential Religiosity in Descartes and Locke. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815037.003.0010.

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This chapter offers an overview and comparison of Descartes’s and Locke’s stances toward religious and moral issues (their ‘essential religiosity’), such as their views on divine agency in the creation of the world and direction of human affairs; the relevance of divine retribution and reward to morality; their sense of supernatural power and artistry as revealed in things of the world. It contrasts the different kinds of epistemic and moral humility that these engender in each author. Descartes’s attitude of acceptance towards all that befalls us followed from his conception of the universe as a law-governed realm, manifesting God’s impersonal wisdom and power. Locke’s belief that God is merciful with respect to human weakness and our tendency to stumble and blunder follows from his sense of the complexity of nature and human affairs and the mediocrity of human reason.

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46

Strawson, Galen. Conclusion. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691161006.003.0020.

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This chapter examines another reason why the idea of a person's overall moral identity or nature may be useful in a Lockean framework. It first considers the difficulty that arises when materialists or mortalists address the troublesome question of what guarantees personal identity between death and resurrection before discussing John Locke's reply to the same question in terms of consciousness. It then explores Locke's position regarding the idea that God may give each of us a brand-new body on the Day of Judgment, which won't matter so long as our personality and memory information and mental capacities and consciousness are somehow preserved. It argues that this kind of preservation of personal identity is no worse than its preservation through sleep or change of material particles. The chapter also analyzes the link between consciousness and concernment and concludes by commenting on punishment and reward.

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47

Assael, Brenda. Waiting in the Restaurant. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198817604.003.0004.

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Chapter 3 focuses on the waiter, exploring the reality behind his representation in popular culture as marginal, disenchanted, and melancholy. While real-life waiters were often keen to share a variety of grievances about their working conditions, they were not universally degraded victims of exploitation. Some waiters were able to capitalize on the open and dynamic nature of the restaurant service economy, which created opportunities for mobility and reward. Tipping, which remained an ongoing bone of contention, for both waiters and those they served, could prove to be an important source of supplementary income. For all the idiosyncrasies of the waiter’s position, he represented the broader significance of the service sector in the shaping of London in this period. The extensive public attention given to foreign-born waiters and (newly emergent) waitresses underlines the heterogeneity that characterized, not merely the restaurant, but the wider metropolitan culture in which it was located.

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48

Ferraro, Paul J. Are payments for ecosystem services benefiting ecosystems and people? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808978.003.0025.

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This chapter examines the evidence surrounding whether payments for ecosystem services (PES) have delivered the anticipated benefits for people and nature. Proponents claim PES are scalable and clearly link conservation investments to conservation objectives. PES also materially reward rural households, thereby potentially alleviating poverty and reducing conflict between conservation and rural communities. The reality is not so simple. Theory yields ambiguous predictions, even implying that the more participants gain from PES, the less the environment gains, and offering no reason to expect win-wins to automatically arise. The empirical evidence is scant, with very few examples of even modest environmental and social impacts. Nevertheless, alternative conservation approaches have no better evidence of transformative impacts (and often much worse evidence). Given that solutions exist for making PES more likely to achieve their purported environmental benefits, scholars and practitioners would be ill-advised to abandon PES programs, but well advised to design better assessments.

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49

Martin, Christopher S., Tammy Chung, and James W. Langenbucher. Historical and Cultural Perspectives on Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders. Edited by Kenneth J. Sher. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381678.013.001.

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This chapter describes how substance use, substance-related problems, and substance use disorders (SUDs) have been viewed over time and in different cultures. Substance problems and inebriety were historically understood through a moralistic perspective, although the description of substance problem syndromes as medical diseases or disorders has a long history. Systematic attempts to develop and refine diagnostic criteria for SUDs began in the middle of the twentieth century and continue to this day. Research has identified limitations of existing diagnostic criteria for SUDs, which can aid the development of future classification systems. Culture plays a role in how substance use and SUDs are conceptualized and in how symptoms are manifested and interpreted. Modern theory of the nature of substance dependence emphasizes how chronic substance use can produce neuroadaptations in brain systems involved in reward, motivation, affective regulation, inhibitory control, and tolerance/withdrawal, all of which can contribute to compulsive substance use behavior.

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50

McLean, Robert, and James A. Densley. Robbery in the Illegal Drugs Trade. Policy Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529223910.001.0001.

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Robbery can be planned or spontaneous and is a typically short, chaotic crime that is comparatively under-researched. This book transports the reader to the streets of Scotland and focuses on the real-life narratives and motivations of the youth gang members and adult organized criminals immersed in this form of violence. Uniquely focusing on robberies involving drug dealers and users, the book considers the material and emotional gains and losses to offenders and victims, and offers policy recommendations to reduce occurrences of this common crime. The book begins with an introduction to the lived experience of robbery from the perspective of victims and offenders. It covers the risks and rewards of a crime that can be planned or spontaneous. It also highlights the causes and consequences of robberies, the adrenaline rush of the act, the at times precarious and explosive nature of the crime. The book examines the evolution of robbery, namely how globalized changes have widened and somewhat diluted the crime. It explains why offenders choose robbery in general over other crimes, and it looks at the motivations of robbery in illicit drugs markets. The book moves on to examine life after robbery and the process of desistance from robbery and concludes with a summary of the findings on robbery in Scotland that situates them within the wider theory and research on robbery.

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