Journal articles on the topic 'Natural history; 17 century'

Abstract. Heuson published two booklets of observations of the aurora of 17/18 February, 1/2 March 1721, and 16/17 November 1729 together with contemporary thoughts about the subject. His work characterizes him as a well-educated scholar familiar with contemporary auroral observations and theories. Heuson rejects views of the aurora as an omen or portent of divine wrath, but explains the aurora as a natural phenomenon and is thus in line with other well-known auroral scholars of that time.

George Walker was one of the most creative, inspirational and influential volcanologists of the twentieth century. Born in Harlesden, London, on 2 March 1926 in a respectable working–class neighbourhood, he was the first member of his family to take an interest in science and to attend university. His father, Leonard Walker, an insurance salesman, was badly wounded at Passchendaele in World War I as a sergeant bomber and never fully recovered. He died in 1932, when George was six years old. His mother, Evelyn Frances ( née McConkey), was a nurse. George had no siblings. He attended Acton Lane Elementary School and recollected a lesson on the making of iron as being memorable. Other influences included natural history, adventure books and visits to the South Kensington Museum and London Zoo. He did well at school and in 1937 won a scholarship to Willesden Secondary School.

Abstract. Biomass burning influences global atmospheric chemistry by releasing greenhouse gases and climate-forcing aerosols. There is controversy about the magnitude and timing of Holocene changes in biomass burning emissions from millennial to centennial timescales and, in particular, about the possible impact of ancient civilizations. Here we present a 5 kyr record of fire activity proxies levoglucosan, black carbon, and ammonium measured in the RECAP (Renland ice cap) ice core, drilled in coastal eastern Greenland, and therefore affected by processes occurring in the high North Atlantic region. Levoglucosan and ammonium fluxes are high from 5 to 4.5 kyr BP (thousand years before 2000 CE) followed by an abrupt decline, possibly due to monotonic decline in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation. Levoglucosan and black carbon show an abrupt decline at 1.1 kyr BP, suggesting a decline in the wildfire regime in Iceland due to the extensive land clearing caused by Viking colonizers. All fire proxies reach a minimum during the second half of the last century, after which levoglucosan and ammonium fluxes increase again, in particular over the last 200 years. We find that the fire regime reconstructed from RECAP fluxes seems mainly related to climatic changes; however over the last millennium human activities might have influenced wildfire frequency/occurrence substantially.

By the turn of the twentieth century the west of Ireland had become a geographical expression synonymous with poverty and destitution. Whilst in the eighteenth century Connacht was regarded as inaccessible, it was not considered to be overpopulated, hungry or poverty-stricken. Its economic and social condition began to change for the worse in the nineteenth century. From 1816-17 onwards the western seaboard was affected more and more severely by a series of famines and localised distress and typhus. Hardship on the islands off Mayo and Galway was so severe in 1822-3 that London philanthropists set up a committee to launch a large-scale relief programme. The committee blamed the distress on potato failure, ‘want of employment’, high rents and low agricultural prices.The deterioration in economic and social conditions is considered to have been exacerbated by the equalisation of the currencies of, and the removal of tariffs between, Ireland and Great Britain in the mid 1820s. Some rural industries, like textiles, glass and kelp-production, were wiped out. The resistance of the western economy to natural disaster was thereby severely weakened. The western isles were hit badly by the distress of 1835 and even more so by the Great Famine ten years later. Rents remained high whilst incomes fell.

In the past, the entire region of Poland was overgrown by forests. Due to economic changes, the forest cover was reduced to 40% in the 18th century and 21% after the Second World War. After the war, Polish foresters undertook considerable efforts to increase the forest cover to 30.8% by 2015. Polish forests are characterized by the dominance of oligo- and mesotrophic coniferous species (68.7%). This include the pioneer species, Scots pine. It covers approximately 60% of the area. The species composition of Polish forests determined the dominance of artificial regenerations. However, the currently prevailing direction of forest culture is natural regeneration. This tendency is related to “greening” of the forest management, the priority of durability over productivity and culture of multifunctional forests. A natural or seminatural direction of forest culture is being promoted. Renewal of the species such as fir, beech, oak, or spruce from the last stages of succession have always taken place in a natural manner, whereas the statistics are generated by the dominant species preferring open areas during renewal. Currently, the scale of natural regenerations of the pine is increasing. It is increasingly common to value the favorable economic aspect of natural renewal of the species, and the experience of practitioners supported by scientific research increase the likelihood for success. In Poland, the majority of methods of regeneration proceedings (forest cutting) and the law are directed at obtaining and promoting natural renewal. Independent of the concept of natural renewal promotion, the location of Poland in the intermediate climate zone, between the influence of oceanic and continental climates, resulted in the formation of valuable tree stands with high flexibility and tolerance to growth conditions. They are divided into seed stands, excluded stands, and timberlands. Thus, Poland is in possession of a great base for seed collection. At the beginning of 1990s, a rapid need for container seedlings occurred due to numerous disasters (wind-broken trees, gradations). Currently, in Poland, 17 field nurseries are in operation producing 1–10 m seedlings. In 1992, Poland received a loan from the World Bank to conduct afforestations and the “National Program for Increasing the Forest Cover” was started. The main objective of the plan is to increase the forest cover to 30% in 2020 and 33% in 2050. Within the program, it is planned to include vegetation of the natural succession in the area of approximately 80,000 ha.

Abstract. Despite the strong societal impact of mountain risks, their systematic documentation remains poor. Therefore, snow avalanche chronologies exceeding several decades are exceptional, especially in medium-high mountain ranges. This article implements a combination of historical and geographical methods leading to the reconstruction, at the scale of the entire Vosges Mountains (north-east of France), of more than 700 avalanches that have occurred since the late eighteenth century on 128 paths. The clearly episodic nature of the derived geo-chronology can be explained by three interrelated factors that have changed together over time: the body and reliability of sources, social practices conditioning the vulnerability and the natural hazard itself. Finally, the geo-chronology reflects the changes in the meaning of the hazard in social space. Specifically, the event which could be retrieved from the historical sources is an aspect of the interaction between society and its environment. These results confirm the role of the historian in contextualising and evaluating such data. It transforms these data into information that is relevant for mitigating risk and understanding its change over time. The work also demonstrates the usefulness of constructing an original database from a diverse suite of historical data and field investigations. This approach could be applied to other risk phenomena in the frequent situation in which archival data are sparse.

This article analyses Polish book collections in Ekaterinburg. The author has found such collections in four of the city’s libraries: the Sverdlovsk regional library, the Sverdlovsk regional history museum, the Central Academic Library of the Ural branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Ural Law University. In the article, the history of how these collections were formed and their particularities are discussed, as are the fates of individual books. The largest collection (250 books at the Sverdlovsk regional library) has as its basis books from the libraries of the Catholic Church of St Anna and the Catholic Philanthropic Society. The foundation of the Polish collection at the Sverdlovsk regional history museum consists of books from the archive of the Ural Society for the Admirers of the Natural Sciences. This collection includes a total of 17 works: the earliest of them coming from the beginning of the 18th century. A further focused search for Polish books in the libraries of Ekaterinburg would probably result in new findings.

2057 Background: The role of temozolomide (TMZ) concurrent with and adjuvant to radiotherapy (RT) in the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) has been demonstrated by the EORTC 22981/26981-NCIC CE.3 (EORTC/NCIC) randomized trial, and has been widely accepted as the standard treatment. The impact of RT/TMZ in the general patient population was assessed in the context of the Registry of the Project of Emilia-Romagna Region in Neuro-Oncology (PERNO), that represents the first italian prospectic observational population-based study in neuro-oncology. Methods: Approvals from local Ethical Committees were obtained by 8 participating centres. Patients (pts) who met the following inclusion criteria were evaluated: age ≥18 years; PS 0-3; histologically confirmed GBM, no previous or concomitant non glial tumoral disease, resident in Emilia Romagna region. The data were prospectively collected. Results: From January 2009 to January 2011, 194 GBM pts were enrolled. The median age was 62.5, with 26% of pts over 70 years. After surgery pts received RT/TMZ (73%), RT alone (19%), TMZ alone (5%) or no further treatment (3%); 22% were included in clinical trials. Median overall survival (OS) was 12.9 months. Pts <70 years received RT/TMZ in 85% of cases. In this group of pts mOS was 17 months (95%CI: 15.4–18.6). Interestingly, pts <70 years included in experimental clinical trials showed a significant OS improvement (p=0.04). In multivariate analysis, only extent of surgery (p=0.047), KPS (p=0.01) and RT/TMZ (p<0.001) were associated with OS in pts <70 years. Conclusions: Our population data reproduces the beneficial effect of RT/TMZ from the EORTC/NCIC randomized trial, confirming how this successful approach as been widely incorporated in daily practice. Interestingly, our data suggest that the survival of GBM pts treated with RT/TMZ could be greater than patients treated with RT/TMZ in the EORTC/NCIC trial at the beginning of this century.

Attention is drawn to the contents, pedagogic style and visual appeal of the 17-volume “Peeps at nature” series published by A. & C. Black between 1911 and 1935. Edited by the Reverend Charles Albert Hall (a Swedenborgian minister), who also contributed most of the titles, this series was a quality production but one that was cheap enough to be readily accessible to young readers. Its volumes were written in simple language and included colour pictures. With time, the flamboyant artistry of the covers that so characterized the earlier volumes was replaced by more muted designs, possibly to reduce production costs. Later contributors abandoned anthropomorphism and the moralizing tone of many nineteenth-century popularizers of natural history, although styles of writing varied between the early and later contributors to the series, becoming less technical with time.

In the 19th century stone-cutting art has become one of the brightest elements in the representation of the Russian Empire. World’s fairs provided ample opportunities for this representation. The article examines the structure of the collections and the list of the exhibitors at one of the largest fairs — The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. The paper draws upon both published and archival documents, including those which have not yet been used for the examination of the representation of Russia’s stone art at this exhibition. It reconstructs mineralogical, technical and typological diversity of the exhibited items and the principle of reciprocal completing of the exhibitors. It also analyzes the items presented by the imperial Petergof, Ekaterinburg lapidary and Kolyvan grinding factories, by Carl Woerffel’s enterprise and a wide range of small Ural producers as well. Due to discovering of archival materials, a number of items, exhibited in Chicago, was identified in themuseum collections in Russia and abroad. Some attributional details for the exhibited Woerffel items are offered which made it possible to propose the authorship and dating for the items from Russian and foreign collections. The author is also the first to analyze the collection, purchased at the exhibition from the Russian stonecutters for The Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. A conclusion is drawn about the role of the colored stones items and the importance of their presentation for the formation of the Russian Empire’s image as one of the most important world centers of the decorative stones development.

The subject of the study was 45 textbooks, published from 1835 to 1875 were preserved in the old-fashioned collection of the centre community „Nadejda-1869”. Their authors are 17 teachers who wrote, translated and published first Bulgarian textbooks in the XIX-th century. They are journalists writing the first newspapers and magazines. They lead the struggle for new Bulgarian education, church independence and political freedom. They reform the education and the place of the cell, they build the secular. They are innovators, they introduce the study of new school subjects and languages according to the needs of the time. The text presents first textbooks in Bulgarian language, readings and grammar, arithmetics, geometry and physics. They are textbooks on history, geography, textbooks of natural history. Were preserved textbooks of logic, textbooks of moral and textbooks and dictionaries in French and German, sacred Orthodox catechisms. The article presents the history and development of the curriculum in Bulgarian schools in the ХIX c..2 Keywords: Old-fashioned collection, centre community „Nadejda-1869”, teachers, authors, first Bulgarian textbooks in the XIX-th, new Bulgarian secular education, new school subjects and languages, first textbooks in Bulgarian language, readings, grammar, arithmetics, geometry and physics, history textbooks, geography, textbooks and dictionaries in French and German

The article deals with the historical-cultural topic of relations of the Russian animalism with other genres of fine art of the 18th and 19th centuries. When the features of animalistic art were identified as a peculiar and characteristic phenomenon open to interaction, animalism became an original page of Russian culture. The author refers to this topic in connection with the small number of complex studies in the field of animalism. The purpose of the article is to consider the specific features of animalism, as a characteristic original phenomenon of Russian artistic culture, in the context of the existing genre system of the two designated periods. The relevance of the article lies in the fact that the issues of interaction and integration are very significant in historical and modern artistic practice. The demonstration of such “communications” on the example of Russian animalistic painting, graphics, and sculpture further enriches and diversifies the sphere of Russian art, giving it the character of integrity and national color.The article presents a review of Russian and foreign literature on this topic, indicates that animalism entered the system of genres of Russian art of the 18th—19th centuries as a special “genus” of it, showing an independent status. For two centuries, artists set their task to create an animal’s image in the sphere of the natural reality they observed. The nature they perceived and the animals in it were reflected in different genres of fine art. In the 18th century, when the Academy of Arts and related classes were organized in Russia, animals and birds began to be depicted in historical, battle, landscape paintings, and still lifes. Wild and domestic animals appeared in paintings by foreign and Russian masters. In the 19th century, the horse became one of the most preferred characters in portraiture and sculpture (along with the historical and landscape genre). The author concludes that the historical realities of that time highlighted that image and determined the formation of a separate “hippic genre”.

Surveys conducted during three years (2014-2017) provide the most extensive documentation to date for the possible presence of the Texas kangaroo rat (Dipodomys elator), a Tier II species considered to be of greatest conservation need, in seven counties in southwestern Oklahoma. The project encompassed 15 surveys on 93 nights; 266 localities were surveyed for a total of 9,094 trap nights and more than 32,428 km of paved and unpaved roads were surveyed for potential habitat and activity. No Texas kangaroo rats were captured or observed. However, 2,178 individuals of 17 mammal species were captured and individuals of 12 additional mammal species were collected and/or observed. New locality and natural history information for mammal species was obtained and six county records were recorded based on specimens and/or observations. Project results and historical information suggest that the Texas kangaroo rat (D. elator) is likely extirpated from the state of Oklahoma.

The article reports about chorology, phytocenotic, biotopical features of 24 orchid species (Orchidaceae Juss.) on the territory of Chernivtsi. The history of studying orchids in the city is described. The authors give the cadastre of locations of orchids based on studies of material at the herbariums (CHER, KW, LE, LW, МНА), literary sources and own collecting expeditions. There found 24 species of orchids in Chernivtsi. 6 of them (Anacamptis coriophora (L.) R.M. Bateman, Pridgeon et M.W. Chase s.l., A. palustris (Jacq.) R.M. Bateman, Pridgeon et M.W. Chase, Corallorhiza trífida Châtel., Dactylorhiza cordigera (Fries) Soó, Orchis purpurea Huds. та О. signifera Vest.) are not been confirmed by modern collecting expeditions, 3 of them (Anacamptis palustris, Orchis purpurea, О. signifera) were listed from herbarium and literary sources of the second half of ХІХ century. At the moment these species and their habitats are suspected to have been lost due to urban transformation. 17 species (70,8%) of orchids have been found in 1-5 habitats, and 7 species (29,2%) – in 6-20 habitats. Orchids are the part of 4 alliance 4 orders and 2 classes of natural vegetation Carpino-Fagetea sylvaticae Jakucs ex Passarge 1968 and Molinio-Arrhenatheretea Tx. 1937 and 5 types of habitats (4 of them are natural and 1 – synanthropic) on the territory of Chernivtsi. Natural plant communities with orchids belong to 4 habitats from Annex I of the Council Directive – 9130, 9170, 6510, 6440 and 4 biotopes listed in Resolution №4 of the Bern Convention – G1.6, G1.A1, E2.2, Е3.4. Remnants of natural forest biotopes having orchids were survived by the designation of landscape sanctuary – «Tsetsino» (430 ha) the object of national significance and «Haryachyy Urban» (108 ha) the object of regional significance. There are 11 and 2 species of orchids on the territory of «Tsetsinо» and «Haryachyy Urban» respectively. Cultivated coenosis of the biggest Park Architecture Monument of regional significance «Zhovtnevyy» (63,5 ha) have 3 speсies of orchids. 4 species are not protected. These results are important for follow-up monitoring measures on rare species of plants in Chernivtsi.

In this article, by combining/following previous publications, we summarize the history of nearly 100 years of development of the Vietnam seismological network and its achievements in earthquake monitoring and seismological research to contribute to prevention and mitigation of natural disasters and sustainable development of the country. Earthquake observation in Vietnam has gone through many stages of development, the first seismic station was established in Sapa by the French in 1924. In the years of 70-80s of the 20th Century, the earthquake monitoring network of Vietnam consisted of 7 stations, including five stations distributed in the Northern part (Phu Lien, Sa Pa, Bac Giang, Hoa Binh, Tuyen Quang) and two stations located in the south (Nha Trang and Da Lat). In the period from 1990 to 2005, the national seismological network with 24 digital seismographs and short-period sensors was created and distributed throughout the country. Today, earthquake monitoring in Vietnam has made great progress, the new seismological network with 30 broadband stations with advanced earthquake monitoring technology been established completely in 2017. The international cooperation on earthquake monitoring and seismological research is always promoted and expanded, over the past 60 years, IGP has collaborated with many scientific organizations from different countries such as Russia, France, China, Japan, Poland, The United State of America,... and prestigious international organizations as UNDP, PTWC, CTBTO, IRIS, ADPC, RIMES,.. Through these cooperations, many research projects have been done and Vietnamese seismologists have been trained and educated at different levels that help to improve their knowledge earthquake monitoring and seismological research. Besides operating the national seismological network, some local seismic networks have also been established by Institute of Geophysics for many years to monitor and study induced seismicity in some reservoirs of hydropower dams such as Son La, Hoa Binh, Tri An, Yaly, Song Tranh, Lai Chau, Huoi Quang, Ban Chat,...

Die Geschichte der beiden Institute für Mineralogie und für Paläontologie des Berliner Museums für Naturkunde mit ihren sehr großen Sammlungen beginnt mit ihrer direkten Vorgängerin, der Berliner Bergakademie, die 1770 gegründet worden ist. Aber bereits vor dieser Zeit hat es in Berlin geowissenschaftliche Interessen und Betätigungen gegeben. <br><br> Diese Vorgeschichte wird mit einer Zeit begonnen, in der es den Ort Berlin noch längst nicht gab. Aus der La-Tene-Zeit, die der Zeit der griechischen Antike entspricht, stammt eine Aschenurne mit einer Sammlung fossiler Mollusken, die im norddeutschen Flachland bei Bernburg gefunden wurde. Die Zusammensetzung dieser Sammlung läßt bereits ein wissenschaftliches Herangehen erkennen. <br><br> Für Berlin selbst ist kurz nach Georg Agricola eine Persönlichkeit der Renaissance zu verzeichnen, Leonhard Thurneysser zum Thurn, in dessen vielfältigen Aktivitäten auch Mineralien einen Platz hatten. In gleicher Zeit war in Berlin am brandenburgischen Hofe eine Raritätenkammer vorhanden, die spätere Kunst- und Naturalienkammer. Sie existierte bis über das Jahr 1770 hinaus und enthielt auch Mineralien und Versteinerungen. Das sich hierdurch zeigende Interesse an solchen Objekten war noch recht oberflächlich. <br><br> Erst die Sammlungen privater Personen, die in Berlin seit Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts entstanden sind, zeigen ein tieferes und wissenschaftliches Interesse, wenn auch in verschiedenem Maße und in unterschiedlicher Spezialisierung. Unter ihnen ragt besonders Johann Gottlob Lehmann heraus. Als vielseitiger Naturwissenschaftler und Bergrat hielt er privat Vorlesungen in Mineralogie und Bergbaukunde. Der Siebenjährige Krieg verhinderte den Ausbau und die Fortsetzung. <br><br> Erst Jahre danach, 1768, reorganisierte König Friedrich II. das preußische Bergwesen und richtete 1770 die Berliner Bergakademie ein. Hierbei kam dem Arzt und Bergrat Carl Abraham Gerhard bei der Einrichtung und als Lehrkraft eine wesentliche Rolle zu. <br><br> History of the Geoscience Institutes of the Natural History Museum in Berlin, Part 1. <br><br> The Geoscience Institutes of the Natural History Museum in Berlin have their roots in the Mining Academy which was founded in 1770. Geoscientific interest, however, goes back as far as to prehistoric times which is, e.g., evidenced by a collection of mollusks from the Iron Age. From the Renaissance, similar interests were developed by Leonhard Thurneysser zum Thurn. The contemporaneous cabinet of arts and curiosities of the Prussian Dynasty is also known to have housed geoscientific pieces which, however, turned out to be of only subordinate significance later. Much more important were the efforts of Berlin citizens in the 17th and 18th century who established remarkable collections of geoscientific objects. Among these collectors, Johann Gottlob Lehmann was the most outstanding personality. He gave not only lectures but also wrote textbooks on geoscientific topics. However, not before the end of the Seven Years-War Carl Abraham Gerhard was authorized to found the Mining Academy. <br><br> doi:<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mmng.19980010102" target="_blank">10.1002/mmng.19980010102</a>

AbstractThe difficulties encountered by any history of music teacher when tackling postmodern repertoire is a well-known fact. Doubts are only natural. For instance, of the innumerable creators belonging to different cultures, which would be the relevant composers? Furthermore, when finally choosing one representative, on which of his/her works should one focus? And after one particular piece of selected, what is the best way to teach the scientific arguments required for its perception? When the chosen opus fails to distinguish itself through the direct expressiveness of its language, what should one do? What are the works of music considered to be exquisite in terms of technique and expression, with an actual impact on the teaching field? This approach is all the more tedious as the specialized teacher is faced with the lack of any immediate feedback about the importance of some music, as the biggest impediment is the music score itself, which becomes gradually accessible, after numerous auditions and explanatory comments. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to achieve the teaching approach of an opus with direct expressiveness composed during the last decades of the last century: Recital I for Cathy by Luciano Berio. An innovative mezzo soprano and 17 instruments score, which promotes the subtleties existing either in the relationship between themes, dramaturgy and language, or in the correspondence between text and sonority. These are some of the aspects that we intend to tackle in order to help our students understand the postmodern phenomenon by means of Berio’s inclusive and synthetic vision. In order to ground our scientific approach, we rely on the well-known quotation technique used by the creator, which, by recalling apparently disparate music, facilitates the process of didactic demonstration. The actual quotation or allusion to different sonorities constitutes a challenge in discovering the general and particular meanings of sound dramaturgy, but especially the deep meanings of the emotional reception of the opus.

INTEREST IN VICTORIAN natural history illustration has burgeoned in recent years. Along with handsome, informative shows at the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York (“Picturing Natural History”), at the American Philosophical Society (“Natural History in North America, 1730–1860”), and at the Royal Botanical Gardens in Melbourne (“Nature's Art Revealed”), the year 2003 saw an entire conference devoted to the subject in Florence, Italy. In 2004, the eastern United States was treated to two more fauna- and flora-inspired shows, both dealing specifically with nineteenth-century British science and illustration.

Concerns about the anthropogenic ecological degradation of the planet—deforestation, species endangerment, pollution, and an increasing carbon footprint—have prompted numerous studies calling for wide-ranging, comprehensive global programs. In this regard, Tim Flannery's effort in Here on Earth to enlist Alfred Russel Wallace, a nineteenth-century naturalist, in the service of a twentieth-century idea falls prey to presentism on the grounds of a conceptual misunderstanding and incomplete or interpolated primary data.

RESUMENLa historia del cristianismo no se entiende sin el complejo fenómeno mariano. El culto mariano ha afianzado la construcción de identidades colectivas, pero también individuales. La figura de la Virgen María estableció un modelo de conducta desde cada contexto histórico-cultural, remarcando especialmente los ideales de maternidad y virginidad. Dentro del imaginario católico, la Europa contemporánea ha estado marcada por la formación de una cultura aparicionista que se ha generadoa partir de diversas apariciones marianas que han establecido un canon y un marco de interpretación que ha alimentado las guerras culturales entre secularismo y catolicismo.PALABRAS CLAVE: catolicismo, Virgen María, cultura aparicionista, Lourdes, guerras culturales.ABSTRACTThe history of Christianity cannot be understood without the complex Marian phenomenon. Marian devotion has reinforced the construction of collective, but also of individual identities. 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This article tells the story of Christian natural theology from the late 18th century to our own time by locating the key moments and thinkers, who have shaped how natural theology has been practiced in the past and how it is now being re-assessed and developed. I will summarize certain key elements that unite all forms of natural theology and assess briefly two basic criticisms of natural theology.

In nineteenth-century Chile, naturalists and their supporters argued that scientific work and study, including natural history, were good for individuals and society because they developed and tempered the character of their practitioners. These practitioners and boosters, Chileans, European visitors and European immigrants, made this argument in a context in which Chilean state support for natural history institutions, publications and education helped disseminate scientific training, perspectives and practices. Examining this nineteenth-century discourse of beneficial science is important for three reasons: first, the discourse of value-laden sciences offered this field a powerful justification for its development, especially in the face of criticism; second, because naturalists believed in this discourse, it helps explain what their work meant to them, and, finally, these values highlight the disjuncture between discourses about natural history and its links to military conquests, as well as the ways in which natural history was an exclusionary practice.

Abstract The history of thinking about consequences in the Middle Ages divides into three periods. During the first of these, from the eleventh to the middle of the twelfth century, and the second, from then until the beginning of the fourteenth century, the notion of natural consequence played a crucial role in logic, metaphysics, and theology. The first part of this paper traces the development of the theory of natural consequence in Abaelard’s work as the conditional of a connexive logic with an equivalent connexive disjunction and the crisis precipitated by the discovery of inconsistency in this system. The second part considers the accounts of natural consequence given in the thirteenth century as a special case of the standard modal definition of consequence, one for which the principle ex impossibili quidlibet does not hold, in logics in which disjunction is understood extensionally.

Yersinia pestis is the aetiological agent of plague, a disease that has a place in history as one the major causes of death from the 14th to the 17th Centuries1. It is estimated that, during the Black Death pandemic, approximately 30% of the population of Europe died of plague, and so great in number were the corpses that, in many parts of Europe, the dead were placed in burial pits rather than receiving individual burials. Y. pestis has also been responsible for two other pandemics of disease. The first of these, the Justinian plague, occurred during the 1st Century. The third pandemic occurred during the latter part of the 19th Century and was confined mainly to South-East Asia1. Even today, several thousand cases of plague are reported to the World Health Organization each year, mainly from South-East Asia, the southwestern parts of the USA, Madagascar and Africa.

The literary and pedagogic style of books popularizing marine natural history for the British public shifted during the nineteenth century. Previously, natural history books had been written largely by men, with notable exceptions like Isabella Gifford, Mary Gatty and Mary Roberts. Gentlemen naturalists tended to be clerics or medics; educated men conventionally viewing their interest as revelatory of the Divine in nature. Typically, women were less well educated than men but some from clerical backgrounds, having better access to learning, became significant popularizers of natural history. Gosse's works promoting aquaria and “rock-pooling” (typically among the middle classes), helped to develop a ready market for the plethora of popular seashore books appearing in the 1850s; with coastal access being facilitated by expansion of the railways. Controversies concerning evolution rarely penetrated works aimed at a popular readership. However, the style adopted by marine natural history writers had changed noticeably by the end of the nineteenth century. The earlier conversational dialogue or narrative forms gave way to a more terse scientific style, omitting references to the Divine. Evolutionary ideas were affecting populist texts on littoral natural history, even if only covertly.

This article analyses the construction and dissemination of natural-history knowledge in the eighteenth century. It takes the mapping and narration of Orkney as a case study, focusing on the local minister and amateur natural-historian George Low and his network of patron-client relationships with such prominent natural historians as Joseph Banks and Thomas Pennant. It focuses too on Low‘s network of informants and assistants among local island farmers, and argues that canonical natural-history texts were the products of collaborative and interdependent processes that included a large number of actors from all strata of society. To conceptualise how natural-history knowledge was created in this period, the article applies the metaphoric description ‘an ecology of knowledge’. This approach enables a focus on a large number of actors, their collaboration and influence on each other, while also paying attention to asymmetrical power relationships in which competition and appropriation took place.

This article attempts to shed light on the complex interdependencies between science, art and popular visual culture in the context of nineteenth-century natural history museums. Natural history museums are still underestimated agents for (artistic) scientific visualizations. Built as ‘visual narrators’ they became a form of mass media that conveyed scientific knowledge to diverse audiences. This article is a first attempt to bring order into the broad field of science visualization and to describe its significance for the popularization of the natural sciences. The visual outreach of museums such as the Natural History Museum Vienna went far beyond their circle of visitors. By creating and presenting first rank artistic imaginaries, they inspired highly circulated teaching devices such as school wall charts, textbooks or models, thus influencing our collective visual memory. These images subconsciously shaped the way we perceive the world as it is and as it could have been.

Early nineteenth-century natural history books reveal that British naturalists depended heavily on correspondence as a means for gathering information and specimens. Edward Newman commented in his History of British Ferns: ‘Were I to make out a list of all the correspondents who have assisted me it would be wearisome from its length.’ Works such as William Withering's Botanical Arrangement show that artisans numbered among his correspondents. However, the literary products of scientific practice reveal little of the workings or such correspondences and how or why they were sustained. An exchange or letters is maintained if the interests of both recipient and writer are satisfied. Withering's book tells us only that his interests were served by his correspondents; it allows us to say nothing with certainty about the interests of those who wrote to him. Published texts effectively hide the means by which the author determined the veracity of distant correspondents and also the way these informants demonstrated their credibility.

The Accademia del Cimento in seventeenth-century Florence has traditionally been seen as the first European organization to employ an experimental programme, thus becoming a major participant in the so-called ‘birth of modern experimental science’. Such traditional accounts have also detailed the cultural, political and religious environment of the period that contributed to the Accademia's use of a supposedly atheoretical experimental method. However, despite the merits of such cultural histories, these stories do not portray the full details behind the Accademia's intellectual workings – how knowledge claims were constructed, interpreted and presented by the academicians according to their natural philosophical concerns. It is argued here that such an analysis will provide a more accurate account of the Accademia's activities than existing stories about the birth of an experimental programme or method. By looking past the experimental rhetoric produced by the academicians in their only publication, Saggi di naturali esperienze, we begin to see at play one of the major issues which made up the Accademia's knowledge-making process: the natural philosophical interests of this institution's participants, particularly Borelli, Viviani, Rinaldini and Marsili. Those interests are represented in the Accademia's experiments, including their work concerned with air pressure and the void.

The article examines the ways in which the British imperial context, ideologies relating to national heritage—both cultural and natural—were not just extended but developed in a colonial context, and how they have been subsequently redefined and reconstituted in the post-colonial era. From a nineteenth-century romantic antiquarianism drawn to the ruins of a lost civilization, we can see the growth in status of scientific disciplines of archaeology and palaeontology and natural history in the colonies, and an equivalent diffusion of heritage legislation from the Indian subcontinent to East and Southern Africa and even to metropolitan Britain by men like Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, whose interest in monumental architecture led him to protect the Taj Mahal and later to take these interests to Britain where he was instrumental in helping to formulate the ancient monuments’ consolidation and amendment Act in 1913.

Abstract We determined total gastrin and pepsinogen I in frozen serum samples from 175 overnight-fasted women 54 years old, and from 81 overnight-fasted women 60 years old, who took part in a population study in 1968-69. We also assayed samples from some of these women, who participated in clinical follow-up studies in 1974-75 and 1980-81: all of the women in the initial group whose serum gastrin concentration exceeded the 85th centile value and, as a reference group, a randomized subsample of women whose initial serum gastrin concentration was less than the 80th centile. Samples with total gastrin concentration greater than 400 ng/L were also assayed for gastrin-17 and gastrin-34. We found that: a pronounced increase of serum gastrin persisted throughout the study period for most of these postmenopausal women, indicating that conversion of type A gastritis (antrum-sparing) to pan-gastritis is uncommon; unexplained high concentrations of pepsinogen I in relation to the reference interval for young and middle-aged adults, as well as in relation to serum gastrin, were common; and the gastrin-17/gastrin-34 ratio is not correlated with the outcome of pronounced hypergastrinemia.