Journal articles: 'Nanophotonics device fabrication'

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Zhao, Dong, Zhelin Lin, Wenqi Zhu, Henri J. Lezec, Ting Xu, Amit Agrawal, Cheng Zhang, and Kun Huang. "Recent advances in ultraviolet nanophotonics: from plasmonics and metamaterials to metasurfaces." Nanophotonics 10, no. 9 (May 24, 2021): 2283–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2021-0083.

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Abstract Nanophotonic devices, composed of metals, dielectrics, or semiconductors, enable precise and high-spatial-resolution manipulation of electromagnetic waves by leveraging diverse light–matter interaction mechanisms at subwavelength length scales. Their compact size, light weight, versatile functionality and unprecedented performance are rapidly revolutionizing how optical devices and systems are constructed across the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet spectra. Here, we review recent advances and future opportunities of nanophotonic elements operating in the ultraviolet spectral region, which include plasmonic devices, optical metamaterials, and optical metasurfaces. We discuss their working principles, material platforms, fabrication, and characterization techniques, followed by representative device applications across various interdisciplinary areas such as imaging, sensing and spectroscopy. We conclude this review by elaborating on future opportunities and challenges for ultraviolet nanophotonic devices.

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Ledentsov, Nikolay N., Nikolay Ledentsov, Mikel Agustin, Joerg-R. Kropp, and Vitaly A. Shchukin. "Application of nanophotonics to the next generation of surface-emitting lasers." Nanophotonics 6, no. 5 (February 21, 2017): 813–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2016-0173.

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AbstractNovel trends and concepts in the design and fabrication of vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and their integration in optical networks and implementation in integrated photonics applications are discussed. To serve these goals and match the growing bandwidth demands, significant changes are to be implemented in the device design. New lateral leakage-mediated single-mode VCSELs, including both devices confined by oxide layers and those confined by alloy-intermixed regions, are likely to be good candidates for light sources for the data networks of the future. An overview of the records in VCSEL transmission distances and transmission speeds is discussed in this context.

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CHAN, M. Y., and P. S. LEE. "FABRICATION OF SILICON NANOCRYSTALS AND ITS ROOM TEMPERATURE LUMINESCENCE EFFECTS." International Journal of Nanoscience 05, no. 04n05 (August 2006): 565–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219581x06004802.

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Silicon ( Si ) nanocrystals have been considered a good candidate for flash memory device and nanophotonic applications. The fabrication of nanocrystal memory is to form uniform, small size and high density quantum dots. In this study, nanometer-scale silicon quantum dots have been fabricated on ultrathin silicon oxide layer using amorphous silicon (a- Si ) deposition followed by various annealing treatments. The a- Si layers were crystallized using furnace annealing, laser annealing and rapid thermal annealing (RTA). After annealing to form nanometer-sized crystallites, silicon wet etch was carried out to isolate the nanocrystals. The size, uniformity and density of the nanocrystals were successfully controlled by different annealing treatments. The mean dot height and mean dot diameter is 1–5 nm and 2–5 nm, respectively. Lateral growth of the silicon dots was further controlled by systemic variations of the annealing conditions. It is found that the annealed a- Si films exhibit room temperature visible photoluminescence (PL) resulting from the formation of nanometer-sized crystallites. Selective wet etch and Secco-etch treatment increased the PL efficiency that is useful for nanophotonics applications. The feasibility of quantum dot formation using ultra thin amorphous Si films is demonstrated in this work.

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Rani, Dipti, Oliver Roman Opaluch, and Elke Neu. "Recent Advances in Single Crystal Diamond Device Fabrication for Photonics, Sensing and Nanomechanics." Micromachines 12, no. 1 (December 30, 2020): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi12010036.

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In the last two decades, the use of diamond as a material for applications in nanophotonics, optomechanics, quantum information, and sensors tremendously increased due to its outstanding mechanical properties, wide optical transparency, and biocompatibility. This has been possible owing to advances in methods for growth of high-quality single crystal diamond (SCD), nanofabrication methods and controlled incorporation of optically active point defects (e.g., nitrogen vacancy centers) in SCD. This paper reviews the recent advances in SCD nano-structuring methods for realization of micro- and nano-structures. Novel fabrication methods are discussed and the different nano-structures realized for a wide range of applications are summarized. Moreover, the methods for color center incorporation in SCD and surface treatment methods to enhance their properties are described. Challenges in the upscaling of SCD nano-structure fabrication, their commercial applications and future prospects are discussed.

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Leykam, Daniel, and Luqi Yuan. "Topological phases in ring resonators: recent progress and future prospects." Nanophotonics 9, no. 15 (September 25, 2020): 4473–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2020-0415.

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AbstractTopological photonics has emerged as a novel paradigm for the design of electromagnetic systems from microwaves to nanophotonics. Studies to date have largely focused on the demonstration of fundamental concepts, such as nonreciprocity and waveguiding protected against fabrication disorder. Moving forward, there is a pressing need to identify applications where topological designs can lead to useful improvements in device performance. Here, we review applications of topological photonics to ring resonator–based systems, including one- and two-dimensional resonator arrays, and dynamically modulated resonators. We evaluate potential applications such as quantum light generation, disorder-robust delay lines, and optical isolation, as well as future research directions and open problems that need to be addressed.

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Cheng, Yan, Ebuka S. Arinze, Nathan Palmquist, and Susanna M. Thon. "Advancing colloidal quantum dot photovoltaic technology." Nanophotonics 5, no. 1 (June 1, 2016): 31–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2016-0017.

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Abstract Colloidal quantum dots (CQDs) are attractive materials for solar cells due to their low cost, ease of fabrication and spectral tunability. Progress in CQD photovoltaic technology over the past decade has resulted in power conversion efficiencies approaching 10%. In this review, we give an overview of this progress, and discuss limiting mechanisms and paths for future improvement in CQD solar cell technology.We briefly summarize nanoparticle synthesis and film processing methods and evaluate the optoelectronic properties of CQD films, including the crucial role that surface ligands play in materials performance. We give an overview of device architecture engineering in CQD solar cells. The compromise between carrier extraction and photon absorption in CQD photovoltaics is analyzed along with different strategies for overcoming this trade-off. We then focus on recent advances in absorption enhancement through innovative device design and the use of nanophotonics. Several light-trapping schemes, which have resulted in large increases in cell photocurrent, are described in detail. In particular, integrating plasmonic elements into CQD devices has emerged as a promising approach to enhance photon absorption through both near-field coupling and far-field scattering effects. We also discuss strategies for overcoming the single junction efficiency limits in CQD solar cells, including tandem architectures, multiple exciton generation and hybrid materials schemes. Finally, we offer a perspective on future directions for the field and the most promising paths for achieving higher device efficiencies.

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Kadinskaya, Svetlana A., Valeriy M. Kondratev, Ivan K. Kindyushov, Olga Yu Koval, Dmitry I. Yakubovsky, Alexey Kusnetsov, Alexey I. Lihachev, et al. "Deep-Level Emission Tailoring in ZnO Nanostructures Grown via Hydrothermal Synthesis." Nanomaterials 13, no. 1 (December 23, 2022): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13010058.

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Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures are widely used in various fields of science and technology due to their properties and ease of fabrication. To achieve the desired characteristics for subsequent device application, it is necessary to develop growth methods allowing for control over the nanostructures’ morphology and crystallinity governing their optical and electronic properties. In this work, we grow ZnO nanostructures via hydrothermal synthesis using surfactants that significantly affect the growth kinetics. Nanostructures with geometry from nanowires to hexapods are obtained and studied with photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. Analysis of the photoluminescence spectra demonstrates pronounced exciton on a neutral donor UV emission in all of the samples. Changing the growth medium chemical composition affects the emission characteristics sufficiently. Apart the UV emission, nanostructures synthesized without the surfactants demonstrate deep-level emission in the visible range with a peak near 620 nm. Structures synthesized with the use of sodium citrate exhibit emission peak near 520 nm, and those with polyethylenimine do not exhibit the deep-level emission. Thus, we demonstrate the correlation between the hydrothermal growth conditions and the obtained ZnO nanostructures’ optical properties, opening up new possibilities for their precise control and application in nanophotonics, UV–Vis and white light sources.

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Meng, Qi, Xingqiao Chen, Wei Xu, Zhihong Zhu, Xiaodong Yuan, and Jianfa Zhang. "High Q Resonant Sb2S3-Lithium Niobate Metasurface for Active Nanophotonics." Nanomaterials 11, no. 9 (September 13, 2021): 2373. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11092373.

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Phase change materials (PCMs) are attracting more and more attentions as enabling materials for tunable nanophotonics. They can be processed into functional photonic devices through customized laser writing, providing great flexibility for fabrication and reconfiguration. Lithium Niobate (LN) has excellent nonlinear and electro-optical properties, but is difficult to process, which limits its application in nanophotonic devices. In this paper, we combine the emerging low-loss phase change material Sb2S3 with LN and propose a new type of high Q resonant metasurface. Simulation results show that the Sb2S3-LN metasurface has extremely narrow linewidth of 0.096 nm and high quality (Q) factor of 15,964. With LN as the waveguide layer, strong nonlinear properties are observed in the hybrid metasurface, which can be employed for optical switches and isolators. By adding a pair of Au electrodes on both sides of the LN, we can realize dynamic electro-optical control of the resonant metasurface. The ultra-low loss of Sb2S3, and its combination with LN, makes it possible to realize a new family of high Q resonant metasurfaces for actively tunable nanophotonic devices with widespread applications including optical switching, light modulation, dynamic beam steering, optical phased array and so on.

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Chin, Lip Ket, Yuzhi Shi, and Ai-Qun Liu. "Optical Forces in Silicon Nanophotonics and Optomechanical Systems: Science and Applications." Advanced Devices & Instrumentation 2020 (October 26, 2020): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/2020/1964015.

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Light-matter interactions have been explored for more than 40 years to achieve physical modulation of nanostructures or the manipulation of nanoparticle/biomolecule. Silicon photonics is a mature technology with standard fabrication techniques to fabricate micro- and nano-sized structures with a wide range of material properties (silicon oxides, silicon nitrides, p- and n-doping, etc.), high dielectric properties, high integration compatibility, and high biocompatibilities. Owing to these superior characteristics, silicon photonics is a promising approach to demonstrate optical force-based integrated devices and systems for practical applications. In this paper, we provide an overview of optical force in silicon nanophotonic and optomechanical systems and their latest technological development. First, we discuss various types of optical forces in light-matter interactions from particles or nanostructures. We then present particle manipulation in silicon nanophotonics and highlight its applications in biological and biomedical fields. Next, we discuss nanostructure mechanical modulation in silicon optomechanical devices, presenting their applications in photonic network, quantum physics, phonon manipulation, physical sensors, etc. Finally, we discuss the future perspective of optical force-based integrated silicon photonics.

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Melzer, Jeffrey E., and Euan McLeod. "3D Nanophotonic device fabrication using discrete components." Nanophotonics 9, no. 6 (June 6, 2020): 1373–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2020-0161.

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AbstractThree-dimensional structure fabrication using discrete building blocks provides a versatile pathway for the creation of complex nanophotonic devices. The processing of individual components can generally support high-resolution, multiple-material, and variegated structures that are not achievable in a single step using top-down or hybrid methods. In addition, these methods are additive in nature, using minimal reagent quantities and producing little to no material waste. In this article, we review the most promising technologies that build structures using the placement of discrete components, focusing on laser-induced transfer, light-directed assembly, and inkjet printing. We discuss the underlying principles and most recent advances for each technique, as well as existing and future applications. These methods serve as adaptable platforms for the next generation of functional three-dimensional nanophotonic structures.

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Fainman, Yeshaiahu, D. Tan, S. Zamek, O. Bondarenko, A. Simic, A. Mizrahi, M. Nezhad, et al. "Passive and Active Nanophotonics." Advances in Science and Technology 82 (September 2012): 9–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ast.82.9.

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Dense photonic integration requires miniaturization of materials, devices and subsystems, including passive components (e.g., engineered composite metamaterials, filters, etc.) and active components (e.g., lasers, modulators, detectors). This paper discusses passive and active devices that recently have been demonstrated in our laboratory, including monolithically integrated short pulse compressor utilized with silicon on insulator material platform and design, fabrication and testing of nanolasers constructed using metal-dielectric-semiconductor resonators confined in all three dimensions.

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Beha, Katja, Helmut Fedder, Marco Wolfer, Merle C. Becker, Petr Siyushev, Mohammad Jamali, Anton Batalov, et al. "Diamond nanophotonics." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 3 (December 21, 2012): 895–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.3.100.

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We demonstrate the coupling of single color centers in diamond to plasmonic and dielectric photonic structures to realize novel nanophotonic devices. Nanometer spatial control in the creation of single color centers in diamond is achieved by implantation of nitrogen atoms through high-aspect-ratio channels in a mica mask. Enhanced broadband single-photon emission is demonstrated by coupling nitrogen–vacancy centers to plasmonic resonators, such as metallic nanoantennas. Improved photon-collection efficiency and directed emission is demonstrated by solid immersion lenses and micropillar cavities. Thereafter, the coupling of diamond nanocrystals to the guided modes of micropillar resonators is discussed along with experimental results. Finally, we present a gas-phase-doping approach to incorporate color centers based on nickel and tungsten, in situ into diamond using microwave-plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The fabrication of silicon–vacancy centers in nanodiamonds by microwave-plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition is discussed in addition.

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Roussey, M., R. Rao, and S. Pélisset. "Towards accessible nanophotonics: multimode interferometer on strip-loaded slot waveguide." EPJ Web of Conferences 215 (2019): 02004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201921502004.

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Nano- and micro-photonics are the key-enabling tools for future integrated components and circuitry operating at low power and high speed. By using a strip-loaded platform, we show how we can dramatically reduce the complexity, in terms of fabrication and tolerances, of the most advanced devices. Different configurations of multimode interference devices are presented. We show the design, fabrication, and optical characterization of these components.

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Xu, Hongnan, Daoxin Dai, and Yaocheng Shi. "Silicon Integrated Nanophotonic Devices for On-Chip Multi-Mode Interconnects." Applied Sciences 10, no. 18 (September 12, 2020): 6365. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10186365.

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Mode-division multiplexing (MDM) technology has drawn tremendous attention for its ability to expand the link capacity within a single-wavelength carrier, paving the way for large-scale on-chip data communications. In the MDM system, the signals are carried by a series of higher-order modes in a multi-mode bus waveguide. Hence, it is essential to develop on-chip mode-handling devices. Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) has been considered as a promising platform to realize MDM since it provides an ultra-high-index contrast and mature fabrication processes. In this paper, we review the recent progresses on silicon integrated nanophotonic devices for MDM applications. We firstly discuss the working principles and device configurations of mode (de)multiplexers. In the second section, we summarize the multi-mode routing devices, including multi-mode bends, multi-mode crossings and multi-mode splitters. The inverse-designed multi-mode devices are then discussed in the third section. We also provide a discussion about the emerging reconfigurable MDM devices in the fourth section. Finally, we offer our outlook of the development prospects for on-chip multi-mode photonics.

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Borodin, B. R., F. A. Benimetskiy, V. Yu Davydov, I. A. Eliseyev, S. I. Lepeshov, A. A. Bogdanov, and P. A. Alekseev. "Mechanical scanning probe lithography of nanophotonic devices based on multilayer TMDCs." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2015, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 012020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2015/1/012020.

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Abstract In this work, we demonstrate the possibility of using mechanical Scanning probe lithography (m-SPL) for fabricating nanophotonic devices based on multilayered transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs). By m-SPM, we created a nanophotonic resonator from a 70-nm thick MoSe2 flake transferred on Si/Au substrate. The optical properties of the created structure were investigated by measuring microphotoluminescence. The resonator exhibits four resonance PL peaks shifted in the long-wavelength area from the flake PL peak. Thus, here we demonstrate that m-SPL is a high-precision lithography method suitable for creating nanophotonic devices based on multilayered TMDCs.

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Yu, W., D. Wu, X. Duan, and Y. Yi. "Subwavelength grating wideband reflectors with tapered sidewall profile." MRS Advances 1, no. 23 (December 21, 2015): 1683–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/adv.2015.18.

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AbstractOne main difference between practical device and ideal design for subwavelength grating structure is the tapered sidewall profile of grating, which is normally obtained by the practical CMOS-compatible fabrication and etching process. Our work has investigated the impacts of tapered sidewall profile on the subwavelength grating wideband reflector characteristics. Both zero-contrast gratings (ZCG) and high- contrast gratings (HCG) are numerically investigated in detail and the results show a distinct differences of the impacts of tapered sidewall profile of grating. The simulation results reveal that this factor play a critical role in determining the reflection bandwidth, average reflectance, and the band edge. Our study has potential in guiding the utilization of subwavelength grating wideband reflector on application of a variety of nanophotonic devices and their integration, as well as to facilitate the design of the fabrication process on the control of tapered sidewall profile.

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Pyatkov, Felix, Svetlana Khasminskaya, Vadim Kovalyuk, Frank Hennrich, Manfred M. Kappes, Gregory N. Goltsman, Wolfram H. P. Pernice, and Ralph Krupke. "Sub-nanosecond light-pulse generation with waveguide-coupled carbon nanotube transducers." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 8 (January 5, 2017): 38–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.8.5.

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Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have recently been integrated into optical waveguides and operated as electrically-driven light emitters under constant electrical bias. Such devices are of interest for the conversion of fast electrical signals into optical ones within a nanophotonic circuit. Here, we demonstrate that waveguide-integrated single-walled CNTs are promising high-speed transducers for light-pulse generation in the gigahertz range. Using a scalable fabrication approach we realize hybrid CNT-based nanophotonic devices, which generate optical pulse trains in the range from 200 kHz to 2 GHz with decay times below 80 ps. Our results illustrate the potential of CNTs for hybrid optoelectronic systems and nanoscale on-chip light sources.

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Anikina, Maria A., Prithu Roy, Svetlana A. Kadinskaya, Alexey Kuznetsov, Valeriy M. Kondratev, and Alexey D. Bolshakov. "Numerical Study of GaP Nanowires: Individual and Coupled Optical Waveguides and Resonant Phenomena." Nanomaterials 13, no. 1 (December 23, 2022): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13010056.

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The development of novel nanophotonic devices and circuits necessitates studies of optical phenomena in nanoscale structures. Catalyzed semiconductor nanowires are known for their unique properties including high crystallinity and silicon compatibility making them the perfect platform for optoelectronics and nanophotonics. In this work, we explore numerically optical properties of gallium phosphide nanowires governed by their dimensions and study waveguiding, coupling between the two wires and resonant field confinement to unveil nanoscale phenomena paving the way for the fabrication of the integrated optical circuits. Photonic coupling between the two adjacent nanowires is studied in detail to demonstrate good tolerance of the coupling to the distance between the two aligned wires providing losses not exceeding 30% for the gap of 100 nm. The dependence of this coupling is investigated with the wires placed nearby varying their relative position. It is found that due to the resonant properties of a nanowire acting as a Fabry–Perot cavity, two coupled wires represent an attractive system for control over the optical signal processing governed by the signal interference. We explore size-dependent plasmonic behaviors of the metallic Ga nanoparticle enabling GaP nanowire as an antenna-waveguide hybrid system. We demonstrate numerically that variation of the structure dimensions allows the nearfield tailoring. As such, we explore GaP NWs as a versatile platform for integrated photonic circuits.

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Huang, L., M. C. Hegg, C. J. Wang, and L. Y. Lin. "Fabrication of a nanophotonic quantum dot waveguide and photodetector integrated device." Micro & Nano Letters 2, no. 4 (2007): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/mnl:20070053.

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Bayindir, Mehmet, Ayman F. Abouraddy, Ofer Shapira, Jeff Viens, Dursen Saygin-Hinczewski, Fabien Sorin, Jerimy Arnold, John D. Joannopoulos, and Yoel Fink. "Kilometer-Long Ordered Nanophotonic Devices by Preform-to-Fiber Fabrication." IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 12, no. 6 (November 2006): 1202–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jstqe.2006.882666.

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Seidler, Paul. "Optimized process for fabrication of free-standing silicon nanophotonic devices." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena 35, no. 3 (May 2017): 031209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.4983173.

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Kaushik, Vishal, Swati Rajput, Sulabh Srivastav, Lalit Singh, Prem Babu, Elham Heidari, Moustafa Ahmed, et al. "On-chip nanophotonic broadband wavelength detector with 2D-Electron gas." Nanophotonics 11, no. 2 (November 30, 2021): 289–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2021-0365.

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Abstract Miniaturized, low-cost wavelength detectors are gaining enormous interest as we step into the new age of photonics. Incompatibility with integrated circuits or complex fabrication requirement in most of the conventionally used filters necessitates the development of a simple, on-chip platform for easy-to-use wavelength detection system. Also, intensity fluctuations hinder precise, noise free detection of spectral information. Here we propose a novel approach of utilizing wavelength sensitive photocurrent across semiconductor heterojunctions to experimentally validate broadband wavelength detection on an on-chip platform with simple fabrication process. The proposed device utilizes linear frequency response of internal photoemission via 2-D electron gas in a ZnO based heterojunction along with a reference junction for coherent common mode rejection. We report sensitivity of 0.96 μA/nm for a broad wavelength-range of 280 nm from 660 to 940 nm. Simple fabrication process, efficient intensity noise cancelation along with heat resistance and radiation hardness of ZnO makes the proposed platform simple, low-cost and efficient alternative for several applications such as optical spectrometers, sensing, and Internet of Things (IOTs).

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MUKHOPADHYAY, KINGSUK, and GYANESH NARAYAN MATHUR. "SYNTHESIS OF 2D QUASI-ALIGNED MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBES BY CATALYTIC CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION METHOD." International Journal of Nanoscience 02, no. 03 (June 2003): 153–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219581x03001152.

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Alignment or patterning of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is particularly important for fabricating functional devices such as field emitters, nanophotonics, nanoelectronics, and ultrahydrophobic materials. This work reports on the synthesis of 2D quasi-aligned carbon nanotube bundles by catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) method using a series of catalysts and a study of their performance in a nutshell.

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Yatsui, Takashi, Chennupati Jagadish, and Gilles Lerondel. "Nanophotonics: Fabrications and Application of Nanoscale Optics to Novel Photonic Devices." Advances in Optical Technologies 2015 (February 3, 2015): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/609682.

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Núñez-Sánchez, Sara, and Martin Lopez-Garcia. "Bio-based optical and photonic materials: towards nature-based production methods for photonics." Photoniques, no. 110 (October 2021): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/photon/202111036.

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Nature has been a source of inspiration for the fabrication of new optical materials for centuries. During the last decades, the rapid developments in nanofabrication allowed mimicking the photonic properties of living organisms towards more efficient functional devices. But nanophotonics still relies on nanofabrication techniques and materials not compatible with the current environmental challenges. Bio-based optical materials have emerged as a sustainable alternative combining the best of both worlds: precise nanostructuring and unique optical properties with environmentally friendly natural production protocols.

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Nishigaya, Kosuke, Kodai Kishibe, and Katsuaki Tanabe. "Graphene-Quantum-Dot-Mediated Semiconductor Bonding: A Route to Optoelectronic Double Heterostructures and Wavelength-Converting Interfaces." C — Journal of Carbon Research 6, no. 2 (May 9, 2020): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/c6020028.

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A semiconductor bonding technique that is mediated by graphene quantum dots is proposed and demonstrated. The mechanical stability, electrical conductivity, and optical activity in the bonded interfaces are experimentally verified. First, the bonding scheme can be used for the formation of double heterostructures with a core material of graphene quantum dots. The Si/graphene quantum dots/Si double heterostructures fabricated in this study can constitute a new basis for next-generation nanophotonic devices with high photon and carrier confinements, earth abundance, environmental friendliness, and excellent optical and electrical controllability via silicon clads. Second, the bonding mediated by the graphene quantum dots can be used as an optical-wavelength-converting semiconductor interface, as experimentally demonstrated in this study. The proposed fabrication method simultaneously realizes bond formation and interfacial function generation and, thereby, can lead to efficient device production. Our bonding scheme might improve the performance of optoelectronic devices, for example, by allowing spectral light incidence suitable for each photovoltaic material in multijunction solar cells and by delivering preferred frequencies to the optical transceiver components in photonic integrated circuits.

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Zhou, Wenjie, Zizhuo Liu, Ziyin Huang, Haixin Lin, Devleena Samanta, Qing-Yuan Lin, Koray Aydin, and Chad A. Mirkin. "Device-quality, reconfigurable metamaterials from shape-directed nanocrystal assembly." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 35 (August 17, 2020): 21052–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2006797117.

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Anchoring nanoscale building blocks, regardless of their shape, into specific arrangements on surfaces presents a significant challenge for the fabrication of next-generation chip-based nanophotonic devices. Current methods to prepare nanocrystal arrays lack the precision, generalizability, and postsynthetic robustness required for the fabrication of device-quality, nanocrystal-based metamaterials [Q. Y. Lin et al. Nano Lett. 15, 4699–4703 (2015); V. Flauraud et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 73–80 (2017)]. To address this challenge, we have developed a synthetic strategy to precisely arrange any anisotropic colloidal nanoparticle onto a substrate using a shallow-template-assisted, DNA-mediated assembly approach. We show that anisotropic nanoparticles of virtually any shape can be anchored onto surfaces in any desired arrangement, with precise positional and orientational control. Importantly, the technique allows nanoparticles to be patterned over a large surface area, with interparticle distances as small as 4 nm, providing the opportunity to exploit light–matter interactions in an unprecedented manner. As a proof-of-concept, we have synthesized a nanocrystal-based, dynamically tunable metasurface (an anomalous reflector), demonstrating the potential of this nanoparticle-based metamaterial synthesis platform.

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Ohtsu, M., K. Kobayashi, T. Kawazoe, S. Sangu, and T. Yatsui. "Nanophotonics: design, fabrication, and operation of nanometric devices using optical near fields." IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 8, no. 4 (July 2002): 839–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jstqe.2002.801738.

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Beggs, D. M., M. Ayre, D. F. G. Gallagher, and T. F. Krauss. "Design and fabrication of high-efficiency fibre couplers for nanophotonic devices." Microelectronic Engineering 84, no. 5-8 (May 2007): 1446–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2007.01.073.

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Ghoshal, Sib Krishna, Masni Shafie@Haron, and M. R. Sahar. "Luminescence Features of Silver Nanoparticles Sensitized Samarium Doped Boro-Zinc Tellurite Glasses." Materials Science Forum 846 (March 2016): 96–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.846.96.

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Spectral features modification of rare earth (RE) doped tellurite glasses via controlled manipulation of metallic nanoparticles (NPs) is the current challenge in achieving enhanced lasing action. Triggering the localized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of NPs in the glass generates tremendous applied interests especially in solid state lasers and nanophotonics. Despite several promising features of RE doped zinc-boro-tellurite glass, the low absorption and emission cross-section of RE ions prohibit them from fabricating efficient lasers. This drawback needed to overcome and significant enhancement of spectral features is required. Co-doping by rare earths and/or embedding metallic NPs (acts as sensitizer) are demonstrated to be the alternative route to surmount such shortcomings. Series of glass samples with composition 74TeO2–15B2O3–10ZnO– 1Sm2O3 – (x)Ag, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.1 mol% (in excess) are prepared using melt quenching method and the impacts of silver (Ag) NPs concentrations in altering their photoluminescence properties are inspected. The XRD spectra confirmed the amorphous nature of prepared glasses and the presence of Ag NPs are evidenced in EDX spectra. TEM micrographs revealed the distribution of Ag NPs with average size 7.2 nm. Absorption spectra revealed eight bands which most intense between 6F11/2 and 6F1/2. Photoluminescence spectra exhibited three prominent peaks corresponding to the transition from the excited state 4G5/2 to 6H5/2, 6H7/2, and 6H9/2 states, respectively. Our observation may be useful for the development of tellurite glass based nanophotonic devices.

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Lu, Yalin. "The Structural Engineering Strategy for Photonic Material Research and Device Development." Active and Passive Electronic Components 2007 (2007): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2007/17692.

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A new structural engineering strategy is introduced for optimizing the fabrication of arrayed nanorod materials, optimizing superlattice structures for realizing a strong coupling, and directly developing nanophotonic devices. The strategy can be regarded as “combinatorial” because of the high efficiency in optimizing structures. In this article, this strategy was applied to grow ZnO nanorod arrays, and to develop a new multifunctional photodetector using such nanorod arrays, which is able to simultaneously detect power, energy, and polarization of an incident ultraviolet radiation. The strategy was also used to study the extraordinary dielectric behavior of relaxor ferroelectric lead titanate doped lead magnesium niobate heterophase superlattices in the terahertz frequencies, in order to investigate their dielectric polariton physics and the potential to be integrated with tunable surface resonant plasmonics devices.

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Guilhabert, Benoit, Antonio Hurtado, Dimitars Jevtics, Qian Gao, Hark Hoe Tan, Chennupati Jagadish, and Martin D. Dawson. "Transfer Printing of Semiconductor Nanowires with Lasing Emission for Controllable Nanophotonic Device Fabrication." ACS Nano 10, no. 4 (March 17, 2016): 3951–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b07752.

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Selvaraja, Shankar Kumar, Wim Bogaerts, Pieter Dumon, Dries Van Thourhout, and Roel Baets. "Subnanometer Linewidth Uniformity in Silicon Nanophotonic Waveguide Devices Using CMOS Fabrication Technology." IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 16, no. 1 (January 2010): 316–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jstqe.2009.2026550.

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Dai, Qing, Haider Butt, Ranjith Rajasekharan, Timothy D. Wilkinson, and Gehan A. J. Amaratunga. "FABRICATION OF CARBON NANOTUBES ON INTER-DIGITATED METAL ELECTRODE FOR SWITCHABLE NANOPHOTONIC DEVICES." Progress In Electromagnetics Research 127 (2012): 65–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2528/pier12022603.

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Maciel, I. O., B. R. A. Neves, A. P. Santos, C. A. Furtado, A. S. Ferlauto, and F. Plentz. "Fabrication of Selective Metal Contacts on Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Device Applications." Microscopy and Microanalysis 11, S03 (December 2005): 106–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927605051007.

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Silicon based devices are expected to achieve the limit of possible downscaling in 10 to 15 years. Thus, the search of new materials to construct smaller, faster and more energy efficient devices has been a very active research area. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are very good candidates to construct nanoelectronic and nanophotonic devices [1,2,3] due to unique physical properties, such as its metallic or semiconducting characteristics depending only its diameter and chirality [4,5] and capability of caring high current densities (up to 1010A/cm2). In this work we develop nanofabrication techniques of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) based devices using a combination of electron beam and optical lithography with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). We used both CVD-grown nanotubes [6] and HipCO-NTs [7] suspended on aqueous solution and deposited on the substrate. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) in tapping mode (Multimode Nanoscope IV, Digital Instruments) was used to CVD sample characterization, study of CNT deposition and to localize and index the nanotubes on substrate using lithography patterns as references, making possible to selectively construct metallic contacts on the CNTs.

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Bardinal, V., T. Camps, B. Reig, D. Barat, E. Daran, and J. B. Doucet. "Collective Micro-Optics Technologies for VCSEL Photonic Integration." Advances in Optical Technologies 2011 (December 10, 2011): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/609643.

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We describe the main recent technological approaches that associate micro-optical elements to VCSELs in order to control their output beam and to improve their photonic integration. These approaches imply either a hybrid assembly or a direct integration technique. They are compared with regards to their tolerance to alignment errors and to their ease of implementation onto arrays of devices at a wafer level. In particular, we detail the integration techniques we have developed for self-aligned polymer microlens fabrication for beam collimation and short distance beam focusing. Finally, designs to achieve active micro-optics or to exploit novel nanophotonic effects are discussed.

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Yoon, Jongseung. "III-V Nanomembranes for High Performance, Cost-Competitive Photovoltaics." MRS Advances 2, no. 30 (2017): 1591–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/adv.2017.139.

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ABSTRACTDue to their highly favorable materials properties such as direct bandgap, appropriate bandgap energy against solar spectrum, and ability to form multiple junctions, epitaxially grown III-V compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide have provided unmatched performance over silicon in solar energy harvesting. However, their large-scale deployment in terrestrial photovoltaics remains as a daunting challenge mainly due to the high cost of growing device-quality epitaxial materials. In this regard, releasable multilayer epitaxial growth in conjunction with printing-based deterministic materials assemblies represents a promising approach that can overcome this challenge but also create novel engineering designs and device functionalities, each with significant practical values in photovoltaic technologies. This article will provide an overview of recent advances in materials design, fabrication concept, and nanophotonic light management of multilayer-grown nanomembrane-based GaAs solar cells aiming for high performance, cost-efficient platforms of III-V photovoltaics.

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Fan, Pengfei, Jian Gao, Hui Mao, Yanquan Geng, Yongda Yan, Yuzhang Wang, Saurav Goel, and Xichun Luo. "Scanning Probe Lithography: State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives." Micromachines 13, no. 2 (January 29, 2022): 228. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13020228.

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High-throughput and high-accuracy nanofabrication methods are required for the ever-increasing demand for nanoelectronics, high-density data storage devices, nanophotonics, quantum computing, molecular circuitry, and scaffolds in bioengineering used for cell proliferation applications. The scanning probe lithography (SPL) nanofabrication technique is a critical nanofabrication method with great potential to evolve into a disruptive atomic-scale fabrication technology to meet these demands. Through this timely review, we aspire to provide an overview of the SPL fabrication mechanism and the state-the-art research in this area, and detail the applications and characteristics of this technique, including the effects of thermal aspects and chemical aspects, and the influence of electric and magnetic fields in governing the mechanics of the functionalized tip interacting with the substrate during SPL. Alongside this, the review also sheds light on comparing various fabrication capabilities, throughput, and attainable resolution. Finally, the paper alludes to the fact that a majority of the reported literature suggests that SPL has yet to achieve its full commercial potential and is currently largely a laboratory-based nanofabrication technique used for prototyping of nanostructures and nanodevices.

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TEO, SELIN H. G., A. Q. LIU, G. L. SIA, C. LU, J. SINGH, and M. B. YU. "DEEP REACTIVE ION ETCHING FOR PILLAR TYPE NANOPHOTONIC CRYSTAL." International Journal of Nanoscience 04, no. 04 (August 2005): 567–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219581x05003590.

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Experimental results and techniques developed for time multiplexed deep reactive ion etching of nano-photonic crystals are presented. Specifically, the high aspect ratio pillar type two-dimensional photonic crystal (PhC) structure on silicon is fabricated and studied for its high potential in application to lightwave circuits and also for discussion of the many unique challenges involved in its fabrication process as opposed to standard larger scale devices. In the experiments, patterns of nano-dots were first obtained using deep UV lithography and transferred to a silicon oxide hardmask prior to DRIE processing. The iteration of DRIE experiments with varying process parameters then allowed for a characterization of the varying impact of each etching parameter such as coil/ platen/ etch power, multiplexing cycling gas flows and timing patterns etc. After much optimization of sidewall etch angle and also reduction of the scalloping effect, the latest result obtained for such nano-pillar type PhC designed for application in communication is derived to have a high AR of 33.

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Blanco-Redondo, Andrea, Bryn Bell, Dikla Oren, Benjamin J. Eggleton, and Mordechai Segev. "Topological protection of biphoton states." Science 362, no. 6414 (November 1, 2018): 568–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4296.

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The robust generation and propagation of multiphoton quantum states are crucial for applications in quantum information, computing, and communications. Although photons are intrinsically well isolated from the thermal environment, scaling to large quantum optical devices is still limited by scattering loss and other errors arising from random fabrication imperfections. The recent discoveries regarding topological phases have introduced avenues to construct quantum systems that are protected against scattering and imperfections. We experimentally demonstrate topological protection of biphoton states, the building block for quantum information systems. We provide clear evidence of the robustness of the spatial features and the propagation constant of biphoton states generated within a nanophotonics lattice with nontrivial topology and propose a concrete path to build robust entangled states for quantum gates.

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Gschrey, Manuel, Ronny Schmidt, Jan-Hindrik Schulze, André Strittmatter, Sven Rodt, and Stephan Reitzenstein. "Resolution and alignment accuracy of low-temperature in situ electron beam lithography for nanophotonic device fabrication." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena 33, no. 2 (March 2015): 021603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.4914914.

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Hadden, J. P., Cobi Maynard, Daryl M. Beggs, Robert A. Taylor, and Anthony J. Bennett. "Design of free-space couplers for suspended triangular nano-beam waveguides." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 55, no. 47 (October 5, 2022): 474002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/ac941e.

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Abstract Photonic waveguides (WGs) with triangular cross section are being investigated for material systems such as diamond, glasses and gallium nitride, which lack easy options to create conventional rectangular nanophotonic waveguides. The design rules for optical elements in these triangular WGs, such as couplers and gratings, are not well established. Here we present simulations of elements designed to couple light into, and out of, triangular WGs from the vertical direction, which can be implemented with current angled-etch fabrication technology. The devices demonstrate coupling efficiencies approaching 50% for light focused from a high numerical aperture objective. The implementation of such couplers will enable fast and efficient testing of closely spaced integrated circuit components.

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Borodin, Bogdan R., Fedor A. Benimetskiy, Valery Yu Davydov, Alexander N. Smirnov, Ilya A. Eliseyev, and Prokhor A. Alekseev. "Photoluminescence enhancement in multilayered MoSe₂ nanostructures obtained by local anodic oxidation." 2D Materials 9, no. 1 (November 12, 2021): 015010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/ac325a.

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Abstract Monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) exhibit attractive properties and are promising for fabricating photonic and optoelectronic devices, while bulk multilayered structures based on the same materials only recently has revealed many properties useful for nanophotonics. In this regard, the combination of monolayer and multilayer properties in one device (on a single flake) is an important and fruitful task that needs to be solved. In this work, we demonstrate the use of local anodic oxidation to improve the optical properties of multilayer MoSe2 flakes on a gold-covered substrate. Using this method, we fabricated nanostructures demonstrating extraordinarily enhanced photoluminescence (PL), with an intensity up to three orders of magnitude compared to that of the original structure. Low-frequency Raman spectroscopy showed that the nature of this PL enhancement is that the bindings between the layers inside the nanostructures are severely disrupted. This means that the nanostructures consist of quasi-monolayers, which is in good agreement with the intensity and the position of PL peak. Here, we also propose a mechanism of forming these quasi-monolayers. Therefore, this method allows using multilayer TMDC flakes on a conductive substrate to fabricate areas with quasi-monolayer optical properties, exhibiting an enhanced PL intensity.

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Kumar, Amit, Muhammad Omar Shaikh, and Cheng-Hsin Chuang. "Silver Nanowire Synthesis and Strategies for Fabricating Transparent Conducting Electrodes." Nanomaterials 11, no. 3 (March 10, 2021): 693. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11030693.

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One-dimensional metal nanowires, with novel functionalities like electrical conductivity, optical transparency and high mechanical stiffness, have attracted widespread interest for use in applications such as transparent electrodes in optoelectronic devices and active components in nanoelectronics and nanophotonics. In particular, silver nanowires (AgNWs) have been widely researched owing to the superlative thermal and electrical conductivity of bulk silver. Herein, we present a detailed review of the synthesis of AgNWs and their utilization in fabricating improved transparent conducting electrodes (TCE). We discuss a range of AgNW synthesis protocols, including template assisted and wet chemical techniques, and their ability to control the morphology of the synthesized nanowires. Furthermore, the use of scalable and cost-effective solution deposition methods to fabricate AgNW based TCE, along with the numerous treatments used for enhancing their optoelectronic properties, are also discussed.

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Jeong, Hoon Yeub, Eunsongyi Lee, Soo-Chan An, Yeonsoo Lim, and Young Chul Jun. "3D and 4D printing for optics and metaphotonics." Nanophotonics 9, no. 5 (February 4, 2020): 1139–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2019-0483.

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AbstractThree-dimensional (3D) printing is a new paradigm in customized manufacturing and allows the fabrication of complex optical components and metaphotonic structures that are difficult to realize via traditional methods. Conventional lithography techniques are usually limited to planar patterning, but 3D printing can allow the fabrication and integration of complex shapes or multiple parts along the out-of-plane direction. Additionally, 3D printing can allow printing on curved surfaces. Four-dimensional (4D) printing adds active, responsive functions to 3D-printed structures and provides new avenues for active, reconfigurable optical and microwave structures. This review introduces recent developments in 3D and 4D printing, with emphasis on topics that are interesting for the nanophotonics and metaphotonics communities. In this article, we have first discussed functional materials for 3D and 4D printing. Then, we have presented the various designs and applications of 3D and 4D printing in the optical, terahertz, and microwave domains. 3D printing can be ideal for customized, nonconventional optical components and complex metaphotonic structures. Furthermore, with various printable smart materials, 4D printing might provide a unique platform for active and reconfigurable structures. Therefore, 3D and 4D printing can introduce unprecedented opportunities in optics and metaphotonics and may have applications in freeform optics, integrated optical and optoelectronic devices, displays, optical sensors, antennas, active and tunable photonic devices, and biomedicine. Abundant new opportunities exist for exploration.

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Wang, Jing, Yongqi Fu, Zongwei Xu, and Fengzhou Fang. "Near-field visualization of plasmonic lenses: an overall analysis of characterization errors." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 6 (October 26, 2015): 2069–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.6.211.

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Many factors influence the near-field visualization of plasmonic structures that are based on perforated elliptical slits. Here, characterization errors are experimentally analyzed in detail from both fabrication and measurement points of view. Some issues such as geometrical parameter, probe–sample surface interaction, misalignment, stigmation, and internal stress, have influence on the final near-field probing results. In comparison to the theoretical ideal case of near-field probing of the structures, numerical calculation is carried out on the basis of a finite-difference and time-domain (FDTD) algorithm so as to support the error analyses. The analyses performed on the basis of both theoretical calculation and experimental probing can provide a helpful reference for the researchers probing their plasmonic structures and nanophotonic devices.

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Willander, Magnus, Muhammad Q. Israr, Jamil R. Sadaf, and Omer Nur. "Progress on one-dimensional zinc oxide nanomaterials based photonic devices." Nanophotonics 1, no. 1 (July 1, 2012): 99–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2012-0006.

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AbstractOne-dimensional nanostructures hold the most attractive and excellent physiochemical characteristics which exhibit the paramount influence on the fundamental and technological nanoelectronic as well as nanophotonic applications. In this review article, we present a detailed introduction to the diverse synthetic procedures which can be utilized for the fabrication of single-, planar- and three-dimensional ZnO nanostructures. More specifically, a thorough discussion regarding luminescence characteristics of the one-dimensional ZnO nanostructures is presented for ultraviolet and visible regions. We summarize the room temperature spontaneous emission and stimulated emission along with the interaction of the incident beam with material cavity to produce resonant optical modes and low-temperature time resolved photoluminescence studies. The most recent published results on the white light emitting diodes fabricated with the combination of ZnO nanotubes with p-GaN and ZnO nanorods with p-organic polymers on glass and disposable paper are discussed. Additionally, the significant results on optically and electrically pumped lasers are discussed; along with an overview on the future of ZnO nanostructures based photonic devices.

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Samardak, Alexander, Margarita Anisimova, Aleksei Samardak, and Alexey Ognev. "Fabrication of high-resolution nanostructures of complex geometry by the single-spot nanolithography method." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 6 (April 17, 2015): 976–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.6.101.

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The paper presents a method for the high-resolution production of polymer nanopatterns with controllable geometrical parameters by means of a single-spot electron-beam lithography technique. The essence of the method entails the overexposure of a positive-tone resist, spin-coated onto a substrate where nanoscale spots are exposed to an electron beam with a dose greater than 0.1 pC per dot. A single-spot enables the fabrication of a nanoring, while a chain of spots placed at distance of 5–30 nm from each other allows the production of a polymer pattern of complex geometry of sub-10 nm resolution. We demonstrate that in addition to the naturally oxidized silicon substrates, gold-coated substrates can also successfully be used for the single-spot nanopattering technique. An explanation of the results related to the resist overexposure was demonstrated using Monte Carlo simulations. Our nanofabrication method significantly accelerates (up to 10 times) the fabrication rate as compared to conventional lithography on positive-tone resist. This technique can be potentially employed in the electronics industry for the production of nanoprinted lithography molds, etching masks, nanoelectronics, nanophotonics, NEMS and MEMS devices.

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Ponkratova, Ekaterina, Eduard Ageev, Filipp Komissarenko, Sergei Koromyslov, Dmitry Kudryashov, Ivan Mukhin, Vadim Veiko, Aleksandr Kuchmizhak, and Dmitry Zuev. "Femtosecond Laser Fabrication of Hybrid Metal-Dielectric Structures with Nonlinear Photoluminescence." Photonics 8, no. 4 (April 13, 2021): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics8040121.

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Fabrication of hybrid micro- and nanostructures with a strong nonlinear response is challenging and represents a great interest due to a wide range of photonic applications. Usually, such structures are produced by quite complicated and time-consuming techniques. This work demonstrates laser-induced hybrid metal-dielectric structures with strong nonlinear properties obtained by a single-step fabrication process. We determine the influence of several incident femtosecond pulses on the Au/Si bi-layer film on produced structure morphology. The created hybrid systems represent isolated nanoparticles with a height of 250–500 nm exceeding the total thickness of the Au-Si bi-layer. It is shown that fabricated hybrid nanostructures demonstrate enhancement of the SHG signal (up to two orders of magnitude) compared to the initial planar sample and a broadband photoluminescence signal (more than 200 nm in width) in the visible spectral region. We establish the correlation between nonlinear signal and phase composition provided by Raman scattering measurements. Such laser-induced structures have significant potential in optical sensing applications and can be used as components for different nanophotonic devices.

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Kaissner, Robin, Jianxiong Li, Wenzheng Lu, Xin Li, Frank Neubrech, Jianfang Wang, and Na Liu. "Electrochemically controlled metasurfaces with high-contrast switching at visible frequencies." Science Advances 7, no. 19 (May 2021): eabd9450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd9450.

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Recently in nanophotonics, a rigorous evolution from passive to active metasurfaces has been witnessed. This advancement not only brings forward interesting physical phenomena but also elicits opportunities for practical applications. However, active metasurfaces operating at visible frequencies often exhibit low performance due to design and fabrication restrictions at the nanoscale. In this work, we demonstrate electrochemically controlled metasurfaces with high intensity contrast, fast switching rate, and excellent reversibility at visible frequencies. We use a conducting polymer, polyaniline (PANI), that can be locally conjugated on preselected gold nanorods to actively control the phase profiles of the metasurfaces. The optical responses of the metasurfaces can be in situ monitored and optimized by controlling the PANI growth of subwavelength dimension during the electrochemical process. We showcase electrochemically controlled anomalous transmission and holography with good switching performance. Such electrochemically powered optical metasurfaces lay a solid basis to develop metasurface devices for real-world optical applications.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Nanophotonics device fabrication'

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