Academic literature on the topic 'Mycobacterium marinum M'
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Journal articles on the topic "Mycobacterium marinum M"
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Slany, Michal, Petr Jezek, Vera Fiserova, Monika Bodnarova, Jiri Stork, Marta Havelkova, Frantisek Kalat, and Ivo Pavlik. "Mycobacterium marinum infections in humans and tracing of its possible environmental sources." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 58, no. 1 (January 2012): 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/w11-104.
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The low frequency of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections, nonspecific symptoms for individual mycobacteria, and the lack of specific identification methods could alter correct diagnosis. This study presents a combined microbiology and molecular-based approach for Mycobacterium marinum detection in four aquarists with cutaneous mycobacterial infection. Simultaneously, ecology screening for M. marinum presence in the aquarists’ fish tanks was performed. A total of 38 mycobacterial isolates originated from four human patients (n = 20), aquarium animals (n = 8), and an aquarium environment (n = 10). Isolate identification was carried out using 16S rRNA sequence analysis. A microbiology-based approach, followed by 16S rRNA sequence analysis, was successfully used for detection of M. marinum in all four patients. Animal and environmental samples were simultaneously examined, and a total of seven mycobacterial species were isolated: Mycobacterium chelonae , Mycobacterium fortuitum , Mycobacterium gordonae , Mycobacterium kansasii , Mycobacterium mantenii , Mycobacterium marinum , and Mycobacterium peregrinum . The presence of M. marinum was proven in the aquarium environments of two patients. Although M. marinum is described as being present in water, it was detected only in fish.
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Song, Chang-Hwa, Ji-Sook Lee, Hwa-Jung Kim, Jeong-Kyu Park, Tae-Hyun Paik, and Eun-Kyeong Jo. "Interleukin-8 Is Differentially Expressed by Human-Derived Monocytic Cell Line U937 Infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and Mycobacterium marinum." Infection and Immunity 71, no. 10 (October 2003): 5480–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.71.10.5480-5487.2003.
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ABSTRACT Although Mycobacterium marinum is closely related to Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv genomically, the clinical outcome in humans is quite different for M. marinum and M. tuberculosis infections. We investigated possible factors in the host macrophages for determining differential pathological responses to M. tuberculosis and M. marinum using an in vitro model of mycobacterial infection. Using suppression-subtractive hybridization, we identified 12 differentially expressed genes in the human monocytic cell line U937 infected with M. tuberculosis and M. marinum. Of those genes, the most frequently recovered transcript encoded interleukin-8 (IL-8). Northern hybridization revealed that IL-8 mRNA was highly upregulated in M. tuberculosis-infected U937 cells compared with M. marinum-infected cells. In addition, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed that IL-8 protein secretion was significantly elevated in M. tuberculosis-infected U937 cells, human primary monocytes, and monocyte-derived macrophages compared with that in M. marinum-infected cells. The depressed IL-8 expression was unique in M. marinum-infected cells compared with cells infected with other strains of mycobacteria, including M. tuberculosis H37Ra, Mycobacterium bovis BCG, or Mycobacterium smegmatis. When the expression of NF-κB was assessed in mycobacterium-infected U937 cells, IκBα proteins were significantly degraded in M. tuberculosis-infected cells compared with M. marinum-infected cells. Collectively, these results suggest that differential IL-8 expression in human macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis and M. marinum may be critically associated with distinct host responses in tuberculosis. Additionally, our data indicate that differential signal transduction pathways may underlie the distinct patterns of IL-8 secretion in cells infected by the two mycobacteria.
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El-Etr, Sahar H., Ling Yan, and Jeffrey D. Cirillo. "Fish Monocytes as a Model for Mycobacterial Host-Pathogen Interactions." Infection and Immunity 69, no. 12 (December 1, 2001): 7310–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.69.12.7310-7317.2001.
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ABSTRACT Mycobacterium marinum, a relatively rapid-growing fish and human pathogen, has become an important model for the investigation of mycobacterial pathogenesis. M. marinumis closely related to the Mycobacterium tuberculosiscomplex and causes a disease in fish and amphibians with pathology similar to tuberculosis. We have developed an in vitro model for the study of M. marinum virulence mechanisms using the carp monocytic cell line CLC (carp leukocyte culture). We found that fish monocytes can differentiate between pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacterial species. Interestingly, M. marinum enters fish monocytes at a 40- to 60-fold-higher rate thanMycobacterium smegmatis. In addition, M. marinum survives and replicates in fish monocytes whileM. smegmatis is killed. We also found that M. marinum inhibits lysosomal fusion in fish monocytes, indicating that these cells may be used to dissect the mechanisms of intracellular trafficking in mycobacteria. We conclude from these observations that monocytic cells from fish, a natural host for M. marinum, provide an extremely valuable model for the identification and characterization of mycobacterial virulence determinants in the laboratory.
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Stragier, Pieter, Anthony Ablordey, Wayne M. Meyers, and Françoise Portaels. "Genotyping Mycobacterium ulcerans and Mycobacterium marinum by Using Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Units." Journal of Bacteriology 187, no. 5 (March 1, 2005): 1639–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jb.187.5.1639-1647.2005.
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ABSTRACT A novel category of variable tandem repeats (VNTR) called mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units (MIRUs) has been identified for Mycobacterium ulcerans (n = 39), M. marinum (n = 27), and one related organism. Fifteen MIRU loci were identified in the genome of M. marinum and were used to genotype M. ulcerans, M. marinum, and an M. marinum-like organism that is considered a possible missing link between M. marinum and M. ulcerans. Seven MIRU loci were polymorphic, and locus-specific PCRs for four of these loci differentiated seven M. ulcerans genotypes, four M. marinum genotypes, and a unique genotype for the missing link organism. The seven M. ulcerans genotypes were related to six different geographic origins of isolates. All isolates from West and Central Africa, including old and recent isolates, belonged to the same genotype, emphasizing the great spatiotemporal homogeneity among African isolates. Unlike the M. ulcerans genotypes, the four M. marinum genotypes could not be clearly related to the geographic origins of the isolates. According to MIRU-VNTR typing, all M. ulcerans and M. marinum isolates of American origin were closely related, suggesting a common American ancestor for these two pathogenic species on the American continents. MIRU typing has significant potential value for discriminating between reoccurrence and reinfection for M. ulcerans disease.
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Pagán-Ramos, E., J. Song, M. McFalone, M. H. Mudd, and V. Deretic. "Oxidative Stress Response and Characterization of theoxyR-ahpC and furA-katG Loci inMycobacterium marinum." Journal of Bacteriology 180, no. 18 (September 15, 1998): 4856–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jb.180.18.4856-4864.1998.
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ABSTRACT Oxidative stress response in pathogenic mycobacteria is believed to be of significance for host-pathogen interactions at various stages of infection. It also plays a role in determining the intrinsic susceptibility to isoniazid in mycobacterial species. In this work, we characterized the oxyR-ahpC and furA-katG loci in the nontuberculous pathogen Mycobacterium marinum. In contrast to Mycobacterium smegmatis and likeMycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, M. marinum was shown to possess a closely linked and divergently oriented equivalents of the regulator of peroxide stress response oxyR and its subordinate geneahpC, encoding a homolog of alkyl hydroperoxide reductase. Purified mycobacterial OxyR was found to bind to theoxyR-ahpC promoter region from M. marinum and additional mycobacterial species. Mobility shift DNA binding analyses using OxyR binding sites from several mycobacteria and a panel of in vitro-generated mutants validated the proposed consensus mycobacterial recognition sequence. M. marinum AhpC levels detected by immunoblotting, were increased upon treatment with H2O2, in keeping with the presence of a functional OxyR and its binding site within the promoter region ofahpC. In contrast, OxyR did not bind to the sequences upstream of the katG structural gene, and katGexpression did not follow the pattern seen with ahpC. Instead, a new open reading frame encoding a homolog of the ferric uptake regulator Fur was identified immediately upstream ofkatG in M. marinum. The furA-katGlinkage and arrangement are ubiquitous in mycobacteria, suggesting the presence of additional regulators of oxidative stress response and potentially explaining the observed differences in ahpC andkatG expression. Collectively, these findings broaden our understanding of oxidative stress response in mycobacteria. They also suggest that M. marinum will be useful as a model system for studying the role of oxidative stress response in mycobacterial physiology, intracellular survival, and other host-pathogen interactions associated with mycobacterial diseases.
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Dionne, Marc S., Nafisa Ghori, and David S. Schneider. "Drosophila melanogaster Is a Genetically Tractable Model Host for Mycobacterium marinum." Infection and Immunity 71, no. 6 (June 2003): 3540–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.71.6.3540-3550.2003.
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ABSTRACT Mycobacterium marinum is a pathogenic mycobacterial species that is closely related to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and causes tuberculosis-like disease in fish and frogs. We infected the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster with M. marinum. This bacterium caused a lethal infection in the fly, with a 50% lethal dose (LD50) of 5 CFU. Death was accompanied by widespread tissue damage. M. marinum initially proliferated inside the phagocytes of the fly; later in infection, bacteria were found both inside and outside host cells. Intracellular M. marinum blocked vacuolar acidification and failed to colocalize with dead Escherichia coli, similar to infections of mouse macrophages. M. marinum lacking the mag24 gene were less virulent, as determined both by LD50 and by death kinetics. Finally, in contrast to all other bacteria examined, mycobacteria failed to elicit the production of antimicrobial peptides in Drosophila. We believe that this system should be a useful genetically tractable model for mycobacterial infection.
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El-Etr, Sahar H., Selvakumar Subbian, Suat L. G. Cirillo, and Jeffrey D. Cirillo. "Identification of Two Mycobacterium marinum Loci That Affect Interactions with Macrophages." Infection and Immunity 72, no. 12 (December 2004): 6902–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.72.12.6902-6913.2004.
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ABSTRACT Mycobacterium marinum is closely related to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the cause of tuberculosis in humans. M. marinum has become an important model system for the study of the molecular mechanisms involved in causing tuberculosis in humans. Through molecular genetic analysis of the differences between pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacteria, we identified two loci that affect the ability of M. marinum to infect macrophages, designated mel 1 and mel 2. In silico analyses of the 11 putative genes in these loci suggest that mel 1 encodes secreted proteins that include a putative membrane protein and two putative transglutaminases, whereas mel 2 is involved in secondary metabolism or biosynthesis of fatty acids. Interestingly, mel 2 is unique to M. marinum and the M. tuberculosis complex and not present in any other sequenced mycobacterial species. M. marinum mutants with mutations in mel 1 and mel 2, constructed by allelic exchange, are defective in the ability to infect both murine and fish macrophage cell lines. These data suggest that the genes in mel 1 and mel 2 are important for the ability of M. marinum to infect host cells.
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Talaat, Adel M., Renate Reimschuessel, Steven S. Wasserman, and Michele Trucksis. "Goldfish, Carassius auratus, a Novel Animal Model for the Study of Mycobacterium marinumPathogenesis." Infection and Immunity 66, no. 6 (June 1, 1998): 2938–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.66.6.2938-2942.1998.
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ABSTRACT We have developed an animal model for studying mycobacterial pathogenesis using Mycobacterium marinum and the goldfish,Carassius auratus. Goldfish are injected intraperitoneally with doses between 102 and 109 CFU of M. marinum organisms. Depending on the dose of M. marinum organisms administered, an acute or chronic disease is produced. The acute disease is characterized by systemic mycobacterial infection, severe peritonitis, tissue necrosis, and a short median survival time. The chronic disease is characterized by granuloma formation in all organs and survival of animals to the end point of the experiment (56 days). Colony counts in organ homogenates showed recovery of mycobacteria from a high percentage of inoculated animals. We believe this well-characterized animal model will be useful for studying mycobacterial pathogenesis.
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Rybniker, Jan, Martina Wolke, Christiane Haefs, and Georg Plum. "Transposition of Tn5367 in Mycobacterium marinum, Using a Conditionally Recombinant Mycobacteriophage." Journal of Bacteriology 185, no. 5 (March 1, 2003): 1745–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jb.185.5.1745-1748.2003.
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ABSTRACT Mycobacterium marinum is a close relative of the obligate human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis. As with M. tuberculosis, M. marinum causes intracellular infection of poikilothermic vertebrates and skin infection in humans. It is considered a valid model organism for the study of intracellular pathogenesis of mycobacteria. Low transformation efficiencies for this species have precluded approaches using mutant libraries in pathogenesis studies. We have adapted the conditionally replicating mycobacteriophage phAE94, originally developed as a transposon mutagenesis tool for M. tuberculosis, to meet the specific requirements of M. marinum. Conditions permissive for phage replication in M. tuberculosis facilitated highly efficient transposon delivery in M. marinum. Using this technique we succeeded in generating a representative mutant library of this species, and we conclude that TM4-derived mycobacteriophages are temperature-independent suicide vectors for M. marinum.
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Saadatmand, Babak, James Kevin Poulton, and Catharine Lisa Kauffman. "Mycobacterium Marinum with Associated Bursitis." Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery 3, no. 4 (April 1999): 218–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/120347549900300413.
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Background: Mycobacterium marinum infections have been reported for over 50 years, mostly in association with trauma in the setting of water exposure. Objective: The differential diagnosis for nodules in a sporotrichoid distribution with simultaneous bursitis is discussed. Mycobacterium marinum treatment regimens for skin and joint involvement are reviewed. Methods: Mycobacterium marinum was identified by skin tissue culture with Lowenstein-Jensen medium at 32°C. Histopathologic findings support mycobacterial infection. Results: Bursitis and nodules resolved in the first 2 months of a 6-month course of minocycline treatment. Conclusion: Bursitis is an extremely rare but significant complication of M. marinum.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Mycobacterium marinum M"
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COLÍN, GARCÍA ANTONIO ALI. "MICOBACTERIOSIS EN PECES." Tesis de Licenciatura, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11799/105478.
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Tesis Licenciatura- titulaciónEl objetivo del presente trabajo fue reunir, analizar y presentar la información más relevante acerca de la infección causada por micobacteriosis en peces, su impacto en la producción y posibles efectos en salud pública. A nivel mundial las enfermedades de peces constituyen una amenaza para el desarrollo y sostenimiento de la acuicultura, ya que si aparecen de forma esporádica, periódica o sostenida limitan la producción. La micobacteriosis (tuberculosis húmeda) en peces o “micobacteriosis atípica” es una enfermedad crónica progresiva; afecta a un amplio rango de especies de agua dulce y salina, particularmente observada en peces de acuario, generando enfermedad crónica sistémica que tiende a formar granulomas externos e internos diseminados; sin embargo, ninguno de estos agentes produce una lesión o signo distintivo, por lo que se requiere hacer un diagnóstico confirmatorio en laboratorios especializados. En las micobacteriosis en peces provocada por micobacterias no tuberculosas (MNT): Mycobacterium marinum, M. chelonae y M. fortuitum, bacterias presentes en el ambiente acuático, la transmisión de la infección se da a través de lesiones en la piel, branquias e intestino, por consumo o contacto con animales o por protozoarios infectados; adicional a ello en peces vivíparos se ha demostrado una transmisión vertical. Sin embargo, el estrés de la manipulación, confinamiento y transporte se consideran como factores predisponentes de la enfermedad. En el hombre, los principales pacientes suelen ser personas mayores o debilitados y que típicamente están relacionados con la manipulación de peces y actividades recreacionales, y se conoce como “granuloma de las piscinas o de los acuarios”, ya que suelen producirse tras pequeños traumatismos cutáneos provocados en piscinas, albercas, estanques o acuarios, además de que de forma característica también existe el antecedente de lesiones con espinas de pescado o al manipular crustáceos. El proceso cutáneo es crónico y con un período de incubación de 2 a 8 semanas. En general suelen ser lesiones únicas, aunque en ocasiones se propagan y ascienden con una distribución lineal esporotricoide. En un tercio de los casos pueden invadir los tejidos profundos llegando a los tendones y los huesos. El diagnóstico de la micobacteriosis atípica se fundamenta en la sospecha clínica ante un historial clínico que sugiere exposición a fuentes de contagio o exposición, en donde pudieran estar presentes MNT. El diagnóstico de confirmación se realiza a partir de biopsias obtenidas de los órganos o tejidos con lesión nodular a los cuales se les practican estudios inmunohistoquímicos, histológicos y microbiológicos. Aunado a los aportes locales e internacionales que la piscicultura ofrece, en la actualidad esta actividad se enfrenta a una gran variedad de factores de riesgo que pueden afectar la productividad, entre los que se incluyen la incidencia y dispersión de enfermedades entre las poblaciones de peces, algunas de las cuales pueden tener importancia zoonótica como el caso de las MNT.
Books on the topic "Mycobacterium marinum M"
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Wilson, John W., and Lynn L. Estes. Nontuberculosis Mycobacterial Infections. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199797783.003.0125.
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•Group I (photochromogens): Produces pigment in light: Mycobacterium kansasii, M marinum, M simiae•Group II (scotochromogens): Produces pigment in dark: M scrofulaceum, M szulgai, M xenopi, M gordonae•Group III (nonphotochromogens): No pigment: M avium-intracellulare complex (MAC), M haemophilum, M ulcerans, M malmoense, M terrae...
Book chapters on the topic "Mycobacterium marinum M"
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Boakye-Appiah, Justice, Belinda Hall, Rajko Reljic, and Rachel E. Simmonds. "Current Progress and Prospects for a Buruli Ulcer Vaccine." In Vaccines for Neglected Pathogens: Strategies, Achievements and Challenges, 71–95. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24355-4_5.
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AbstractBuruli ulcer (BU), one of the skin-related neglected tropical diseases (skin NTDs), is a necrotizing and disabling cutaneous disease caused by subcutaneous infection with Mycobacterium ulcerans. Leading on from the World Health Organization’s (WHO) establishment of a global BU initiative in 1998, >67,000 cases of BU have been reported from over 32 countries, mostly from West Africa and Australia. While treatment is currently in the transition period from rifampicin plus streptomycin (injection) to an all-oral regimen, it cannot hope to eradicate this opportunistic environmental pathogen. M. ulcerans is genetically very similar to related pathogenic organisms M. marinum, M. leprae and M. tuberculosis. However, M. ulcerans carries a unique megaplasmid, pMUM001, encoding the biosynthetic machinery responsible for production of a lipid-like exotoxin virulence factor, mycolactone. This diffusible compound causes the substantial divergence in BU’s pathogenic aetiology from other mycobacterial infections. Hence, mycolactone is cytotoxic and immunosuppressive and causes vascular dysfunction in infected skin. A major recent advance in our understanding of BU pathogenesis has been agreement on the mycolactone’s mechanism of action in host cells, targeting the Sec61 translocon during a major step in secretory and membrane protein biogenesis. While vaccine development for all mycobacteria has been challenging, mycolactone production likely presents a particular challenge in the development of a BU vaccine. The live-attenuated vaccine BCG is known to provide only partial and transient protection in humans but provides a convenient baseline in mouse preclinical studies where it can delay, but not prevent, disease progression. No experimental vaccine strategy has yet conferred greater protection than BCG. However, there is now the prospect of developing a vaccine against mycolactone itself, which may provide hope for the future.
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Binnicker, Matthew J., Glenn D. Roberts, and Nancy L. Wengenack. "Mycobacterial and Fungal Diagnostics." In Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases Board Review, 41–52. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199827626.003.0004.
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This chapter reviews diagnostic methods and tests for identifying mycobacterial and fungal organisms. Diagnostic methods include direct examination, staining, culture, molecular identification, DNA sequencing, chromatography, polymerase chain reaction, and immunodiagnostics. Organisms reviewed include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M kansasii, M marinum, M leprae, M avium, and other mycobacteria; Aspergillus spp; Histoplasma spp; Coccidioides spp; Blastomyces spp; Candida spp; Fusarium spp; Trichophyton spp; and other fungi.
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del Valle, Kathryn T., and Aaron J. Tande. "It Must Be Something in the Water: A Hand Infection After Fishing." In Mayo Clinic Infectious Disease Case Review, edited by Larry M. Baddour, John C. O’Horo, Mark J. Enzler, and Rahul Kashyap, 175–78. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190052973.003.0047.
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Mycobacterium marinum infections initially can mimic common skin and soft tissue infections. M marinum infections are associated with aquatic creatures and can also occur after injuries from inanimate objects, such as fishhooks. Patients often initially present with papules on the affected area, which can progress to nodular lymphangitis (also termed sporotrichoid spread). Diagnosis is established on the basis of clinical assessment (indolent course, papules that progress to nodular lymphangitis), histopathologic findings (granulomatous inflammation), and culture results. Treatment should typically include a 3- to 4-month course of at least 2 antimicrobial agents, and frequently used agents include clarithromycin, rifampin, and ethambutol.
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Foulon, Mélanie, Stevanus A. Listian, Thierry Soldati, and Caroline Barisch. "Conserved mechanisms drive host-lipid access, import, and utilization in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. marinum." In Biology of Mycobacterial Lipids, 133–61. Elsevier, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-91948-7.00011-7.
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van Ingen, Jakko. "Disease caused by environmental mycobacteria." In Oxford Textbook of Medicine, edited by Christopher P. Conlon, 1150–54. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198746690.003.0131.
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There are over 130 species of mycobacteria; species other than M. tuberculosis complex and M. leprae are collectively referred to as the non-tuberculous or environmental mycobacteria. Non-tuberculous mycobacteria are divided into two groups, the slow growers, and the rapid growers. The most common organisms causing human disease are the slow-growing species M. avium complex and M. kansasii and, less commonly, M. marinum, M. xenopi, M. simiae, M. malmoense, and M. ulcerans. The rapid growers that are human pathogens are M. abscessus, M. fortuitum, and M. chelonae. Transmission to humans is though inhalation, ingestion, or traumatic inoculation. The prevalence of non-tuberculous mycobacteria infections is likely to have been underestimated, and appears to be increasing in developed countries.
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Lynch, Sharon A., Andrew F. Rowley, Matt Longshaw, Shelagh K. Malham, and Sarah C. Culloty. "Diseases of molluscs." In Invertebrate Pathology, 171–216. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853756.003.0008.
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Phylum Mollusca is a large and diverse group of invertebrate protostomes of over 85,000 species including gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves. Molluscs are the largest marine phylum. Marine molluscs are economically important as a high protein food source for humans and provide ecosystem services including nutrient recycling, carbon sequestration, sediment stabilisation and bioturbation. Molluscs are harvested by traditional fishing but are increasingly cultured in many coastal communities worldwide. Hence most information on pathogens and disease is known in molluscs of commercial significance. Bivalves (oysters, mussels, clams, scallops, cockles) are susceptible to a wide range of diseases caused by viruses (e.g. ostreid herpes virus-1 and variants) bacteria (e.g. Vibrio spp., Nocardia crassostreae, Roseovarius spp., rickettsia and Mycobacterium spp.), microsporidians (e.g. Steinhausia spp.), paramyxids (Marteilia refringens and M. pararefringens), haplosporidans (e.g. Haplosporidium nelsoni, Minchinia spp., and Bonamia ostreae) and macroparasites (e.g. trematodes, copepods and nematodes). The gastropod abalone are susceptible to viruses (e.g. Abalone Viral Ganglioneuritis) and bacteria (Rickettsiales-like organism). Of particular importance is Pacific oyster mortality syndrome (POMS) that is polymicrobial in nature with initial infection by ostreid herpesvirus with subsequent bacterial infections by a variety of vibrios, and marteiliosis. In North America, since the early 1950’s there have been episodes of diseases including Dermo disease, caused by Perkinsus marinus, and MSX disease caused by H. nelson in Crassostrea spp. Globally, it is recognised that marine diseases including those that impact molluscs are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change, in particular increasing seawater temperature, and human activities.