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1
Ackermann, Bronwen, Tim Driscoll, and Dianna T. Kenny. "Musculoskeletal Pain and Injury in Professional Orchestral Musicians in Australia." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 27, no. 4 (December 1, 2012): 181–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2012.4034.
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This paper reports on the major findings from the questionnaire component of a cross-sectional survey of the musicians in Australia’s eight fulltime professional symphonic and pit orchestras, focusing on performance-related musculoskeletal disorders (PRMDs). METHODS: All musician members of the orchestras participating in this project were invited to complete a self-report survey. The overall response rate was about 70% (n = 377). In addition to general health and experience questions, respondents who reported a current or previous PRMD were asked to report on a range of associated factors. RESULTS: Of the participants, 84% had experienced pain or injuries that had interfered either with playing their instrument or participating in normal orchestral rehearsals and performances. Fifty percent reported having such pain or injury at the time of the survey, mostly with disorders perceived by the musicians to be work-related. Twenty-eight percent had taken at least 1 day off from work for such pain in the previous 18 months. The most common broad sites affected were the trunk (primarily the back), the right upper limb and neck, the left upper limb and neck, and the neck alone, but the relative proportions varied by instrument. Of those musicians who reported at least one episode of pain or injury in the past, less than 50% reported that they had completely recovered. The most commonly cited performance-related factors that had contributed to injury or pain all related to training and playing load (including practice and performance). CONCLUSION: This study provides strong evidence that PRMDs are a common complaint in professional orchestral musicians and identifies a range of factors suggested as contributing to the occurrence or persistence of these disorders.
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de Bruin, Leon R. "Evolving Regulatory Processes Used by Students and Experts in the Acquiring of Improvisational Skills: A Qualitative Study." Journal of Research in Music Education 65, no. 4 (November 17, 2017): 483–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022429417744348.
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The way an improviser practices is a vital and significant aspect to a musician’s means and capacities of expression. Expert music performers utilize extensive self-regulatory processes involving planning, strategic development, and systemized approaches to learning and reflective practice. Scholars posit that these processes are constructivist and socioculturally explained and manifest in individual, jointly negotiated, and shared learning. This qualitative study explores the regulatory processes of four prominent Australian improvising musician-educators and four tertiary improvisation students. Expert and developing musicians’ processes in learning and teaching improvised music-making were investigated through observations of self-regulation, co-regulation, and shared regulation strategies. I identified and analyzed regulatory learning strategies located from practice, training, and experience using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Findings suggest insights of evolving self-regulative behavior that are dynamic, task-specific, personalised, and contextually contingent across individual and collaborative tasks and activity. An integrative regulatory model of learning offers guidance and reflection of metacognitive flow within a social constructed view of learning. Implications for researchers and educators are drawn for meaningful educational practice by knowing and understanding expert improvisers’ complex concepts of self-regulation, critical thinking, problem solving, and the evolution and evaluation of creative processes in improvisers.
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Ong, Jia Hoong, Denis Burnham, Paola Escudero, and Catherine J. Stevens. "Effect of Linguistic and Musical Experience on Distributional Learning of Nonnative Lexical Tones." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 60, no. 10 (October 17, 2017): 2769–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2016_jslhr-s-16-0080.
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Purpose Evidence suggests that extensive experience with lexical tones or musical training provides an advantage in perceiving nonnative lexical tones. This investigation concerns whether such an advantage is evident in learning nonnative lexical tones based on the distributional structure of the input. Method Using an established protocol, distributional learning of lexical tones was investigated with tone language (Mandarin) listeners with no musical training (Experiment 1) and nontone language (Australian English) listeners with musical training (Experiment 2). Within each experiment, participants were trained on a bimodal (2-peak) or a unimodal (single peak) distribution along a continuum spanning a Thai lexical tone minimal pair. Discrimination performance on the target minimal pair was assessed before and after training. Results Mandarin nonmusicians exhibited clear distributional learning (listeners in the bimodal, but not those in the unimodal condition, improved significantly as a function of training), whereas Australian English musicians did not (listeners in both the bimodal and unimodal conditions improved as a function of training). Conclusions Our findings suggest that veridical perception of lexical tones is not sufficient for distributional learning of nonnative lexical tones to occur. Rather, distributional learning appears to be modulated by domain-specific pitch experience and is constrained possibly by top-down interference.
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Bartlett, Irene, and Diana Tolmie. "What are you doing the rest of your life? A profile of Jazz/Contemporary Voice graduates." International Journal of Music Education 36, no. 2 (August 17, 2017): 197–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0255761417714606.
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Over the past two decades the topic of graduate outcomes has increasingly informed the discourse on the changing nature of universities. For conservatoires and university music departments the global shift in audience demand away from western classical music and jazz styles (traditionally the cornerstone tertiary music programs) to contemporary commercial music (CCM) has added an extra dimension to the graduate outcomes discussion with respect to vocation preparation and musicians’ portfolio careers. Few studies have tracked the career paths of music graduates across time with none focused on jazz/contemporary singers. This report discusses the findings from a snapshot study of Jazz/Contemporary Voice graduates (2001 to 2012) of one Australian conservatoire. The purpose of this research was to better describe this population of graduates in terms of employment outcomes, the dynamics of their employment activities, employment-seeking strategies and the relevance of university coursework to their employability. Their responses have implications for tertiary music training programs.
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Ennis, Martin. "Training ‘early’ musicians." Early Music 42, no. 3 (July 15, 2014): 504–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/em/cau053.
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Herndon, Hillary. "Balance Training: For Musicians." American String Teacher 60, no. 4 (November 2010): 38–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000313131006000408.
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Rodrigues, Ana Carolina, Maurício Alves Loureiro, and Paulo Caramelli. "Musical training, neuroplasticity and cognition." Dementia & Neuropsychologia 4, no. 4 (December 2010): 277–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1980-57642010dn40400005.
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Abstract The influence of music on the human brain has been recently investigated in numerous studies. Several investigations have shown that structural and functional cerebral neuroplastic processes emerge as a result of long-term musical training, which in turn may produce cognitive differences between musicians and non-musicians. Musicians can be considered ideal cases for studies on brain adaptation, due to their unique and intensive training experiences. This article presents a review of recent findings showing positive effects of musical training on non-musical cognitive abilities, which probably reflect plastic changes in brains of musicians.
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Toltz, Joseph. "The Vanished Musicians: Jewish Refugees in Australia." Musicology Australia 39, no. 1 (January 2, 2017): 67–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08145857.2017.1334301.
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Choi, Chul-Hee, and Hea-Sung Cho. "Effect of Music Training on Auditory Brainstem and Middle Latency Responses." Audiology and Speech Research 16, no. 1 (January 31, 2020): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.21848/asr.190098.
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Purpose: The auditory system has potentials to reorganize its structure and function in response to environmental changes such as training, experience, learning, injury, and disease. This is called neuroplasticity. A typical example of neuroplasticity is the music training, which demands cognitive and neural challenges resulting in enhanced auditory perception. This study investigated the effect of music training on auditory evoked responses, particularly auditory brainstem and middle latency responses. Methods: Forty college students consisting of twenty students with music training (musicians) and twenty students without music training (non-musicians) participated in the study. All participants have normal ranges in terms of pure tone audiometry, speech audiometry, and tympanometry. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) and auditory middle latency response (AMLR) from both ears were tested. Absolute latencies and amplitudes of waves in ABR and AMLR were obtained and analyzed.Results: The absolute latencies of wave I and V significantly differed between musicians and non-musicians. They were shorter for musicians than for non-musicians. Significant differences were found in the interpeak latencies of wave III-V and I-V between musicians and non-musicians. They were also shorter in musicians than for non-musicians. In addition, there were only significant differences in the latency of Na in AMLR between musicians and non-musicians. It was shorter for a musician than for non-musician.Conclusion: ABR was more sensitive to the efficacy of the music training.
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Bird, Laura J., Graeme D. Jackson, and Sarah J. Wilson. "Music training is neuroprotective for verbal cognition in focal epilepsy." Brain 142, no. 7 (May 10, 2019): 1973–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz124.
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AbstractFocal epilepsy is a unilateral brain network disorder, providing an ideal neuropathological model with which to study the effects of focal neural disruption on a range of cognitive processes. While language and memory functions have been extensively investigated in focal epilepsy, music cognition has received less attention, particularly in patients with music training or expertise. This represents a critical gap in the literature. A better understanding of the effects of epilepsy on music cognition may provide greater insight into the mechanisms behind disease- and training-related neuroplasticity, which may have implications for clinical practice. In this cross-sectional study, we comprehensively profiled music and non-music cognition in 107 participants; musicians with focal epilepsy (n = 35), non-musicians with focal epilepsy (n = 39), and healthy control musicians and non-musicians (n = 33). Parametric group comparisons revealed a specific impairment in verbal cognition in non-musicians with epilepsy but not musicians with epilepsy, compared to healthy musicians and non-musicians (P = 0.029). This suggests a possible neuroprotective effect of music training against the cognitive sequelae of focal epilepsy, and implicates potential training-related cognitive transfer that may be underpinned by enhancement of auditory processes primarily supported by temporo-frontal networks. Furthermore, our results showed that musicians with an earlier age of onset of music training performed better on a composite score of melodic learning and memory compared to non-musicians (P = 0.037), while late-onset musicians did not differ from non-musicians. For most composite scores of music cognition, although no significant group differences were observed, a similar trend was apparent. We discuss these key findings in the context of a proposed model of three interacting dimensions (disease status, music expertise, and cognitive domain), and their implications for clinical practice, music education, and music neuroscience research.
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Molzinsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich. "Especially of training musicians in Russia." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg State University of Culture 3 (September 2017): 172–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.30725/2619-0303-2017-3-172-179.
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Bodina, Y. A. "ABOUT METHODOLOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHER-MUSICIANS." Education and science journal 1, no. 3 (March 9, 2015): 22–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.17853/1994-5639-2014-3-22-34.
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Fuhrmann, Anita, Suzanne Wijsman, Philip Weinstein, Darryl Poulsen, and Peter Franklin. "Asthma Among Musicians in Australia: Is There a Difference Between Wind/Brass and Other Players?" Medical Problems of Performing Artists 24, no. 4 (December 1, 2009): 170–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2009.4034.
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Control of respiration is important in wind/brass instrument playing. Although respiratory diseases, such as asthma, may affect breathing control, little is known about the prevalence of asthma among wind and brass musicians. The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence of self-reported asthma between wind/brass musicians and non-wind/brass musicians through different stages of experience. A total of 1960 musicians completed a respiratory health questionnaire. The participants were categorized into the following five subgroups: primary students, secondary students, tertiary students, community musicians, and professional musicians. Chi-squared and logistic regression analyses were used to compare asthma prevalence and related health outcomes between wind/brass and non-wind/brass musicians. There were no significant differences in current asthma prevalence between the wind/brass and other musicians in any of the subgroups, apart from tertiary students in whom the prevalence of asthma and related outcomes appeared to be higher among wind/brass musicians. Asthma prevalence among musicians in our survey was similar to that in the overall population. The results suggest that having asthma does not significantly affect participation in music, the choice of instrument to learn (wind/brass or other), or progression to elite levels as a musician.
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Kolinsky, Réégine, Héélééne Cuvelier, Vincent Goetry, Isabelle Peretz, and Joséé Morais. "Music Training Facilitates Lexical Stress Processing." Music Perception 26, no. 3 (February 1, 2009): 235–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2009.26.3.235.
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WE INVESTIGATED WHETHER MUSIC TRAINING facilitates the processing of lexical stress in natives of a language that does not use lexical stress contrasts. Musically trained (musicians) or untrained (nonmusicians) French natives were presented with two tasks: speeded classification that required them to focus on a segmental contrast and ignore irrelevant stress variations, and sequence repetition involving either segmental or stress contrasts. In the latter situation, French natives are usually "deaf" to lexical stress, but this was less the case for musicians, demonstrating that music expertise enhances sensitivity to stress contrasts. This increased sensitivity does not seem, however, to unavoidably bias musicians' attention to stress contrasts: in segmental-based speeded classification, musicians were not more affected than nonmusicians by irrelevant stress variations when overall performance was controlled for. Implications regarding both the notion of modularity of processing and the advantage that musicianship may afford for second language learning are discussed.
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Gorniak, Stacey L., Evan D. Collins, Kimberly Goldie Staines, Forrest A. Brooks, and Ricardo V. Young. "The Impact of Musical Training on Hand Biomechanics in String Musicians." HAND 14, no. 6 (April 26, 2018): 823–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1558944718772388.
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Background: The effects of musical training on the body in professional musicians remain an understudied area, particularly in reference to understanding and managing orthopedic/neuromuscular deviations and injuries in this population. The purpose of this study was to evaluate hand/finger fine motor function in musicians via physical examination as well as laboratory-based evaluations. Methods: Thirteen healthy noninjured young elite string musicians participated in this study. Performance of musicians was compared with healthy age-matched, sex-matched, and handedness-matched nonmusician controls. Results: Musicians exhibited decreased intrinsic muscle strength compared with controls; however, no change in extrinsic muscle strength was found between groups. No between-group differences in overall force control were found; however, Group × Hand (right vs left) interactions were found in force control. Conclusions: These data suggest that musicians are a unique population with respect to: (1) fine motor control of the hand; and (2) exhibit changes in differential hand use. This suggests cortical reorganization of string musicians, such that this population should be studied separately from typical healthy controls with respect to hand function.
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Weijkamp, Janne, and Makiko Sadakata. "Attention to affective audio-visual information: Comparison between musicians and non-musicians." Psychology of Music 45, no. 2 (July 7, 2016): 204–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735616654216.
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Individuals with more musical training repeatedly demonstrate enhanced auditory perception abilities. The current study examined how these enhanced auditory skills interact with attention to affective audio-visual stimuli. A total of 16 participants with more than 5 years of musical training (musician group) and 16 participants with less than 2 years of musical training (non-musician group) took part in a version of the audio-visual emotional Stroop test, using happy, neutral, and sad emotions. Participants were presented with congruent and incongruent combinations of face and voice stimuli while judging the emotion of either the face or the voice. As predicted, musicians were less susceptible to interference from visual information on auditory emotion judgments than non-musicians, as evidenced by musicians being more accurate when judging auditory emotions when presented with congruent and incongruent visual information. Musicians were also more accurate than non-musicians at identifying visual emotions when presented with concurrent auditory information. Thus, musicians were less influenced by congruent/incongruent information in a non-target modality compared to non-musicians. The results suggest that musical training influences audio-visual information processing.
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Yashaswini, L., and Sandeep Maruthy. "Effect of Music Training on Categorical Perception of Speech and Music." Journal of Audiology and Otology 24, no. 3 (July 10, 2020): 140–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.7874/jao.2019.00500.
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Background and Objectives: The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of music training on the characteristics of auditory perception of speech and music. The perception of speech and music stimuli was assessed across their respective stimulus continuum and the resultant plots were compared between musicians and non-musicians. Subjects and Methods: Thirty musicians with formal music training and twenty-seven non-musicians participated in the study (age: 20 to 30 years). They were assessed for identification of consonant-vowel syllables (/da/ to /ga/), vowels (/u/ to /a/), vocal music note (/ri/ to /ga/), and instrumental music note (/ri/ to /ga/) across their respective stimulus continuum. The continua contained 15 tokens with equal step size between any adjacent tokens. The resultant identification scores were plotted against each token and were analyzed for presence of categorical boundary. If the categorical boundary was found, the plots were analyzed by six parameters of categorical perception; for the point of 50% crossover, lower edge of categorical boundary, upper edge of categorical boundary, phoneme boundary width, slope, and intercepts. Results: Overall, the results showed that both speech and music are perceived differently in musicians and non-musicians. In musicians, both speech and music are categorically perceived, while in non-musicians, only speech is perceived categorically. Conclusions: The findings of the present study indicate that music is perceived categorically by musicians, even if the stimulus is devoid of vocal tract features. The findings support that the categorical perception is strongly influenced by training and results are discussed in light of notions of motor theory of speech perception.
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Habibi, Assal, Vinthia Wirantana, and Arnold Starr. "Cortical Activity During Perception of Musical Pitch." Music Perception 30, no. 5 (December 2012): 463–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2013.30.5.463.
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This study investigates the effects of music training on brain activity to violations of melodic expectancies. We recorded behavioral and event-related brain potential (ERP) responses of musicians and nonmusicians to discrepancies of pitch between pairs of unfamiliar melodies based on Western classical rules. Musicians detected pitch deviations significantly better than nonmusicians. In musicians compared to nonmusicians, auditory cortical potentials to notes but not unrelated warning tones exhibited enhanced P200 amplitude generally, and in response to pitch deviations enhanced amplitude for N150 and P300 (P3a) but not N100 was observed. P3a latency was shorter in musicians compared to nonmusicians. Both the behavioral and cortical activity differences observed between musicians and nonmusicians in response to deviant notes were significant with stimulation of the right but not the left ear, suggesting that left-sided brain activity differentiated musicians from nonmusicians. The enhanced amplitude of N150 among musicians with right ear stimulation was positively correlated with earlier age onset of music training. Our data support the notion that long-term music training in musicians leads to functional reorganization of auditory brain systems, and that these effects are potentiated by early age onset of training.
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Ruch, Gerry, and Chris Kachian. "A tone tutor for training student musicians." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 146, no. 4 (October 2019): 2908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.5137088.
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Smayda, Kirsten E., Darrell A. Worthy, and Bharath Chandrasekaran. "Better late than never (or early): Music training in late childhood is associated with enhanced decision-making." Psychology of Music 46, no. 5 (August 22, 2017): 734–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735617723721.
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Decision-making is critical to everyday life. Here we ask: to what extent does music training benefit decision-making? Supported by strong associations between music training and enhanced cross-domain skills, we hypothesize that musicians may show decision-making advantages relative to non-musicians. Prior work has also argued for a “critical period” for cross-domain plasticity such that beginning music training early enhances sensorimotor brain regions that mature early in life. Given that brain regions supporting decision-making begin maturing late in childhood, we hypothesized that an advantage in decision-making may only be present in musicians who began music training later in childhood. To test this hypothesis, young adults who began music training before and after 8 years of age (early-trained musicians, ET; late-trained musicians, LT, respectively) and non-musicians (NM) performed a decision-making task. We found a decision-making advantage in LT relative to ET and NM. To better understand the mechanism of the LT advantage, we conducted computational modeling on participant responses and found that LT were less biased by recent outcomes and incorporated longer strings of outcomes when deciding among the choice options. These results tentatively suggest that music training may confer decision-making enhancements, and carry strong implications for the utility of music training in childhood.
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Latukefu, Lotte, and Jane Ginsborg. "Understanding what we mean by portfolio training in music." British Journal of Music Education 36, no. 1 (September 3, 2018): 87–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0265051718000207.
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Although musicians have always had portfolio careers, the discourse in conservatoires around training musicians specifically for portfolio careers is relatively new. This is partly because of increasing opportunities in the workplace for entrepreneurial and multi-faceted musicians and partly – in the UK at least – because of educational policy and practice. This article incorporates narratives provided by professional portfolio musicians and students and teachers at a single conservatoire in the UK, to illustrate disjunctures between the expectations fostered by conservatoires undergoing changes in their culture and the lived experiences of teachers and students responding, in real time, to changes both within the conservatoire and in the wider society. One of the key findings of the research is that teachers and students have qualitatively different conceptions of what it means for students to be trained for portfolio careers. The paper concludes by considering the implications of their different understandings for initiatives to reform conservatoire curricula.
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Perna, Francesca, Francesco Pavani, Massimiliano Zampini, and Veronica Mazza. "Behavioral Dynamics of Rhythm and Meter Perception: The Effect of Musical Expertise in Deviance Detection." Timing & Time Perception 6, no. 1 (April 10, 2018): 32–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134468-00002100.
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In two behavioral experiments, we explored effects of long-term musical training on the implicit processing of temporal structures (rhythm, non-rhythm and meter), manipulating deviance detection under different conditions. We used a task that did not require an explicit processing of the temporal aspect of stimuli, as this was irrelevant for the task. In Experiment 1, we investigated whether long-term musical training results in a superior processing of auditory rhythm, and thus boosts the detection of auditory deviants inserted within rhythmic compared to non-rhythmic auditory series. In Experiment 2, we focused on the influence of the metrical positions of a rhythmic series, and we compared musicians and non-musicians’ responses to deviant sounds inserted on strong versus weak metrical positions. We hypothesized that musicians would show enhanced rhythmic processing as compared to non-musicians. Furthermore, we hypothesized that musicians’ expectancy level would differ more across metrical positions compared to non-musicians. In both experiments, musicians were faster and more sensitive than non-musicians. Although both groups were overall faster and showed a higher sensitivity for the detection of deviants in rhythmic compared to non-rhythmic series (Experiment 1), only musicians were faster in the detection of deviants on strong positions compared to weak ones (Experiment 2). While rhythm modulates deviance processing also in non-musicians, specific effects of long-term musical training arise when a refined comparison of hierarchical metrical positions is considered. This suggests that long-term musical training enhances sensitivity to the metrical structure and improves temporal prediction mechanisms, even during implicit processing of meter.
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Luo, Cheng, Shipeng Tu, Yueheng Peng, Shan Gao, Jianfu Li, Li Dong, Gujing Li, Yongxiu Lai, Hong Li, and Dezhong Yao. "Long-Term Effects of Musical Training and Functional Plasticity in Salience System." Neural Plasticity 2014 (2014): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/180138.
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Musicians undergoing long-term musical training show improved emotional and cognitive function, which suggests the presence of neuroplasticity. The structural and functional impacts of the human brain have been observed in musicians. In this study, we used data-driven functional connectivity analysis to map local and distant functional connectivity in resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from 28 professional musicians and 28 nonmusicians. Compared with nonmusicians, musicians exhibited significantly greater local functional connectivity density in 10 regions, including the bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula, and anterior temporoparietal junction. A distant functional connectivity analysis demonstrated that most of these regions were included in salience system, which is associated with high-level cognitive control and fundamental attentional process. Additionally, musicians had significantly greater functional integration in this system, especially for connections to the left insula. Increased functional connectivity between the left insula and right temporoparietal junction may be a response to long-term musical training. Our findings indicate that the improvement of salience network is involved in musical training. The salience system may represent a new avenue for exploration regarding the underlying foundations of enhanced higher-level cognitive processes in musicians.
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Calissendorff, Maria, and Haukur F. Hannesson. "Educating Orchestral Musicians." British Journal of Music Education 34, no. 2 (October 10, 2016): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0265051716000255.
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This article examines research on the specific training of musicians before they begin work as players in professional orchestras. Most of the research is in the area of education. The present article suggests that little research exists that is specific to the development of a traditional orchestra musician from an early age through the music education system, although considerable research exists on the development and broadening of the actual role of the professional musician in a changing world (portfolio careers).
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Clark, Terry, and Tânia Lisboa. "Training for Sustained Performance: Moving Toward Long-Term Musician Development." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 28, no. 3 (September 1, 2013): 159–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2013.3031.
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Success in the performing arts, like sports, is dependent upon the acquisition and consistent use of a diverse range of skills. In sports, an understanding of safe and effective use of the body is required to facilitate long-term involvement in that activity. In order to assist athletes to attain their performance goals, and ensure healthy and sustained involvement, long-term athlete development (LTAD) models have been devised and adapted by professional sporting bodies throughout the world. LTAD models emphasize the intellectual, emotional, and social development of the athlete, encourage long-term participation in physical activities, and enable participants to improve their overall health and well-being and increase their life-long participation in physical activity. At present there is no such long-term development model for musicians. Yet musicians must cope with a multitude of career-related physical and mental demands, and performance-related injuries and career burnout are rife within the profession. Despite this, musicians’ training rarely addresses such issues and musicians are left largely to learn about them through either chance or accrued experience. This paper discusses key concepts and recommendations in LTAD models, together with music-specific research highlighting the need for the development of a comprehensive long-term approach to musicians’ training. The results of a survey of existing music training programs are compared to recommendations and the different development stages in LTAD models. Finally, implementation science is introduced as a methodological option for identifying how best to communicate the body of evidence-based knowledge concerning healthy and effective music-making to young student musicians.
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Aufegger, Lisa, Rosie Perkins, David Wasley, and Aaron Williamon. "Musicians’ perceptions and experiences of using simulation training to develop performance skills." Psychology of Music 45, no. 3 (September 16, 2016): 417–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735616666940.
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Simulation has been applied as a tool for learning and training in sports, psychology and medicine for some time, but its current use and potential for training musicians is less well understood. The aim of this study was to explore musicians’ perceptions and experiences of using simulated performance environments. Nine conservatory students performed in two simulations, each with interactive virtual elements and vivid environmental cues: a recital with a virtual audience and an audition with virtual judges. Qualitative data were collected through a focus group interview and written reflective commentaries. Thematic analysis highlighted the musicians’ experiences in terms of (1) their anticipation of using the simulations, (2) the process of performing in the simulations, (3) the usefulness of simulation as a tool for developing performance skills and (4) ways of improving simulation training. The results show that while simulation was new to the musicians and individual levels of immersion differed, the musicians saw benefits in the approach for developing, experimenting with and enhancing their performance skills. Specifically, the musicians emphasised the importance of framing the simulation experience with plausible procedures leading to and following on from the performance, and they recognised the potential for combining simulation with complementary training techniques.
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Renshaw, Peter. "Orchestras and the Training Revolution." British Journal of Music Education 9, no. 1 (March 1992): 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026505170000869x.
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Over the past decade, some major changes have taken place in the policies of Britain's symphony orchestras towards the communities within which they operate. Responding to local needs, most have now evolved enterprising educational activities. This ‘community’ brief has itself generated enthusiastic commitment from the participating musicians; but it has also highlighted the new responsibilities of orchestral management to the personal and artistic development of the players who must work in this somewhat different cultural climate. The author, Gresham Professor of Music and Director of the Department of Performance and Communication Skills at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, examines these issues and their implications for the future of orchestral musicians.
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Ortega-Orozco, Areta, Gabriela Orozco-Calderón, Maura J. Ramírez-Flores, and Azucena Lozano- Gutiérrez. "Age of onset in musical practice on cognitive functioning." Journal of Basic and Applied Psychology Research 1, no. 2 (January 5, 2020): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.29057/jbapr.v1i2.5363.
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Musical processing has been described as a structural and functional plasticity model in which the areas involved and the connections are modified, these changes depend on several variables, including the start of training. The study of music as a neuropsychological phenomenon has become important because it provides information about the possible cognitive benefits. Objective: Describe and compare how musical practice Describe and compare how musical practice affects cognitive functioning in musicians who began their training at an early and late age.affects cognitive functioning in musicians who began their training at an early and late age. Method: Three groups were formed: A group of early professional musicians, a group of late-start professional musicians and a non-musicians control group. The NEUROPSI battery attention and memory were applied individually. Results: In a descriptive way, it was found that the performance profiles of the three groups behave differently and significant differences were found in memory, attention, executive functions and musical perception, especially among musicians who started before adolescence vs non-musicians. Conclutsions: Early musical practice has a favorable impact on tasks that involve attentional processes, executive functions and memory, although the practice can be beneficial throughout life.
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Driscoll, T., B. Ackermann, and D. Kenny. "Risk factors and injury of orchestral musicians in Australia." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 68, Suppl_1 (September 1, 2011): A84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2011-100382.276.
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Lundborg, Bertil, and Wilhelmus JA Grooten. "Resistance Training for Professional String Musicians: A Prospective Intervention Study." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 33, no. 2 (June 1, 2018): 102–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2018.2017.
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BACKGROUND: Many professional musicians report performance- related musculoskeletal disorders (PRMDs). Evidence shows that resistance training programs are preventive for musculoskeletal disorders, but only a few studies have been performed among musicians. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a functional resistance training program can increase isometric back endurance and isometric strength in the neck, shoulder, and wrist for professional string musicians and affect their perceived performance during instrumental play, as well as their muscle and joint mobility and the occurrence and intensity of pain. METHODS: 24 professional string musicians from three Swedish symphony orchestras participated in the study, performing individually designed exercise sessions twice a week over an 11-week period. Isometric strength and isometric back endurance were measured pre- and postintervention with a hand-held dynamometer and the Biering-Sorensen test, respectively. A web-based questionnaire was used for assessing perceived performance during instrumental play, as well as mobility and occurrence and intensity of pain. RESULTS: After the training period, the group showed an 11% to 19% increase in isometric strength for neck and upper extremities and 25% improved isometric endurance in back extensors (p<0.05). Moreover, 29% to 59% of the group showed improvements in mobility, performance during instrumental play, and PRMDs, although these improvements did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: This functional resistance training program seems to be a non-harmful and advantageous exercise method for professional string musicians, but randomized and controlled studies are needed to confirm the results.
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Anand, Kruthika, Kishan Madikeri Mohan, and Krishna Yeraguntla. "Auditory processing abilities in amateur musicians." International Journal on Disability and Human Development 16, no. 1 (February 1, 2017): 105–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijdhd-2016-0038.
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Abstract Music has important consequences on the anatomo-functional organization of the brain. Learning and listening to music has various advantages beginning with relaxation, mind training and neural strengthening. Learning music when young has a wide influence on cognion, attention and listening thereby resulting in better performance in most tasks. Currently the practice of parents exposing their children from the womb through their children’s early years has not been researched and explored. Method: School going children who are undergoing music training for more than 2 years and an non-musical control group were tested for auditory processing abilities for pitch perception, gap detection and auditory processing performance scale. Result: The children in the school going amateur musical group out performed the non-musical trained group in the pitch pattern test, the random gap detection test and in the child auditory processing performance scale. Conclusion: Music training results in better temporal processing which can be shown in classroom activities. The improvement observed in amateur musicians over a short training duration, can be attributed to the pitch, loudness, and duration of the acrobatics that the musicians undergo. Studying these aspects and reporting the benefits help in designing training modules for children with various developmental disorders.
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Landry, Simon P., and François Champoux. "Long-Term Musical Training Alters Tactile Temporal-Order Judgment." Multisensory Research 31, no. 5 (2018): 373–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002575.
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Long-term musical training is an enriched multisensory training environment that can alter uni- and multisensory substrates and abilities. Amongst these altered abilities are faster reaction times for simple and complex sensory tasks. The crossed arm temporal-order judgement (TOJ) task is a complex tactile task in which TOJ error rate increases when arms are crossed. Reaction times (RTs) for this task are typically proportionate to the difficulty of the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) and increase more when the arms are crossed than when uncrossed. The objective of this study was to study the impact of musical training on RTs and accuracy for the crossed arm TOJ task. Seventeen musicians and 20 controls were tested. Musicians had significantly faster RTs for all crossed arm conditions and half of the uncrossed conditions. However, musicians had significantly more TOJ errors for the crossed posture. We speculate that faster musician TOJ RTs leave little time to consolidate conflicting internal and external task-related information when crossing the arms, leading to increased incorrect responses. These results provide novel insights on the potential mechanisms underlying the increased TOJ error rates when arms are crossed. Moreover, they add to the growing literature of altered sensory ability in musicians and propose an unexpected consequence of faster reaction times.
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Botstein, L. "Notes from the editor. The training of musicians." Musical Quarterly 84, no. 3 (September 1, 2000): 327–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mq/84.3.327.
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Anufrieva, N. I., and D. V. Tsarev. "Contemporary Educational Technologies in Training of Teachers-Musicians." Uchenye Zapiski RGSU 16, no. 4 (2017): 77–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.17922/2071-5323-2017-16-4-77-84.
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Gottfried, Terry L., and Grace Y. ‐H Ouyang. "Training musicians and nonmusicians to discriminate Mandarin tones." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 120, no. 5 (November 2006): 3167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.4787905.
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Jenkins, Hannah. "Community Music Wales: Training musicians for the future." Journal of Popular Music Education 5, no. 1 (April 1, 2021): 127–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/jpme_00048_1.
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This article focuses on the development of the charity Community Music Wales (CMW), which grew from a small collective of musicians in Cardiff in the 1980s to a national organization. Although comparisons can be drawn to other UK-based organizations such as Making Music UK, CMW is unique in its broad range of activities. The article outlines key milestones in the development of CMW throughout its 28 years of operation, including the introduction of its first music mentoring scheme, its community record label and its Welsh language label – Ciwdod. The article also highlights the development of community work that engages with key themes such as mental health and the environment. By engaging with company archives, the article considers quantitative data, such as the numbers of musicians who have attended training. Most importantly, it outlines how tutor training has upskilled the workforce and supported the creative economy of Wales.
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Vibell, Jonas, Ahnate Lim, and Scott Sinnett. "Temporal Perception and Attention in Trained Musicians." Music Perception 38, no. 3 (February 1, 2021): 293–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2021.38.3.293.
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Considerable evidence converges on the plasticity of attention and the possibility that it can be modulated through regular training. Music training, for instance, has been correlated with modulations of early perceptual and attentional processes. However, the extent to which music training can modulate mechanisms involved in processing information (i.e., perception and attention) is still widely unknown, particularly between sensory modalities. If training in one sensory modality can lead to concomitant enhancements in different sensory modalities, then this could be taken as evidence of a supramodal attentional system. Additionally, if trained musicians exhibit improved perceptual skills outside of the domain of music, this could be taken as evidence for the notion of far-transfer, where training in one domain can lead to improvements in another. To investigate this further, we evaluated the effects of music training using tasks designed to measure simultaneity perception and temporal acuity, and how these are influenced by music training in auditory, visual, and audio-visual conditions. Trained musicians showed significant enhancements for simultaneity perception in the visual modality, as well as generally improved temporal acuity, although not in all conditions. Visual cues directing attention influenced simultaneity perception for musicians for visual discrimination and temporal accuracy in auditory discrimination, suggesting that musicians have selective enhancements in temporal discrimination, arguably due to increased attentional efficiency when compared to nonmusicians. Implications for theory and future training studies are discussed.
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Moore, Brian C. J., Jie Wan, Ajanth Varathanathan, Sophie Naddell, and Thomas Baer. "No Effect of Musical Training on Frequency Selectivity Estimated Using Three Methods." Trends in Hearing 23 (January 2019): 233121651984198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2331216519841980.
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It is widely believed that the frequency selectivity of the auditory system is largely determined by processes occurring in the cochlea. If so, musical training would not be expected to influence frequency selectivity. Consistent with this, auditory filter shapes for low center frequencies do not differ for musicians and nonmusicians. However, it has been reported that psychophysical tuning curves (PTCs) at 4000 Hz were sharper for musicians than for nonmusicians. This study explored the origin of the discrepancy across studies. Frequency selectivity was estimated for musicians and nonmusicians using three methods: fast PTCs with a masker that swept in frequency, “traditional” PTCs obtained using several fixed masker center frequencies, and the notched-noise method. The signal frequency was 4000 Hz. The data were fitted assuming that each side of the auditory filter had the shape of a rounded-exponential function. The sharpness of the auditory filters, estimated as the Q10 values, did not differ significantly between musicians and nonmusicians for any of the methods, but detection efficiency tended to be higher for the musicians. This is consistent with the idea that musicianship influences auditory proficiency but does not influence the peripheral processes that determine the frequency selectivity of the auditory system.
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Trechak, Ann A. "Biofeedback/Mindfulness Training for the Advanced High School Musician." Biofeedback 39, no. 3 (November 1, 2011): 127–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5298/1081-5937-39.3.05.
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The author summarizes 35 years of utilizing psychophysiological training to assist in the pursuit of optimal music performance. She integrates systematic musical instruction with self-regulation training, drawing on EEG biofeedback training, heart rate variability training, and other biofeedback modalities. This integration of musical skills training and biofeedback assisted over one hundred high school age musicians to earn “All State” status, enabled numerous wind musicians to gain national recognition, and assisted two autistic children in becoming musical prodigies.
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Anaya, Esperanza M., David B. Pisoni, and William G. Kronenberger. "Visual-spatial sequence learning and memory in trained musicians." Psychology of Music 45, no. 1 (July 8, 2016): 5–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735616638942.
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Previous research has shown that musicians have enhanced visual-spatial abilities and sensory-motor skills. As a result of their long-term musical training and their experience-dependent activities, musicians may learn to associate sensory information with fine motor movements. Playing a musical instrument requires musicians to rapidly translate musical symbols into specific sensory-motor actions while also simultaneously monitoring the auditory signals produced by their instrument. In this study, we assessed the visual-spatial sequence learning and memory abilities of long-term musicians. We recruited 24 highly trained musicians and 24 nonmusicians, individuals with little or no musical training experience. Participants completed a visual-spatial sequence learning task as well as receptive vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and short-term memory tasks. Results revealed that musicians have enhanced visual-spatial sequence learning abilities relative to nonmusicians. Musicians also performed better than nonmusicians on the vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning measures. Additional analyses revealed that the large group difference observed on the visual-spatial sequencing task between musicians and nonmusicians remained even after controlling for vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and short-term memory abilities. Musicians’ improved visual-spatial sequence learning may stem from basic underlying differences in visual-spatial and sensory-motor skills resulting from long-term experience and activities associated with playing a musical instrument.
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Leonard, Feargal. "Training in Australia." Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 16, no. 1 (March 1999): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0790966700005036.
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Nygaard Andersen, Lotte, Stephanie Mann, Birgit Juul-Kristensen, and Karen Søgaard. "Comparing the Impact of Specific Strength Training vs General Fitness Training on Professional Symphony Orchestra Musicians: A Feasibility Study." Medical Problems of Performing Artists 32, no. 2 (June 1, 2017): 94–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2017.2016.
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Musculoskeletal symptoms, especially in the upper body, are frequent among professional symphony orchestra musicians. Physical exercise may relieve pain but might also interfere with playing performance. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility and effect of “specific strength training” (SST) versus “general fitness training” (GFT). METHODS: A feasibility study using randomized controlled methods. Primarily, evaluations involved self-reported impact on instrument playing and satisfaction with the interventions. Secondary evaluations included pain intensity, hand-grip strength, aerobic capacity, body mass index, and self-assessed physical fitness. A total of 23 professional symphony orchestra musicians were randomly allocated to either the SST (n=12) or GFT (n=11) groups. Participants conducted three 20-minutes exercise periods/wk at the workplace for 9 weeks. RESULTS: Evaluations of both interventions showed that approximately 50% of musicians were satisfied with the interventions and experienced a positive impact on playing, while 18% reported a slightly negative impact. From baseline to follow-up, SST showed a significant reduction in pain (26.3±22.5 to 11.4±15.2 mm), with no significant reduction for GFT (19.7±24.0 to 13.5±26.0 mm). GFT significantly improved aerobic capacity (34.1±7.9 mL/min/kg to 40.0±13.6 mL/min/kg) compared to no significant gain for SST. For GFT, a significant improvement was seen in self-reported muscle strength (5.7±1.3 to 6.5±1.8) with a tendency toward significant improvement in self-reported aerobic fitness (5.6±2.3 to 6.2±2.5). CONCLUSION: Exercise interventions have the potential to improve musicians’ working situation. For future research, muscle-strengthening exercises and aerobic fitness exercises might be combined in an intelligently designed program, which may include other relevant educational activities.
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Meyer, Jim, Pinar Gupse Oguz, and Katherine Sledge Moore. "Superior fluid cognition in trained musicians." Psychology of Music 48, no. 3 (November 9, 2018): 434–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735618808089.
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The effect of intensive music training on cognitive function continues to gain interest as research reveals a positive enhancement on overall cognitive ability, including memory, attention, and executive function. The purpose of the present study was to extend this research by using a standardized fluid intelligence test—the National Institute of Health Toolbox Cognitive Battery—to measure how music training is related to fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly and solve problems. This task battery included measures of episodic memory, working memory, attention, executive function, and processing speed. Musicians with extensive experience scored significantly higher in fluid cognition than did non-musicians and less-trained musicians. These results add support to the mounting evidence of the positive relationship between music training and cognitive function, and this study provides a blueprint for future research using standardized measures to investigate expertise in musicians.
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Du, Yi, and Robert J. Zatorre. "Musical training sharpens and bonds ears and tongue to hear speech better." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 51 (December 4, 2017): 13579–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1712223114.
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The idea that musical training improves speech perception in challenging listening environments is appealing and of clinical importance, yet the mechanisms of any such musician advantage are not well specified. Here, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we found that musicians outperformed nonmusicians in identifying syllables at varying signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs), which was associated with stronger activation of the left inferior frontal and right auditory regions in musicians compared with nonmusicians. Moreover, musicians showed greater specificity of phoneme representations in bilateral auditory and speech motor regions (e.g., premotor cortex) at higher SNRs and in the left speech motor regions at lower SNRs, as determined by multivoxel pattern analysis. Musical training also enhanced the intrahemispheric and interhemispheric functional connectivity between auditory and speech motor regions. Our findings suggest that improved speech in noise perception in musicians relies on stronger recruitment of, finer phonological representations in, and stronger functional connectivity between auditory and frontal speech motor cortices in both hemispheres, regions involved in bottom-up spectrotemporal analyses and top-down articulatory prediction and sensorimotor integration, respectively.
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Bradley, Evan D., and Janet G. Van Hell. "Effects of musical ear training on lexical tone perception." Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 1 (June 12, 2016): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v1i0.3640.
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The effect of short term musical experience on lexical tone perception was examined by administering four hours of daily musical ear training to non-tone language speakers. After training, participants showed some improvement in a tone labeling task, but not a tone discrimination task; however, this improvement did not differ reliably from controls indicating that short-term musical training is thus far not able to replicate language effects observed among lifelong musicians, but some linguistic differences between musicians and nonmusicians may likely be due to experience, rather than individual differences or other factors.
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Spears, Amy, Danelle Larson, and Sarah Minette. "Informal music-making among piano bar musicians: Implications for bridging the gap in music education." Journal of Popular Music Education 4, no. 3 (November 1, 2020): 371–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/jpme_00019_1.
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Recent research in music education has sought to bridge the gap between formal music-making and informal music-making done by many musicians who may have little or no formal musical training. Piano bar musicians fall under the category of musicians who may or may not have had formal musical training but are able to perform covers of a variety of pop songs for live and interactive audiences. Many of them also play multiple instruments. Participants we observed and interviewed in this qualitative study were eight piano bar musicians from various regions of the United States. Key findings include that the primary method participants used to learn songs was listening and learning by ear; ‘reading’ music took multiple forms; music theory and chord functionality were useful and allowed for flexible musicianship; and that a participatory culture was important for learning the songs the musicians chose to learn.
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Wang, Qi, Yu, Wang, and Chen. "Characteristic of Stimulus Frequency Otoacoustic Emissions: Detection Rate, Musical Training Influence, and Gain Function." Brain Sciences 9, no. 10 (September 26, 2019): 255. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9100255.
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Stimulus frequency otoacoustic emission (SFOAE) is an active acoustic signal emitted by the inner ear providing salient information about cochlear function and dysfunction. To provide a basis for laboratory investigation and clinical use, we investigated the characteristics of SFOAEs, including detection rate, musical training influence, and gain function. Sixty-five normal hearing subjects (15 musicians and 50 non-musicians, aged 16–45 years) were tested and analyzed at the probe level of 30 and 50 dB sound pressure levels (SPL) in the center frequency of 1 and 4 kHz in the study. The results indicate that (1) the detection rates of SFOAE are sensitive to the gender, (2) musicians reveal enhanced hearing capacity and SFOAE amplitudes compared with non-musicians, and (3) probe frequency has a significant effect on the compression threshold of SFOAE. Our findings highlight the importance of SFOAE in the clinical hearing screening and diagnosis and emphasize the use of musical training for the rehabilitation enhancement of the auditory periphery and hearing threshold.
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Bendrups, Dan. "Latin Down Under: Latin American migrant musicians in Australia and New Zealand." Popular Music 30, no. 2 (May 2011): 191–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026114301100002x.
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AbstractThe global significance of Latin American popular music is well documented in contemporary research. Less is known about Latin American music and musicians in Australia and New Zealand (collectively termed ‘Australasia’): nations that have historically hosted waves of migrants from the Americas, and which are also strongly influenced by globalised US popular music culture. This article presents an overview of Latin American music in Australasia, drawing on ethnographic research, with the aim of providing a historical framework for the understanding of this music in the Australasian context. It begins with an explanation of the early 20th-century conceptualisation of ‘Latin’ in Australasia, and an investigation into how this abstract cultural construction affected performance opportunities for Latino/a migrants who began to arrive en masse from the 1970s onwards. It then discusses the performance practices that were most successfully recreated by Latin American musicians in Australia and New Zealand, especially ‘Andean’ folkloric music, and ‘tropical’ dance music. With reference to prominent individuals and ensembles, this article demonstrates how Andean and tropical performance practices have developed over the course of the last 30 years, and articulates the enduring importance of Latin American music and musicians within Australasian popular music culture.
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Sares, Anastasia G., Nicholas E. V. Foster, Kachina Allen, and Krista L. Hyde. "Pitch and Time Processing in Speech and Tones: The Effects of Musical Training and Attention." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 61, no. 3 (March 15, 2018): 496–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2017_jslhr-s-17-0207.
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Purpose Musical training is often linked to enhanced auditory discrimination, but the relative roles of pitch and time in music and speech are unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether pitch and time processing are correlated across individuals and how they may be affected by attention. This study aimed to examine pitch and time processing in speech and tone sequences, taking musical training and attention into account. Method Musicians (16) and nonmusicians (16) were asked to detect pitch or timing changes in speech and tone sequences and make a binary response. In some conditions, the participants were focused on 1 aspect of the stimulus (directed attention), and in others, they had to pay attention to all aspects at once (divided attention). Results As expected, musicians performed better overall. Performance scores on pitch and time tasks were correlated, as were performance scores for speech and tonal stimuli, but most markedly in musicians. All participants performed better on the directed versus divided attention task, but again, musicians performed better than nonmusicians. Conclusion In general, this experiment shows that individuals with a better sense of pitch discrimination also have a better sense of timing discrimination in the auditory domain. In addition, although musicians perform better overall, these results do not support the idea that musicians have an added advantage for divided attention tasks. These findings serve to better understand how musical training and attention affect pitch and time processing in the context of speech and tones and may have applications in special populations. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5895997
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Jakobson, Lorna S., Lola L. Cuddy, and Andrea R. Kilgour. "Time Tagging: A Key to Musicians' Superior Memory." Music Perception 20, no. 3 (2003): 307–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2003.20.3.307.
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Years of formal music training and proficiency at a nonmusical skill—— verbal recall——are surprisingly associated (e.g., A. R. Kilgour, L. S. Jakobson, & L. L. Cuddy, 2000). The present study proposes an indirect mechanism to account for this association. It is proposed that music training strengthens auditory temporal-order processing, and that temporalorder processing then mediates the relationship between years of music training and prose recall.