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Journal articles on the topic 'Musical pitch'
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1
Bispham, John C. "Music's “design features”: Musical motivation, musical pulse, and musical pitch." Musicae Scientiae 13, no. 2_suppl (September 2009): 41–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1029864909013002041.
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This paper focuses on the question of what music is, attempting to describe those features of music that generically distinguish it from other forms of animal and human communication — music's “design features”. The author suggests that music is generically inspired by musical motivation — an intrinsic motivation to share convergent intersubjective endstates - and is universally identifiable by the presence of musical pulse — a maintained and volitionally controlled attentional pulse — and/or musical pitch — a system for maintaining certain relationships between pitches. As such music's design features are viewed as providing an interpersonal framework for synchronous and group affective interaction. The implications of this approach to an evolutionary perspective on music and on arguments of the primary evolutionary functionality of musical abilities in human evolution are discussed.
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Miyazaki, Ken’ichi. "Musical pitch identification by absolute pitch possessors." Perception & Psychophysics 44, no. 6 (November 1988): 501–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03207484.
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Deutsch, Diana. "Paradoxes of Musical Pitch." Scientific American 267, no. 2 (August 1992): 88–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0892-88.
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Burns, Edward M. "Perception of musical pitch." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101, no. 5 (May 1997): 3172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.419195.
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Miyazaki, Ken'ichi. "Absolute Pitch as an Inability: Identification of Musical Intervals in a Tonal Context." Music Perception 11, no. 1 (1993): 55–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285599.
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Absolute pitch is generally believed to be a remarkable ability, whose possessors can quite accurately identify musical pitch characteristics (pitch classes) of single tones presented in isolation. However, identifying pitch out of context is irrelevant and even meaningless to music. It is unclear how listeners with absolute pitch process musical pitch information in more meaningful musical situations. The present experiment was done to examine how listeners with absolute pitch perform in a relative pitch task. Listeners tried to identify melodic intervals of various sizes (260–540 cents) presented in three different tonal contexts established by a preceding tonal cadence. Listeners without absolute pitch showed equal accuracy and speed in doing the task in the three tonal contexts, as expected from the principle of transposability of musical pitch relations. In contrast, some absolute pitch listeners snowed a marked decline in accuracy and longer response times in the F# major and the out-of-tune E major contexts compared with the C major context. This result suggests that some absolute pitch listeners are relatively poor in identifying pitch relations in tonal contexts and sometimes tend to stick to absolute pitch even in a task that needs relative pitch, resulting in poor performance in perceiving musical pitch relations.
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Creel, Sarah C., Reina Mizrahi, Alicia G. Escobedo, Li Zhao, and Gail D. Heyman. "No Heightened Musical Pitch Weighting For Tone Language Speakers in Early Childhood." Music Perception 40, no. 3 (February 1, 2023): 193–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2023.40.3.193.
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Numerous studies suggest that speakers of some tone languages show advantages in musical pitch processing compared to non-tone language speakers. A recent study in adults (Jasmin et al., 2021) suggests that in addition to heightened pitch sensitivity, tone language speakers weight pitch information more strongly than other auditory cues (amplitude, duration) in both linguistic and nonlinguistic settings compared to non-tone language speakers. The current study asks whether pitch upweighting is evident in early childhood. To test this, two groups of 3- to 5-year-old children—tone-language speakers (n = 48), a group previously shown to have a perceptual advantage in musical pitch tasks (Creel et al., 2018), and non-tone-language speakers (n = 48)—took part in a musical “word learning” task. Children associated two cartoon characters with two brief musical phrases differing in both musical instrument and contour. If tone language speakers weight pitch more strongly, cue conflict trials should show stronger pitch responding than for non-tone speakers. In contrast to both adult speakers’ stronger pitch weighting and child and adult pitch perception advantages, tone-language-speaking children did not show greater weighting of pitch information than non-tone-language speaking children. This suggests a slow developmental course for pitch reweighting, contrasting with apparent early emergence of pitch sensitivity.
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Aruffo, Christopher, Robert L. Goldstone, and David J. D. Earn. "Absolute Judgment of Musical Interval Width." Music Perception 32, no. 2 (December 1, 2014): 186–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2014.32.2.186.
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When a musical tone is sounded, most listeners are unable to identify its pitch by name. Those listeners who can identify pitches are said to have absolute pitch perception (AP). A limited subset of musicians possesses AP, and it has been debated whether musicians’ AP interferes with their ability to perceive tonal relationships between pitches, or relative pitch (RP). The present study tested musicians’ discrimination of relative pitch categories, or intervals, by placing absolute pitch values in conflict with relative pitch categories. AP listeners perceived intervals categorically, and their judgments were not affected by absolute pitch values. These results indicate that AP listeners do not infer interval identities from the absolute values between tones, and that RP categories are salient musical concepts in both RP and AP musicianship.
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Gribenski, Fanny. "Nature's “Disturbing Influence”: Sound and Temperature in the Age of Empire." 19th-Century Music 45, no. 1 (2021): 23–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ncm.2021.45.1.23.
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Today, knowledge concerning the relationship between temperature and musical pitch shapes many dimensions of Western musical practice, from the ambient conditions of performance sites to the design of musical instruments, and performers’ routines and techniques. But the history of how temperature came to play such a defining role in musical cultures remains unexamined. This article lays the foundations for such work by approaching musical instruments as sites of negotiation between acousticians, instrument makers, and players on the one hand, and music's variegated environments on the other. First, the article shows that the conceptualization of pitch in relation to temperature was a by-product of nineteenth-century international negotiations over musical standardization. These debates reveal that, while assessing the relation between pitch and temperature may seem like a decisive step toward the regulation of musical frequencies, in fact it was the source of countless epistemological and sociopolitical problems. Next, the article turns to David J. Blaikley, a British maker of wind instruments, whose experiments on the influence of extreme temperature variations on army-band instruments revealed the limits of Western attempts to control sound on a global scale, including in colonial contexts. Finally, I trace the implications of this new awareness of the interplay between sound and the environment to expose the silent ways in which that awareness continued to inform Western musical practice into the 1940s and beyond.
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Cai, Jieqing, Yimeng Liu, Minyun Yao, Muqing Xu, and Hongzheng Zhang. "A Neurophysiological Study of Musical Pitch Identification in Mandarin-Speaking Cochlear Implant Users." Neural Plasticity 2020 (July 22, 2020): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/4576729.
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Music perception in cochlear implant (CI) users is far from satisfactory, not only because of the technological limitations of current CI devices but also due to the neurophysiological alterations that generally accompany deafness. Early behavioral studies revealed that similar mechanisms underlie musical and lexical pitch perception in CI-based electric hearing. Although neurophysiological studies of the musical pitch perception of English-speaking CI users are actively ongoing, little such research has been conducted with Mandarin-speaking CI users; as Mandarin is a tonal language, these individuals require pitch information to understand speech. The aim of this work was to study the neurophysiological mechanisms accounting for the musical pitch identification abilities of Mandarin-speaking CI users and normal-hearing (NH) listeners. Behavioral and mismatch negativity (MMN) data were analyzed to examine musical pitch processing performance. Moreover, neurophysiological results from CI users with good and bad pitch discrimination performance (according to the just-noticeable differences (JND) and pitch-direction discrimination (PDD) tasks) were compared to identify cortical responses associated with musical pitch perception differences. The MMN experiment was conducted using a passive oddball paradigm, with musical tone C4 (262 Hz) presented as the standard and tones D4 (294 Hz), E4 (330 Hz), G#4 (415 Hz), and C5 (523 Hz) presented as deviants. CI users demonstrated worse musical pitch discrimination ability than did NH listeners, as reflected by larger JND and PDD thresholds for pitch identification, and significantly increased latencies and reduced amplitudes in MMN responses. Good CI performers had better MMN results than did bad performers. Consistent with findings for English-speaking CI users, the results of this work suggest that MMN is a viable marker of cortical pitch perception in Mandarin-speaking CI users.
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Repp, Bruno H., and Carol L. Krumhansl. "Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch." American Journal of Psychology 104, no. 4 (1991): 612. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1422945.
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Chalmers, John H., and Carol L. Krumhansl. "Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch." Leonardo 25, no. 2 (1992): 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1575725.
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Krumhansl, C. L., and Jerry V. Tobias. "Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 92, no. 2 (August 1992): 1193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.404005.
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Miller, Johanna L. "Musical pitch perception starts early." Physics Today 67, no. 10 (October 2014): 18–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/pt.3.2537.
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Dolscheid, Sarah, Shakila Shayan, Asifa Majid, and Daniel Casasanto. "The Thickness of Musical Pitch." Psychological Science 24, no. 5 (March 28, 2013): 613–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457374.
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Miyazaki, Ken'ichi. "Absolute Pitch Identification: Effects of Timbre and Pitch Region." Music Perception 7, no. 1 (1989): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285445.
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Pitch identification by absolute-pitch (AP) possessors was tested with three different timbres. Twelve notes per octave in the equally tempered chromatic scale were presented randomly over a seven-octave range. AP subjects identified the note quite accurately but showed a considerable number of octave errors, indicating that they indeed responded primarily to pitch classes. By contrast, subjects lacking AP gave widely scattered responses, indicating that they could not perceive pitch classes at all but responded solely on the basis of the approximate pitch region (pitch height). The performance of AP subjects was best for piano tones and worst for pure tones, and responses were most accurate in the middle region of the musical pitch range. Of 12 pitch classes, white-key notes on a musical keyboard (diatonic tones in the C major scale) tended to be identified more correctly and rapidly than were black-key notes (nondiatonic tones in the C major scale). All of the AP subjects had received training on the piano since a young age. It is suggested that AP can be acquired through such early musical experience.
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Spitzer, Michael. "The Metaphor of Musical Space." Musicae Scientiae 7, no. 1 (March 2003): 101–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/102986490300700106.
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Pitch space and Riemannian space offer divergent perspectives on tonal space in general. This article suggests that cognitive metaphor theory offers a means of understanding Riemannian space as a metaphorical mapping from pitch space; as an extension from a “deontic” to an “epistemic” musical category. My approach differs from other theorists of musical metaphor in considering mappings not between musical structure and extra-musical “real” space, but rather mappings between musical categories themselves. I illustrate this claim by reviewing recent writings both on pitch-space and Neo-Riemannian theory, and an analytical example by Chopin.
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Dohn, Anders, Eduardo A. Garza-Villarreal, Lars Riisgaard Ribe, Mikkel Wallentin, and Peter Vuust. "Musical Activity Tunes Up Absolute Pitch Ability." Music Perception 31, no. 4 (December 2012): 359–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2014.31.4.359.
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Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify or produce pitches of musical tones without an external reference. Active AP (i.e., pitch production or pitch adjustment) and passive AP (i.e., pitch identification) are considered to not necessarily coincide, although no study has properly compared these abilities. Using a novel computerized pitch adjustment test, we investigated active AP ability in musicians with and without AP (ages 18-43). We found a significant correlation between active and passive AP indicating that AP possessors (APs) identify and produce pitch equally well. Furthermore, we found that APs generally undershoot when adjusting musical pitch, a tendency that decreases when musical activity increases. Finally, APs are less accurate when adjusting the pitch to black key targets than to white key targets. Hence, AP ability may be partly practice-dependent and we speculate that APs may benefit from frequent contact with fixed standard chroma to keep in tune.
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Weinstein, Nicole. "Pitch perfect." Nursery World 2021, no. 7 (July 2, 2021): 20–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/nuwa.2021.7.20.
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Stronsick, Lisa M., Samantha E. Tuft, Sara Incera, and Conor T. McLennan. "Masculine harps and feminine horns: Timbre and pitch level influence gender ratings of musical instruments." Psychology of Music 46, no. 6 (November 10, 2017): 896–912. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735617734629.
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We examined whether timbre (instrument), pitch level, or both influence gender ratings of musical instruments. According to previous research, a variety of musical instruments are categorized or rated as masculine, neutral, or feminine in a relatively consistent way. Gender associations to musical instruments have been rather reliable across time and across participant populations. We investigated the gender ratings of nine musical instruments (three masculine, three neutral, and three feminine) each heard at low, medium, and high pitch levels within the playable range of each instrument. Both timbre and pitch level influenced participants’ gender ratings. The effect of timbre is consistent with results of previous studies, further demonstrating that participants rate instruments fairly consistently. One novel finding is that pitch level also played a role in participants’ gender ratings. The ratings of all instruments heard in low pitch levels were shifted in the masculine direction, and the ratings of all instruments heard in high pitch levels were shifted in the feminine direction. These results provide evidence for the notion that participants are influenced by associations to both timbre and pitch level when rating musical instruments on gender.
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Rudenko, Svetlana, and Maria José de Córdoba Serrano. "Musical-Space Synaesthesia: Visualisation of Musical Texture." Multisensory Research 30, no. 3-5 (2017): 279–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002562.
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I, Svetlana Rudenko, am a concert pianist. I am also a synaesthete and for me, sound is visual. It has shape. According to recent research (Akiva-Kabiriet al., 2014, pp. 17–29): “In musical-space synaesthesia, …unlike the vertical and horizontal representation of musical pitch tones in the general population, synaesthetes describe a linear diagonal organisation of pitch tones.” Different piano sounds have aroma and texture. The forms I have lived with since childhood are what I call ‘sound landscapes’. I am not alone. Composers such as Liszt, Scriabin, Gubaidulina and Messiaen, as well as artists such as de Córdoba Serrano and Ninghui Xiong, also experienced these impressions. This paper will explore synaesthetic experiences of musical texture, visualisation of sound and tactile sensations of musical texture as well as enhanced cross-modal associations. On the basis of my experiences, I argue that the visualisation of musical texture influences sound perception and even timing: phrases, dynamics and the whole interpretation.
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Van Hedger, Stephen C., Shannon LM Heald, and Howard C. Nusbaum. "Long-term pitch memory for music recordings is related to auditory working memory precision." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 4 (January 1, 2018): 879–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1307427.
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Most individuals have reliable long-term memories for the pitch of familiar music recordings. This pitch memory (1) appears to be normally distributed in the population, (2) does not depend on explicit musical training and (3) only seems to be weakly related to differences in listening frequency estimates. The present experiment was designed to assess whether individual differences in auditory working memory could explain variance in long-term pitch memory for music recordings. In Experiment 1, participants first completed a musical note adjustment task that has been previously used to assess working memory of musical pitch. Afterward, participants were asked to judge the pitch of well-known music recordings, which either had or had not been shifted in pitch. We found that performance on the pitch working memory task was significantly related to performance in the pitch memory task using well-known recordings, even when controlling for overall musical experience and familiarity with each recording. In Experiment 2, we replicated these findings in a separate group of participants while additionally controlling for fluid intelligence and non-pitch-based components of auditory working memory. In Experiment 3, we demonstrated that participants could not accurately judge the pitch of unfamiliar recordings, suggesting that our method of pitch shifting did not result in unwanted acoustic cues that could have aided participants in Experiments 1 and 2. These results, taken together, suggest that the ability to maintain pitch information in working memory might lead to more accurate long-term pitch memory.
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Miyazaki, Ken'ichi. "Perception of Musical Intervals by Absolute Pitch Possessors." Music Perception 9, no. 4 (1992): 413–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285562.
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Previous studies have demonstrated that absolute pitch (AP) possessors can directly perceive the musical pitch quality (pitch class) of a tone presented in isolation. However, an isolated tone without musical context has no relevance to music, and AP ability should be examined in musically meaningful situations. In this study, AP possessors tried to identify the musical intervals between pairs of successive tones. The first tone (a reference) was either in-tune C according to the conventional pitch standard or out-of-tune C (a quarter-tone higher than standard C). The identification performance was less accurate and slower in the out-of-tune reference condition than in the in-tune condition. In contrast, AP nonpossessors showed no significant difference in performance in the two conditions, as predicted by the principle of equality under transposition. These results suggest that AP subjects tend to adhere to AP in relative pitch tasks, and that at least some AP listeners may have developed a strong dependence on AP at the sacrifice of relative pitch. AP may not have any advantage in music, in which relative pitch, not AP, is essential. Rather, AP may conflict with relative pitch and, in some cases, harm musical pitch processing.
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Jeon, Seonkoo. "The Practical Humanities Implications of Pitch Standardization History." Korean Association of General Education 18, no. 2 (April 30, 2024): 157–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.46392/kjge.2024.18.2.157.
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Practical humanities, as a methodological approach for establishing the social value of humanities, embodies a proactive attitude and an effort to innovate the lack of social communication in the humanities, which has been identified as a root cause of the so-called crisis within this humanities. The standard pitch acts as an international linguistic convention within the musical domain, serving as a mediator for musical communication and is deeply linked to socio-cultural texts. These texts merge musical traditions with the modern era, significantly broadening the discourse-generating logic within practical humanities into a pivotal cultural code. This research aims to construct a methodological model to explore the social implementation of practical humanities by clarifying the historical identities of 435Hz and 440Hz, which lead the narrative of pitch standardization. 435Hz addressed the reality of inconsistent pitch prevalent across the 19th century European musical practice scene by establishing an intermediary pitch standard for musical practice. 440Hz reflects the characteristics of a universal and practical pitch aimed at enhancing the efficiency of musical communication, against the backdrop of the expanding social topography which is linked to pragmatic thinking in the early 20th century.
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Iușcă, Dorina Geta. "The Effect of Pitch Height, Timbre and Octave Error on Absolute Pitch Accuracy. Educational Implications." Review of Artistic Education 18, no. 1 (March 1, 2019): 353–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/rae-2019-0040.
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Abstract The accuracy of absolute pitch has often fallen into mythical perspectives, as this rare ability tends to fascinate people through its spectacular results. Many people tend to think that a musician with absolute pitch is always capable of identifying the musical note of any sound in any circumstances. The research literature has revealed that this is rarely true. Although there is a significant difference between real absolute pitch owners and pseudo-absolute pitch owners, the accuracy of absolute pitch is highly influenced by a series of musical factors such as: pitch chroma, pitch height and musical timbre. Therefore, it has been proven that the best absolute pitch accuracy manifests for medium pitch sounds, while very high or very low sounds tend to often be misidentified. Even more, absolute pitch owners tend to make an unusual mistake of misidentifying the octave. The familiar sounds (for example from the instrument the musician has studied in childhood) tend to produce less identification errors. Nevertheless, the piano timbre is usually associated with the best accuracy of absolute pitch. The aim of the present research is to synthetize up-to-date literature regarding the way these factors influence the accuracy of absolute pitch. The study focuses on the idea of normalizing the general perspective of absolute pitch accuracy, as musicians and teachers often tend to have very high expectations regarding this ability. The educational implications of the new perspective drawn here contribute to a better relation between teachers and students, as well as to a better understanding of this interesting musical ability.
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Tamir-Ostrover, Hila, and Zohar Eitan. "Higher is Faster." Music Perception 33, no. 2 (December 1, 2015): 179–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2015.33.2.179.
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While determining an appropriate tempo is crucial to music performers, composers and listeners, few empirical studies have investigated the musical factors affecting tempo choices. In two experiments we examined how aspects of musical pitch affect tempo choice, by asking participants (musically trained and untrained) to adjust the tempi of melodic sequences varying in pitch register and pitch direction, as well as sequences typically associated with specific registers in common period music. In Experiment 1, faster tempi were assigned to higher registers. Specific melodic direction (rise vs. fall) did not affect tempo preferences; nevertheless, pitch change in both directions elicited faster tempi than a repeating, unchanging pitch. The effect of register on tempo preference was stronger for participants with music training, and also (unexpectedly) for female participants. In Experiment 2, melodic figures typically related to lower and higher parts in common-period music were associated with slower and faster tempi, respectively. Results support a “holistic” notion of musical tempo, viewing the choice of proper tempo as determined by interactions among diverse musical dimensions, including aspects of pitch structure, rather than by rhythmic considerations alone. The experimental design presented here can be further applied to explore the effects of other musical parameters on tempo preferences.
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Butler, David, and W. Dixon Ward. "Effacing the Memory of Musical Pitch." Music Perception 5, no. 3 (1988): 251–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285399.
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Researchers who design tests involving judgments of pitch face the persistent problem that test subjects may remember a pitch associated with one test item and carry that memory over to the next item. This immediate memory does weaken with time, but it weakens quite slowly. Although a number of studies report attempts to "erase" subjects' impressions by inserting distracting sounds— white noise bursts, electronically generated tone glides, excerpts from Schoenberg's Piano Concerto— between trials, no systematic study of the efficacy of pitch eraser patterns has yet been undertaken. An initial attempt was made to identify and measure a reasonably short list of variable attributes of distractor tones that might undo a listener's memory for the pitch of a test tone. Those variables were the length of the series of distractor tones, the rate at which distractor tones were presented, and the temperament system—or lack of it—used to tune distractor tones. Test results indicate that tuning variables have little effect on listeners' accuracy at identifying test tones. Series length and presentation rate, however, both have a strong effect on accuracy levels for pitch memory.
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Semal, Catherine, and Laurent Demany. "The Upper Limit of "Musical" Pitch." Music Perception 8, no. 2 (1990): 165–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285494.
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Ten musicians were presented with a transposable melodic sequence of two monaural pure tones and were required to set the pitch of the higher tone in the sequence just above the upper limit of "musical" pitch. The overall mean of the frequency adjustments was 4.7 kHz, but subjects' individual means consistently differed from each other; their standard deviation was about three semitones. Subjects' adjustments depended on the range of possible adjustments and thus were influenced by context factors. However, the effect of range was 2.7 times smaller than it should have been if the upper limit of musical pitch had no perceptual reality. No consistent frequency differences were found between adjustments made for tones heard through the left ear and the right ear. However, in an additional study on six nonmusicians, one subject displayed a systematic interaural frequency difference amounting to about one semitone. Control measurements showed that this difference could not be explained by the subject's binaural diplacusis. Thus, as suggested by Bachem in 1937, it seems that the upper limit of musical pitch can be a different pitch for the two ears of the same subject.
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Moore, Robert E., Julie M. Estis, Fawen Zhang, Christopher Watts, and Elizabeth Marble. "Relations of Pitch Matching, Pitch Discrimination, and Otoacoustic Emission Suppression in Individuals Not Formally Trained as Musicians." Perceptual and Motor Skills 104, no. 3 (June 2007): 777–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.104.3.777-784.
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Research has yielded a relationship between pitch matching and pitch discrimination. Good pitch matchers tend to be good pitch discriminators and are often judged to be vocally talented. Otoacoustic emission suppression measures the function of the efferent auditory system which may affect accuracy for pitch matching and pitch discrimination. Formally trained musicians show pitch matching and pitch discrimination superior to those of nonmusicians and have greater efferent otoacoustic emission suppression than nonmusicians. This study investigated the relationship among pitch matching, pitch discrimination, and otoacoustic emission suppression in individuals with no formal musical training and who showed varied pitch matching and pitch discrimination. Analysis suggested a significant relationship between pitch matching and pitch discrimination but not between otoacoustic emission suppression and pitch matching and pitch discrimination. Findings are presented in the context of previous research indicating a significant relationship between otoacoustic emission suppression and musical talent in trained musicians.
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Bogusz-Witczak, Edyta, Ewa Skrodzka, and Hanna Turkowska. "Influence of Musical Experience of Blind and Visually Impaired Young Persons on Performance in Selected Auditory Tasks." Archives of Acoustics 40, no. 3 (September 1, 2015): 337–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aoa-2015-0037.
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AbstractThe impact of musical experience on results concerning sound perception in selected auditory tasks, such as pitch discrimination, pitch-timbre categorization and pitch memorization for blind and visually impaired children and teenagers is discussed. Subjects were divided into three groups: of those with no experience of music, with small musical experience and with substantial musical experience. The blind and visually impaired subjects were investigated, while sighted persons formed reference groups. To date no study has described impact of musical experience on results of such experiments for blind and visually impaired children and teenagers. Our results suggest that blind persons with musical experience may be more sensitive to frequency differences and differences in timbre between two signals as well as may have better short-term auditory memory than blind people with no musical experience. Musical experience of visually impaired persons does not necessary lead to better performance in all conducted auditory tasks.
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Kohn, Dafna, and Zohar Eitan. "Moving Music." Music Perception 34, no. 1 (September 1, 2016): 40–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2016.34.1.40.
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We examined how children (5- and 8-year-olds) associate changes in musical parameters with bodily motion, using movement and verbal tasks. In Task 1, participants moved to short musical stimuli involving bidirectional changes in pitch, loudness, or tempo. In Task 2, participants selected motion features appropriate to the same stimuli (forced-choice verbal task). In Task 1 the distribution of movement features significantly varied for different musical parameters: pitch change associated most strongly with vertical motion, loudness change with muscular energy and vertical motion, and tempo change with speed and muscular energy. In both tasks and for both ages, directions of change in motion and musical parameters correlated, e.g., increase in loudness was associated with increasing speed, increasing muscular energy, and spatial rise. The effect of pitch direction was mediated by temporal order, suggesting that overall pitch contour, rather than local direction only, affects bodily motion. Age affected responses to pitch direction, rather than loudness or tempo change. Results suggest that children consistently correlate musical and movement features through both verbal and motion responses, presenting an intricate web of auditory-motor-cognitive mappings.
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Miyazaki, Ken'ichi. "The Speed of Musical Pitch Identification by Absolute-Pitch Possessors." Music Perception 8, no. 2 (1990): 177–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285495.
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Three experiments on absolute- pitch identification were performed to examine how quickly and accurately subjects with absolute pitch could respond to different pitch classes. Sixty different pitches in a five-octave range were tested. Subjects with absolute pitch tried to identify the tones as rapidly as possible by pressing corresponding keys on a musical keyboard or a numerical keypad, or by naming vocally. Converging evidence was obtained indicating that the speed and accuracy of responses were directly related. In general, responses to the white-key notes on the musical keyboard were faster and more accurate than those to the black-key notes, C and G being most quickly and accurately identified. This seems to reflect the differential accessibility of pitch classes in the long-term memory of the absolute-pitch possessors, which may be interpreted as a consequence of the acquisition process of absolute pitch in early life.
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Balzano, Gerald J. "What Are Musical Pitch and Timbre?" Music Perception 3, no. 3 (1986): 297–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285339.
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This article is addressed both to psychologists interested in theories of pitch and timbre perception and to musicians interested in exploring pitch and/or timbral structures on a computer. A central assertion of the article is that these two enterprises are closely related and that both have been dominated by Fourier-analytic metaphors. I claim that Fourier analysis provides an inadequate model for both sound perception and computer analysis/synthesis of sound. In particular, it has led us to misconceive the relationship between musical pitch and timbre. Rather than modify or augment a Fourier-based perspective on these matters, I propose a different way of thinking about pitch and timbre that highlights their differences from one another and suggests different mechanisms for perceiving them. A view of musical pitch is summarized that treats pitches not as analyzable in isolation but as specifiable only with respect to a larger structure that, in Western music anyway, corresponds to a mathematical group. Following this, a view of musical timbre is summarized that links timbre perception with the dynamic processes by which sound is created, processes that are encountered and initiated outside as well as inside musical contexts and that never lead to the static-spectrum idealization of Fourier analysis except in degenerate cases. Implications of these views for creation of musical sounds by computer are also discussed.
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Lamont, Alexandra, and Ian Cross. "Children's Cognitive Representations of Musical Pitch." Music Perception 12, no. 1 (1994): 27–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285754.
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Several recent investigations of children's cognition of musical pitch have examined the nature of children's sensitivity to the "tonal hierarchy" identified by Krumhansl (1990a). These studies presented children with musical "contexts," asking them to make judgments about subsequent pitches, and have produced strikingly divergent results. Factors of age and of type of "musical material used in context" appear to play significant roles in determining subjects' sensitivities. This paper describes two experiments that examine the time course of the development of children's cognitive representations of pitch relations, taking into account the contributions made to such representations by structural and by temporal factors (following West & Fryer, 1990). A probetone technique was used with two contrasting context types, one being a "typical" cadential sequence and the other consisting of different randomizations of the diatonic collection. This experiment was conducted on 285 children ranging between 6 and 11 years old, from two different single-sex schools. The results were further investigated in a gameplaying experiment—using chime bars— with children from each age group represented in the first experiment. These experiments appear to indicate that children's early representations of pitch relations are remarkably stable and that development may take the form of an increasing sensitivity to time-dependent characteristics of the musical surface leading to an internalization of the tonal hierarchy. Despite the different methodologies used here, results are broadly in line with those suggested by Krumhansl and Keil ( 1982), although children's representations of musical pitch as exhibited here appear to be more sophisticated than would be implied in that study.
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Galembo, Alexandre. "Musical pitchness evaluation through pitch extraction." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97, no. 5 (May 1995): 3390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.412600.
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Lepain, Philippe. "Polyphonic Pitch Extraction from Musical Signals." Journal of New Music Research 28, no. 4 (December 1, 1999): 296–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/0929-8215(199912)28:04;1-o;ft296.
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Ariga, Atsunori, and Shiori Saito. "Spatial–musical association of response codes without sound." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 9 (March 28, 2019): 2288–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021819838831.
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Humans tasked with pressing a key on a computer keyboard in response to a pitch can respond more quickly to a high-pitched sound by pressing a key higher on the keyboard and to a low-pitched sound by pressing a lower key, compared with the opposite configuration. This so-called spatial–musical association of response codes (SMARC) has been considered to reflect the spatial coding of sound pitch rather than to be an artefact of the verbal labels denoting spatial positions for localising sounds. In this study, we completely excluded the latter possibility, that is, the directional effects of automatic sound localisation on the SMARC effect. We did this by examining whether the SMARC effect occurs without sound; that is, we investigated whether the effect would be elicited by written pitch names alone. We found that when musically trained participants judged pitch height labelled by visually presented word stimuli, the SMARC effect still occurred. This also happened among musically naïve participants when the height of the pitch was explicitly comparable with that of a referential pitch. We also found that musically trained participants exhibited the SMARC effect in response to pitch names even when the indicated pitch height was irrelevant to the task they were asked to perform. These results suggest that the SMARC effect can occur at the semantic level in the absence of sound, clearly excluding the directional effects of automatic sound localisation.
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Benguerel, André-Pierre, and Carol Westdal. "Absolute Pitch and the Perception of Sequential Musical Intervals." Music Perception 9, no. 1 (1991): 105–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40286161.
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When identifying musical intervals, most musicians appear to use only one strategy: they directly evaluate the musical interval between two notes (relative-pitch strategy). Musicians with absolute pitch (AP) seem to have two strategies available for identifying intervals: they can either use the relative-pitch strategy, or they can first identify the two pitches and then infer the musical interval between them (AP strategy). This study investigates the perception of sequential musical intervals by two groups of musicians, one group with AP and the other without AP. Most subjects in either group were able to name standard sequential musical intervals based on the equal-tempered scale accurately. Most subjects in the AP group were able to name notes of the equal-tempered scale accurately and consistently, whereas subjects without AP were not. Subjects with AP identified, with varying degrees of accuracy and consistency, single notes spaced in 20-cent increments over a 9.4- semitone range, using the standard musical note names. In the main experiment, subjects identified sequential musical intervals ranging in 20- cent steps from 260 to 540 cents, using the standard musical interval names. On the basis of their identification errors, subjects, both with and without AP, appeared to identify the intervals using the RP strategy rather than the AP strategy. It seems that musicians with AP do not use this ability in the identification of sequential musical intervals, relying instead on their sense of relative pitch.
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Lerdahl, Fred. "Concepts and Representations of Musical Hierarchies." Music Perception 33, no. 1 (September 1, 2015): 83–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2015.33.1.83.
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This paper undertakes a comparative study of concepts and visual representations of hierarchical aspects of musical structure. After consideration of the rhythmic components of grouping and meter, the discussion turns to pitch-event hierarchies and the tonal hierarchy (or pitch space). Contrasting notations are evaluated in terms of the efficacy of the concepts they exemplify.
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Broze, Yuri, and David Huron. "Is Higher Music Faster? Pitch–Speed Relationships in Western Compositions." Music Perception 31, no. 1 (September 1, 2013): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2013.31.1.19.
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We conducted four tests of the conjecture that higher musical pitch coincides with faster musical speeds in composition and performance. First, a ‘notewise’ examination of Western musical scores tested whether longer (i.e., slower) notes tend to have lower pitches. Results were genre-dependent, with three of six sampled styles exhibiting the predicted effect. A second study considered an independent sample of Western music part-by-part and found that lower musical voices tend to have significantly fewer notes than higher voices. The third study used instrumental recordings to directly measure event onset densities in notes per second. A strong correlation (rs = .74, p < .002) between performed note speed and an instrument’s pitch range (tessitura) was found. Finally, a fourth study indicated that Baroque ornaments are more likely to appear in higher musical parts. Considered together, these four studies suggest a pitch-speed relationship that is most evident when the methodology preserves the notion of musical ‘line.’ We outline several possible origins for the observed effect.
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Chen-Hafteck, Lily. "Pitch abilities in music and language of Cantonese-speaking children." International Journal of Music Education os-31, no. 1 (May 1998): 14–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/025576149803100102.
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The relationship between musical and linguistic pitch abilities in young children was explored. Developmental research demonstrated that abilities in pitch perception and production in early music and language development are closely integrated. Cross-cultural evidence also illustrated the influence of language characteristics on music, children's songs and spontaneous singing. A close examination into the singing ability of the Cantonese-speaking children in Hong Kong showed that pitch abilities in language can possibly enhance pitch accuracy in singing. It was therefore suggested that musical and linguistic abilities should be encouraged in close connection during early childhood.
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Szczyrba-Poroszewska, Joanna. "Zabawowe sposoby wprowadzania zapisu muzycznego w zakresie wysokości dźwięku — propozycje dla nauczycieli klas I–III." Pedagogika Przedszkolna i Wczesnoszkolna, no. 2 (18) (2021): 61–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/23537159ppw.21.018.15178.
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Fun ways to introduce of musical notation in terms of pitch — suggestions for teachers in grades 1–3 An important issue in music education of children is introduction of musical alphabet. The main aims are reminding teachers of two ways to record pitch, introducing the guidelines for learning formulated by psychologists, presentation of selected ways of introducing musical notation in a way adapted to the abilities of early school children.
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Yuan, Chenjie, Santiago González-Fuente, Florence Baills, and Pilar Prieto. "OBSERVING PITCH GESTURES FAVORS THE LEARNING OF SPANISH INTONATION BY MANDARIN SPEAKERS." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41, no. 1 (January 2, 2018): 5–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263117000316.
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AbstractRecent studies on the learning of L2 prosody have suggested that pitch gestures can enhance the learning of the L2 lexical tones. Yet it remains unclear whether the use of these gestures can aid the learning of L2 intonation, especially by tonal-language speakers. Sixty-four Mandarin speakers with basic-level Spanish were asked to learn three Spanish intonation patterns, all involving a low tone on the nuclear accent. In a pre-post test experimental design, half of the participants received intonation training without the use of pitch gestures (the control group) while the other half received the same training but with pitch gestures representing nuclear intonation contours (the experimental group). Musical (melody, pitch) abilities were also measured. The results revealed that (a) the experimental group significantly improved intonational production outcomes, and (b) even though participants with stronger musical abilities performed better, those with weaker musical abilities benefited more from observing pitch gestures.
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Inabinet, Devin, Jan De La Cruz, Justin Cha, Kevin Ng, and Gabriella Musacchia. "Diotic and Dichotic Mechanisms of Discrimination Threshold in Musicians and Non-Musicians." Brain Sciences 11, no. 12 (November 30, 2021): 1592. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121592.
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The perception of harmonic complexes provides important information for musical and vocal communication. Numerous studies have shown that musical training and expertise are associated with better processing of harmonic complexes, however, it is unclear whether the perceptual improvement associated with musical training is universal to different pitch models. The current study addresses this issue by measuring discrimination thresholds of musicians (n = 20) and non-musicians (n = 18) to diotic (same sound to both ears) and dichotic (different sounds to each ear) sounds of four stimulus types: (1) pure sinusoidal tones, PT; (2) four-harmonic complex tones, CT; (3) iterated rippled noise, IRN; and (4) interaurally correlated broadband noise, called the “Huggins” or “dichotic” pitch, DP. Frequency difference limens (DLF) for each stimulus type were obtained via a three-alternative-forced-choice adaptive task requiring selection of the interval with the highest pitch, yielding the smallest perceptible fundamental frequency (F0) distance (in Hz) between two sounds. Music skill was measured by an online test of musical pitch, melody and timing maintained by the International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research. Musicianship, length of music experience and self-evaluation of musical skill were assessed by questionnaire. Results showed musicians had smaller DLFs in all four conditions with the largest group difference in the dichotic condition. DLF thresholds were related to both subjective and objective musical ability. In addition, subjective self-report of musical ability was shown to be a significant variable in group classification. Taken together, the results suggest that music-related plasticity benefits multiple mechanisms of pitch encoding and that self-evaluation of musicality can be reliably associated with objective measures of perception.
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Miyazaki, Ken'ichi, Andrzej Rakowski, Sylwia Makomaska, Cong Jiang, Minoru Tsuzaki, Andrew J. Oxenham, Gregory Ellis, and Scott D. Lipscomb. "Absolute Pitch and Relative Pitch in Music Students in the East and the West." Music Perception 36, no. 2 (December 1, 2018): 135–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/mp.2018.36.2.135.
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Absolute pitch (AP)—an ability to identify an isolated pitch without musical context—is commonly believed to be a valuable ability for musicians. However, relative pitch (RP)—an ability to perceive pitch relations—is more important in most musical contexts. In this study, music students in East Asian and Western countries (Japan, China, Poland, Germany, and USA) were tested on AP and RP abilities. In the AP test, 60 single tones were presented in a quasirandom order over a five-octave range. In the RP test, ascending musical intervals from 1 to 11 semitones were presented in four different keys. Participants wrote down note names in the AP test and scale-degree names or musical interval names in the RP test. The conservatory-level Japanese students showed the highest AP performance and more than half of them were classified as accurate AP possessors, but only 10% were classified as accurate RP possessors. In contrast, only a small percentage of participants from Poland, Germany, and the USA were identified as accurate AP possessors, whereas many more were accurate RP possessors. Participants from China were typically intermediate on both measures. These noticeable contrasts between AP and RP performance in different countries suggest influences of the underlying socio-cultural conditions, presumably relating to music education. Given the importance of RP in music, the results suggest that more emphasis should be place on RP training, particularly in East Asian countries.
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Tamboli, Allabakash Isak, and Rajendra D. Kokate. "An Effective Optimization-Based Neural Network for Musical Note Recognition." Journal of Intelligent Systems 28, no. 1 (January 28, 2019): 173–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jisys-2017-0038.
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Abstract Musical pitch estimation is used to recognize the musical note pitch or the fundamental frequency (F0) of an audio signal, which can be applied to a preprocessing part of many applications, such as sound separation and musical note transcription. In this work, a method for musical note recognition based on the classification framework has been designed using an optimization-based neural network (OBNN). A broad range of survey and research was reviewed, and all revealed the methods to recognize the musical notes. An OBNN is used here in recognizing musical notes. Similarly, we can progress the effectiveness of musical note recognition using different methodologies. In this document, the most modern investigations related to musical note recognition are effectively analyzed and put in a nutshell to effectively furnish the traits and classifications.
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Cross, I., R. West, and P. Howell. "Pitch Relations and the Formation of Scalar Structure." Music Perception 2, no. 3 (1985): 329–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285302.
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The experimental study of the perception of pitch structure in music requires the use of a framework that is not necessarily tied to a particular musical culture or period. This article describes three sets of experiments in which rules governing the production of musical sequences are formally defined in terms of a closed system, the "circle of fifths." Experimental results indicate that important aspects of musical judgment are well accounted for by logical consequences of such formal definition, without the necessity of invoking either simplicity of frequency ratios or musical "well-formedness."
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Weber, Robert J., and Suellen Brown. "Musical Imagery." Music Perception 3, no. 4 (1986): 411–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285346.
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An objective indicator of musical imagery is developed that involves tracking the up and down movements of the tonal contour of an imagined musical phrase or tune. In two experiments, college students' imagery of music was examined. In both experiments, subjects learned musical phrases with words (songs) and without words (melodies). They then indicated as rapidly as possibly the tonal contour. In Experiment 1, the primary issue was whether musical imagery (as distinct from kinesthetic or visual imagery) drew on the same representation as overt song. Subjects processed the phrases by using either an imaginal or overtly sung representation. No difference in processing time was found between the imaginal and overt modes of representation, consistent with a common representation. A second issue was "tonal primacy," the priority of tonal coding over verbal or word coding in musical phrases; in fact, songs (with words) were processed as well or better than melodies (without words). No evidence favoring tonal primacy was found. In Experiment 2, the issues examined were possible kinesthetic or visual image coding of pitch representation and possible sharing of tonal and verbal generation processes for musical imagery and auditory imagery. Spoken responses for classifying tonal relations took longer than written responses, indicating that kinesthetic and visual image coding was unlikely and that the pitch generation of musical imagery shared resources with a more general auditory imagery.
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Smith, Murray. "Against Nature? or, Confessions of a Darwinian Modernist." Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 75 (October 2014): 151–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1358246114000174.
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A few years ago I gave a paper on the aesthetics of ‘noise,’ that is, on the ways in which non-musical sounds can be given aesthetic shape and structure, and thereby form the basis of significant aesthetic experience. Along the way I made reference to Arnold Schoenberg's musical theory, in particular his notion ofKlangfarbenmelodie, literally ‘sound colour melody,’ or musical form based on timbre or tonal colour rather than on melody, harmony or rhythm. Schoenberg articulated his ideas aboutKlangfarbenmelodiein the final section of hisHarmonielehre(1911). ‘Pitch is nothing else but tone colour measured in one direction,’ wrote Schoenberg. ‘Now, if it is possible to create patterns out of tone colours that are differentiated according to pitch, patterns we call ‘melodies’…then it must also be possible to make such progressions out of the tone colours of the other dimension, out of that which we simply call “tone colour.”’ In other words, traditional melodies work by abstracting and structuring the dominant pitch characterizing a musical sound, while ‘sound colour melodies’ work, Schoenberg argues, by structuring the combined set of pitches contained in a given musical sound (the overtones as well as the dominant pitch). Schoenberg is emphatic that, although a neglected and underdeveloped possibility within Western classical music, ‘sound colour melody’ is a perfectly legitimate and viable form of musical expression; indeed for Schoenberg it is a musical form with enormous potential.
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Flagge, Ashley G., Mary Ellen Neeley, Tara M. Davis, and Victoria S. Henbest. "A Preliminary Exploration of Pitch Discrimination, Temporal Sequencing, and Prosodic Awareness Skills of Children Who Participate in Different School-Based Music Curricula." Brain Sciences 11, no. 8 (July 24, 2021): 982. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11080982.
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Musical training has been shown to have a positive influence on a variety of skills, including auditory-based tasks and nonmusical cognitive and executive functioning tasks; however, because previous investigations have yielded mixed results regarding the relationship between musical training and these skills, the purpose of this study was to examine and compare the auditory processing skills of children who receive focused, daily musical training with those with more limited, generalized musical training. Sixteen typically developing children (second–fourth grade) from two different schools receiving different music curricula were assessed on measures of pitch discrimination, temporal sequencing, and prosodic awareness. The results indicated significantly better scores in pitch discrimination abilities for the children receiving daily, focused musical training (School 1) compared to students attending music class only once per week, utilizing a more generalized elementary school music curriculum (School 2). The findings suggest that more in-depth and frequent musical training may be associated with better pitch discrimination abilities in children. This finding is important given that the ability to discriminate pitch has been linked to improved phonological processing skills, an important skill for developing spoken language and literacy. Future investigations are needed to determine whether the null findings for temporal sequencing and prosodic awareness can be replicated or may be different for various grades and tasks for measuring these abilities.
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Finney, Steven A. "Auditory Feedback and Musical Keyboard Performance." Music Perception 15, no. 2 (1997): 153–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40285747.
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In an investigation into the role of auditory feedback guidance in musical performance, musically experienced subjects performed on an electronic keyboard under altered feedback conditions that included pitch and timing manipulations, as well as absence of auditory feedback. The results largely replicated the data reported by Gates and Bradshaw (1974): performance in the absence of auditory feedback showed no impairment, whereas performance under delayed auditory feedback showed significant impairment. In an extension of the Gates and Bradshaw study, however, it was found that altered pitch feedback caused little or no impairment and that altering the pitches in the delayed auditory feedback condition significantly reduced the amount of delayed auditory feedback impairment. These results show that different components of auditory feedback (pitch and timing) have separable effects on musical performance and pose a problem for theories of auditory feedback effects that do not explicitly distinguish these components.