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1
Blake, Ollie M., and James M. Wakeling. "Muscle coordination limits efficiency and power output of human limb movement under a wide range of mechanical demands." Journal of Neurophysiology 114, no. 6 (December 1, 2015): 3283–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00765.2015.
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This study investigated the influence of cycle frequency and workload on muscle coordination and the ensuing relationship with mechanical efficiency and power output of human limb movement. Eleven trained cyclists completed an array of cycle frequency (cadence)-power output conditions while excitation from 10 leg muscles and power output were recorded. Mechanical efficiency was maximized at increasing cadences for increasing power outputs and corresponded to muscle coordination and muscle fiber type recruitment that minimized both the total muscle excitation across all muscles and the ineffective pedal forces. Also, maximum efficiency was characterized by muscle coordination at the top and bottom of the pedal cycle and progressive excitation through the uniarticulate knee, hip, and ankle muscles. Inefficiencies were characterized by excessive excitation of biarticulate muscles and larger duty cycles. Power output and efficiency were limited by the duration of muscle excitation beyond a critical cadence (120–140 rpm), with larger duty cycles and disproportionate increases in muscle excitation suggesting deteriorating muscle coordination and limitations of the activation-deactivation capabilities. Most muscles displayed systematic phase shifts of the muscle excitation relative to the pedal cycle that were dependent on cadence and, to a lesser extent, power output. Phase shifts were different for each muscle, thereby altering their mechanical contribution to the pedaling action. This study shows that muscle coordination is a key determinant of mechanical efficiency and power output of limb movement across a wide range of mechanical demands and that the excitation and coordination of the muscles is limited at very high cycle frequencies.
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Roberts, Thomas J., and Jeffrey A. Scales. "Mechanical power output during running accelerations in wild turkeys." Journal of Experimental Biology 205, no. 10 (May 15, 2002): 1485–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.205.10.1485.
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SUMMARYWe tested the hypothesis that the hindlimb muscles of wild turkeys(Meleagris gallopavo) can produce maximal power during running accelerations. The mechanical power developed during single running steps was calculated from force-plate and high-speed video measurements as turkeys accelerated over a trackway. Steady-speed running steps and accelerations were compared to determine how turkeys alter their running mechanics from a low-power to a high-power gait. During maximal accelerations, turkeys eliminated two features of running mechanics that are characteristic of steady-speed running: (i) they produced purely propulsive horizontal ground reaction forces, with no braking forces, and (ii) they produced purely positive work during stance, with no decrease in the mechanical energy of the body during the step. The braking and propulsive forces ordinarily developed during steady-speed running are important for balance because they align the ground reaction force vector with the center of mass. Increases in acceleration in turkeys correlated with decreases in the angle of limb protraction at toe-down and increases in the angle of limb retraction at toe-off. These kinematic changes allow turkeys to maintain the alignment of the center of mass and ground reaction force vector during accelerations when large propulsive forces result in a forward-directed ground reaction force. During the highest accelerations, turkeys produced exclusively positive mechanical power. The measured power output during acceleration divided by the total hindlimb muscle mass yielded estimates of peak instantaneous power output in excess of 400 W kg-1 hindlimb muscle mass. This value exceeds estimates of peak instantaneous power output of turkey muscle fibers. The mean power developed during the entire stance phase increased from approximately zero during steady-speed runs to more than 150 W kg-1muscle during the highest accelerations. The high power outputs observed during accelerations suggest that elastic energy storage and recovery may redistribute muscle power during acceleration. Elastic mechanisms may expand the functional range of muscle contractile elements in running animals by allowing muscles to vary their mechanical function from force-producing struts during steady-speed running to power-producing motors during acceleration.
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Ellington, C. P. "Power and efficiency of insect flight muscle." Journal of Experimental Biology 115, no. 1 (March 1, 1985): 293–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.115.1.293.
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The efficiency and mechanical power output of insect flight muscle have been estimated from a study of hovering flight. The maximum power output, calculated from the muscle properties, is adequate for the aerodynamic power requirements. However, the power output is insufficient to oscillate the wing mass as well unless there is good elastic storage of the inertial energy, and this is consistent with reports of elastic components in the flight system. A comparison of the mechanical power output with the metabolic power input to the flight muscles suggests that the muscle efficiency is quite low: less than 10%.
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Josephson, Robert K., Jean G. Malamud, and Darrell R. Stokes. "The efficiency of an asynchronous flight muscle from a beetle." Journal of Experimental Biology 204, no. 23 (December 1, 2001): 4125–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.23.4125.
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SUMMARYMechanical power output and metabolic power input were measured from an asynchronous flight muscle, the basalar muscle of the beetle Cotinus mutabilis. Mechanical power output was determined using the work loop technique and metabolic power input by monitoring CO2 production or both CO2 production and O2 consumption. At 35°C, and with conditions that maximized power output (60 Hz sinusoidal strain, optimal muscle length and strain amplitude, 60 Hz stimulation frequency), the peak mechanical power output during a 10 s burst was approximately 140 W kg–1, the respiratory coefficient 0.83 and the muscle efficiency 14–16 %. The stimulus intensity used was the minimal required to achieve a maximal isometric tetanus. Increasing or decreasing the stimulus intensity from this level changed mechanical power output but not efficiency, indicating that the efficiency measurements were not contaminated by excitation of muscles adjacent to that from which the mechanical recordings were made. The CO2 produced during an isometric tetanus was approximately half that during a bout of similar stimulation but with imposed sinusoidal strain and work output, suggesting that up to 50 % of the energy input may go to muscle activation costs. Reducing the stimulus frequency to 30 Hz from its usual value of 60 Hz reduced mechanical power output but had no significant effect on efficiency. Increasing the frequency of the sinusoidal strain from 60 to 90 Hz reduced power output but not CO2 consumption; hence, there was a decline in efficiency. The respiratory coefficient was the same for 10 s and 30 s bursts of activity, suggesting that there was no major change in the fuel used over this time range.The mass-specific mechanical power output and the efficiency of the beetle muscle were each 2–3 times greater than values measured in previous studies, using similar techniques, from locust flight muscles, which are synchronous muscles. These results support the hypothesis that asynchronous flight muscles have evolved in several major insect taxa because they can provide greater power output and are more efficient than are synchronous muscles for operation at the high frequencies of insect flight.
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Konow, Nicolai, Emanuel Azizi, and Thomas J. Roberts. "Muscle power attenuation by tendon during energy dissipation." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1731 (September 28, 2011): 1108–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1435.
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An important function of skeletal muscle is deceleration via active muscle fascicle lengthening, which dissipates movement energy. The mechanical interplay between muscle contraction and tendon elasticity is critical when muscles produce energy. However, the role of tendon elasticity during muscular energy dissipation remains unknown. We tested the hypothesis that tendon elasticity functions as a mechanical buffer, preventing high (and probably damaging) velocities and powers during active muscle fascicle lengthening. We directly measured lateral gastrocnemius muscle force and length in wild turkeys during controlled landings requiring rapid energy dissipation. Muscle-tendon unit (MTU) strain was measured via video kinematics, independent of muscle fascicle strain (measured via sonomicrometry). We found that rapid MTU lengthening immediately following impact involved little or no muscle fascicle lengthening. Therefore, joint flexion had to be accommodated by tendon stretch. After the early contact period, muscle fascicles lengthened and absorbed energy. This late lengthening occurred after most of the joint flexion, and was thus mainly driven by tendon recoil. Temporary tendon energy storage led to a significant reduction in muscle fascicle lengthening velocity and the rate of energy absorption. We conclude that tendons function as power attenuators that probably protect muscles against damage from rapid and forceful lengthening during energy dissipation.
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Aerts, P. "Vertical jumping in Galago senegalensis: the quest for an obligate mechanical power amplifier." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 353, no. 1375 (October 29, 1998): 1607–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1998.0313.
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Bushbabies ( Galago senegalensis ) are renowned for their phenomenal jumping capacity. It was postulated that mechanical power amplification must be involved. Dynamic analysis of the vertical jumps performed by two bushbabies confirms the need for a power amplifier. Inverse dynamics coupled to a geometric musculo–skeletal model were used to elucidate the precise nature of the mechanism powering maximal vertical jumps. Most of the power required for jumping is delivered by the vastus muscle–tendon systems (knee extensor). Comparison with the external joint–powers revealed, however, an important power transport from this extensor (about 65%) to the ankle and the midfoot via the bi–articular calf muscles. Peak power output likely implies elastic recoil of the complex aponeurotic system of the vastus muscle. Patterns of changes in length and tension of the muscle–tendon complex during different phases of the jump were found which provide strong evidence for substantial power amplification (times 15). It is argued here that the multiple internal connective tissue sheets and attachment structures of the well–developed bundles of the vastus muscle become increasingly stretched during preparatory crouching and throughout the extension phase, except for the last 13 ms of the push–off (i.e. when power requirements peak). Then, tension in the knee extensors abruptly falls from its maximum, allowing the necessary fast recoil of the tensed tendon structures to occur.
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James, R. S., V. M. Cox, I. S. Young, J. D. Altringham, and D. F. Goldspink. "Mechanical properties of rabbit latissimus dorsi muscle after stretch and/or electrical stimulation." Journal of Applied Physiology 83, no. 2 (August 1, 1997): 398–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.2.398.
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James, R. S., V. M. Cox, I. S. Young, J. D. Altringham, and D. F. Goldspink Mechanical properties of rabbit latissimus dorsi muscle after stretch and/or electrical stimulation. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(2): 398–406, 1997.—The work loop technique was used to measure the mechanical performance in situ of the latissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of rabbits maintained under fentanyl anesthesia. After 3 wk of incrementally applied stretch the LD muscles were 36% heavier, but absolute power output (195 mW/muscle) was not significantly changed relative to that of external control muscle (206 mW). In contrast, continuous 10-Hz electrical stimulation reduced power output per kilogram of muscle >75% after 3 or 6 wk and muscle mass by 32% after 6 wk. When combined, stretch and 10-Hz electrical stimulation preserved or increased the mass of the treated muscles but failed to prevent an 80% loss in maximum muscle power. However, this combined treatment increased fatigue resistance to a greater degree than electrical stimulation alone. These stretched/stimulated muscles, therefore, are more suitable for cardiomyoplasty. Nonetheless, further work will be necessary to find an ideal training program for this surgical procedure.
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Syme, D. A. "The efficiency of frog ventricular muscle." Journal of Experimental Biology 197, no. 1 (December 1, 1994): 143–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.197.1.143.
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Mechanical power and oxygen consumption (VO2) were measured simultaneously from isolated segments of trabecular muscle from the frog (Rana pipiens) ventricle. Power was measured using the work-loop technique, in which bundles of trabeculae were subjected to cyclic, sinusoidal length change and phasic stimulation. VO2 was measured using a polarographic O2 electrode. Both mechanical power and VO2 increased with increasing cycle frequency (0.4-0.9 Hz), with increasing muscle length and with increasing strain (= shortening, range 0-25% of resting length). Net efficiency, defined as the ratio of mechanical power output to the energy equivalent of the increase in VO2 above resting level, was independent of cycle frequency and increased from 8.1 to 13.0% with increasing muscle length, and from 0 to 13% with increasing strain, in the ranges examined. Delta efficiency, defined as the slope of the line relating mechanical power output to the energy equivalent of VO2, was 24-43%, similar to that reported from studies using intact hearts. The cost of increasing power output was greater if power was increased by increasing cycle frequency or muscle length than if it was increased by increasing strain. The results suggest that the observation that pressure-loading is more costly than volume-loading is inherent to these muscle fibres and that frog cardiac muscle is, if anything, less efficient than most skeletal muscles studied thus far.
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Mizisin, Andrew P., and Robert K. Josephson. "Mechanical power output of locust flight muscle." Journal of Comparative Physiology A 160, no. 3 (1987): 413–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00613030.
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Askew, G. N., and D. J. Ellerby. "The mechanical power requirements of avian flight." Biology Letters 3, no. 4 (May 16, 2007): 445–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0182.
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A major goal of flight research has been to establish the relationship between the mechanical power requirements of flight and flight speed. This relationship is central to our understanding of the ecology and evolution of bird flight behaviour. Current approaches to determining flight power have relied on a variety of indirect measurements and led to a controversy over the shape of the power–speed relationship and a lack of quantitative agreement between the different techniques. We have used a new approach to determine flight power at a range of speeds based on the performance of the pectoralis muscles. As such, our measurements provide a unique dataset for comparison with other methods. Here we show that in budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus ) and zebra finches ( Taenopygia guttata ) power is modulated with flight speed, resulting in U-shaped power–speed relationship. Our measured muscle powers agreed well with a range of powers predicted using an aerodynamic model. Assessing the accuracy of mechanical power calculated using such models is essential as they are the basis for determining flight efficiency when compared to measurements of flight metabolic rate and for predicting minimum power and maximum range speeds, key determinants of optimal flight behaviour in the field.
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Askew, Graham N., Valerie M. Cox, John D. Altringham, and David F. Goldspink. "Mechanical properties of the latissimus dorsi muscle after cyclic training." Journal of Applied Physiology 93, no. 2 (August 1, 2002): 649–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00218.2002.
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Cardiomyoplasty is a procedure developed to improve heart performance in patients suffering from congestive heart failure. The latissimus dorsi (LD) muscle is surgically wrapped around the failing ventricles and stimulated to contract in synchrony with the heart. The LD muscle is easily fatigued and as a result is unsuitable for cardiomyoplasty. For useful operation as a cardiac-assist device, the fatigue resistance of the LD muscle must be improved while retaining a high power output. The LD muscle of rabbits was subjected to a training regime in which cyclic work was performed. Training transformed the fiber-type composition from approximately equal proportions of fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG) and fast glycolytic (FG) fibers to one composed of almost entirely of FOG with no FG, which increased fatigue resistance while retaining rapid contraction kinetics. Muscle mass and cross-sectional area increased but power output decreased, relative to control muscles. This training regime represents a significant improvement in terms of preserving muscle mass and power compared with other training regimes, while enhancing fatigue resistance, although some fiber damage occurred. The power output of the trained LD muscle was calculated to be sufficient to deliver a significant level of assistance to a failing heart during cardiomyoplasty.
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Roberts, Thomas J., Emily M. Abbott, and Emanuel Azizi. "The weak link: do muscle properties determine locomotor performance in frogs?" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1570 (May 27, 2011): 1488–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0326.
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Muscles power movement, yet the conceptual link between muscle performance and locomotor performance is poorly developed. Frog jumping provides an ideal system to probe the relationship between muscle capacity and locomotor performance, because a jump is a single discrete event and mechanical power output is a critical determinant of jump distance. We tested the hypothesis that interspecific variation in jump performance could be explained by variability in available muscle power. We used force plate ergometry to measure power produced during jumping in Cuban tree frogs ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ), leopard frogs ( Rana pipiens ) and cane toads ( Bufo marinus ). We also measured peak isotonic power output in isolated plantaris muscles for each species. As expected, jump performance varied widely. Osteopilus septentrionalis developed peak power outputs of 1047.0 ± 119.7 W kg −1 hindlimb muscle mass, about five times that of B. marinus (198.5 ± 54.5 W kg −1 ). Values for R. pipiens were intermediate (543.9 ± 96.2 W kg −1 ). These differences in jump power were not matched by differences in available muscle power, which were 312.7 ± 28.9, 321.8 ± 48.5 and 262.8 ± 23.2 W kg −1 muscle mass for O. septentrionalis , R. pipiens and B. marinus , respectively. The lack of correlation between available muscle power and jump power suggests that non-muscular mechanisms (e.g. elastic energy storage) can obscure the link between muscle mechanical performance and locomotor performance.
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Olberding, Jeffrey P., Stephen M. Deban, Michael V. Rosario, and Emanuel Azizi. "Modeling the Determinants of Mechanical Advantage During Jumping: Consequences for Spring- and Muscle-Driven Movement." Integrative and Comparative Biology 59, no. 6 (August 9, 2019): 1515–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/icz139.
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Abstract Systems powered by elastic recoil need a latch to prevent motion while a spring is loaded but allow motion during spring recoil. Some jumping animals that rely on elastic recoil use the increasing mechanical advantage of limb extensor muscles to accomplish latching. We examined the ways in which limb morphology affects latching and the resulting performance of an elastic-recoil mechanism. Additionally, because increasing mechanical advantage is a consequence of limb extension that may be found in many systems, we examined the mechanical consequences for muscle in the absence of elastic elements. By simulating muscle contractions against a simplified model of an extending limb, we found that increasing mechanical advantage can limit the work done by muscle by accelerating muscle shortening during limb extension. The inclusion of a series elastic element dramatically improves mechanical output by allowing for additional muscle work that is stored and released from the spring. This suggests that elastic recoil may be beneficial for more animals than expected when assuming peak isotonic power output from muscle during jumping. The mechanical output of elastic recoil depends on limb morphology; long limbs moving small loads maximize total work, but it is done at a low power, whereas shorter limbs moving larger loads do less work at a higher power. This work-power trade-off of limb morphology is true with or without an elastic element. Systems with relatively short limbs may have performance that is robust to variable conditions such as body mass or muscle activation, while long-limbed systems risk complete failure with relatively minor perturbations. Finally, a changing mechanical advantage latch allows for muscle work to be done simultaneously with spring recoil, changing the predictions for spring mechanical properties. Overall, the design constraints revealed by considering the mechanics of this particular latch will inform our understanding of the evolution of elastic-recoil mechanisms and our attempts to engineer similar systems.
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JOSEPHSON, ROBERT K. "The Mechanical Power Output of a Tettigoniid Wing Muscle During Singing and Flight." Journal of Experimental Biology 117, no. 1 (July 1, 1985): 357–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.117.1.357.
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1. The mesothoracic wings of tettigoniid insects are used in song production and flight; the metathoracic wings in flight only. In Neoconocephalus triops the wing stroke frequency during flight is about 25 Hz; the frequency during singing about 100 Hz. 2. The twitch duration of mesothoracic, first tergocoxal (Tcxl) wing muscles is only about one-half the duration of the upstroke or downstroke portion of the wing cycle. During tethered flight the Tcxl muscles are activated on each cycle with short bursts of action potentials, each burst typically containing four action potentials. Activating the muscles with brief, tetanizing bursts increases the duration of muscle activity and the mechanical power output per wing cycle above that obtainable with single twitch contractions of the muscle. 3. The mechanical power output was determined for mesothoracic Tcxl muscles undergoing sinusoidal length change and stimulated phasically in the length cycle. At 25 Hz, the power at optimum muscle strain and optimum stimulus phase was 5 Wkg−1 at 30°C for muscles activated with single stimulus per cycle and about 33 Wkg−1 for muscles activated with bursts of stimuli in the normal pattern of flight. 4. The maximum power output at 100 Hz, the singing frequency, was 18 Wkg−1. This was achieved with a single stimulus per wing cycle. 5. From published values of oxygen consumption by tettigoniids during singing, it is concluded that the efficiency of conversion of metabolic to mechanical power during singing is about 3%.
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Syme, Douglas A., and Robert E. Shadwick. "Effects of longitudinal body position and swimming speed on mechanical power of deep red muscle from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 205, no. 2 (January 15, 2002): 189–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.205.2.189.
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SUMMARY The mechanical power output of deep, red muscle from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) was studied to investigate (i) whether this muscle generates maximum power during cruise swimming, (ii) how the differences in strain experienced by red muscle at different axial body locations affect its performance and (iii) how swimming speed affects muscle work and power output. Red muscle was isolated from approximately mid-way through the deep wedge that lies next to the backbone; anterior (0.44 fork lengths, ANT) and posterior (0.70 fork lengths, POST) samples were studied. Work and power were measured at 25°C using the work loop technique. Stimulus phases and durations and muscle strains (±5.5 % in ANT and ±8 % in POST locations) experienced during cruise swimming at different speeds were obtained from previous studies and used during work loop recordings. In addition, stimulus conditions that maximized work were determined. The stimulus durations and phases yielding maximum work decreased with increasing cycle frequency (analogous to tail-beat frequency), were the same at both axial locations and were almost identical to those used by the fish during swimming, indicating that the muscle produces near-maximal work under most conditions in swimming fish. While muscle in the posterior region undergoes larger strain and thus produces more mass-specific power than muscle in the anterior region, when the longitudinal distribution of red muscle mass is considered, the anterior muscles appear to contribute approximately 40 % more total power. Mechanical work per length cycle was maximal at a cycle frequency of 2–3 Hz, dropping to near zero at 15 Hz and by 20–50 % at 1 Hz. Mechanical power was maximal at a cycle frequency of 5 Hz, dropping to near zero at 15 Hz. These fish typically cruise with tail-beat frequencies of 2.8–5.2 Hz, frequencies at which power from cyclic contractions of deep red muscles was 75–100 % maximal. At any given frequency over this range, power using stimulation conditions recorded from swimming fish averaged 93.4±1.65 % at ANT locations and 88.6±2.08 % at POST locations (means ± s.e.m., N=3–6) of the maximum using optimized conditions. When cycle frequency was held constant (4 Hz) and strain amplitude was increased, work and power increased similarly in muscles from both sample sites; work and power increased 2.5-fold when strain was elevated from ±2 to ±5.5 %, but increased by only approximately 12 % when strain was raised further from ±5.5 to ±8 %. Taken together, these data suggest that red muscle fibres along the entire body are used in a similar fashion to produce near-maximal mechanical power for propulsion during normal cruise swimming. Modelling suggests that the tail-beat frequency at which power is maximal (5 Hz) is very close to that used at the predicted maximum aerobic swimming speed (5.8 Hz) in these fish.
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Roberts, Thomas J., and Emanuel Azizi. "The series-elastic shock absorber: tendons attenuate muscle power during eccentric actions." Journal of Applied Physiology 109, no. 2 (August 2010): 396–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01272.2009.
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Elastic tendons can act as muscle power amplifiers or energy-conserving springs during locomotion. We used an in situ muscle-tendon preparation to examine the mechanical function of tendons during lengthening contractions, when muscles absorb energy. Force, length, and power were measured in the lateral gastrocnemius muscle of wild turkeys. Sonomicrometry was used to measure muscle fascicle length independently from muscle-tendon unit (MTU) length, as measured by a muscle lever system (servomotor). A series of ramp stretches of varying velocities was applied to the MTU in fully activated muscles. Fascicle length changes were decoupled from length changes imposed on the MTU by the servomotor. Under most conditions, muscle fascicles shortened on average, while the MTU lengthened. Energy input to the MTU during the fastest lengthenings was −54.4 J/kg, while estimated work input to the muscle fascicles during this period was only −11.24 J/kg. This discrepancy indicates that energy was first absorbed by elastic elements, then released to do work on muscle fascicles after the lengthening phase of the contraction. The temporary storage of energy by elastic elements also resulted in a significant attenuation of power input to the muscle fascicles. At the fastest lengthening rates, peak instantaneous power input to the MTU reached −2,143.9 W/kg, while peak power input to the fascicles was only −557.6 W/kg. These results demonstrate that tendons may act as mechanical buffers by limiting peak muscle forces, lengthening rates, and power inputs during energy-absorbing contractions.
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Rome, L. C. "Influence of temperature on muscle recruitment and muscle function in vivo." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 259, no. 2 (August 1, 1990): R210—R222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1990.259.2.r210.
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Temperature has a large influence on the maximum velocity of shortening (Vmax) and maximum power output of muscle (Q10 = 1.5-3). In some animals, maximum performance and maximum sustainable performance show large temperature sensitivities, because these parameters are dependent solely on mechanical power output of the muscles. The mechanics of locomotion (sarcomere length excursions and muscle-shortening velocities, V) at a given speed, however, are precisely the same at all temperatures. Animals compensate for the diminished power output of their muscles at low temperatures by compressing their recruitment order into a narrower range of locomotor speeds, that is, recruiting more muscle fibers and faster fiber types at a given speed. By examining V/Vmax, I calculate that fish at 10 degrees C must recruit 1.53-fold greater fiber cross section than at 20 degrees C. V/Vmax also appears to be an important design constraint in muscle. It sets the lowest V and the highest V over which a muscle can be used effectively. Because the Vmax of carp slow red muscle has a Q10 of 1.6 between 10 and 20 degrees C, the slow aerobic fibers can be used over a 1.6-fold greater range of swim speeds at the warmer temperature. In some species of fish, Vmax can be increased during thermal acclimation, enabling animals to swim at higher speeds.
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Josephson, R. "Power output from a flight muscle of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris. III. Power during simulated flight." Journal of Experimental Biology 200, no. 8 (April 1, 1997): 1241–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.200.8.1241.
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1. The work loop approach was used to measure mechanical power output from an asynchronous flight muscle, the dorso-ventral muscle of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris. Measurements were made at the optimum muscle length for work output at 30 °C and at a muscle temperature (40 °C) and oscillatory frequency (141­173 Hz, depending on the size of the animal) characteristic of free flight. Oscillatory strain amplitude was adjusted to maximize power output. 2. There was much preparation-to-preparation variability in power output. Power output in the muscles with the highest values was slightly greater than 100 W kg-1. It is argued that there are many experimental factors which might reduce measured power output below that in the living bumblebee, and no obvious factors which might lead to overestimates of muscle power. The conclusion is that flight muscle in the intact bumblebee can produce at least 100 W kg-1.
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Wakeling, James M., Ollie M. Blake, Iris Wong, Manku Rana, and Sabrina S. M. Lee. "Movement mechanics as a determinate of muscle structure, recruitment and coordination." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1570 (May 27, 2011): 1554–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0294.
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During muscle contractions, the muscle fascicles may shorten at a rate different from the muscle-tendon unit, and the ratio of these velocities is its gearing. Appropriate gearing allows fascicles to reduce their shortening velocities and allows them to operate at effective shortening velocities across a range of movements. Gearing of the muscle fascicles within the muscle belly is the result of rotations of the fascicles and bulging of the belly. Variable gearing can also occur as a result of tendon length changes that can be caused by changes in the relative timing of muscle activity for different mechanical tasks. Recruitment patterns of slow and fast fibres are crucial for achieving optimal muscle performance, and coordination between muscles is related to whole limb performance. Poor coordination leads to inefficiencies and loss of power, and optimal coordination is required for high power outputs and high mechanical efficiencies from the limb. This paper summarizes key studies in these areas of neuromuscular mechanics and results from studies where we have tested these phenomena on a cycle ergometer are presented to highlight novel insights. The studies show how muscle structure and neural activation interact to generate smooth and effective motion of the body.
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Lehmann, Fritz-Olaf, Dimitri A. Skandalis, and Ruben Berthé. "Calcium signalling indicates bilateral power balancing in the Drosophila flight muscle during manoeuvring flight." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 10, no. 82 (May 6, 2013): 20121050. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2012.1050.
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Manoeuvring flight in animals requires precise adjustments of mechanical power output produced by the flight musculature. In many insects such as fruit flies, power generation is most likely varied by altering stretch-activated tension, that is set by sarcoplasmic calcium levels. The muscles reside in a thoracic shell that simultaneously drives both wings during wing flapping. Using a genetically expressed muscle calcium indicator, we here demonstrate in vivo the ability of this animal to bilaterally adjust its calcium activation to the mechanical power output required to sustain aerodynamic costs during flight. Motoneuron-specific comparisons of calcium activation during lift modulation and yaw turning behaviour suggest slightly higher calcium activation for dorso-longitudinal than for dorsoventral muscle fibres, which corroborates the elevated need for muscle mechanical power during the wings’ downstroke. During turning flight, calcium activation explains only up to 54 per cent of the required changes in mechanical power, suggesting substantial power transmission between both sides of the thoracic shell. The bilateral control of muscle calcium runs counter to the hypothesis that the thorax of flies acts as a single, equally proportional source for mechanical power production for both flapping wings. Collectively, power balancing highlights the precision with which insects adjust their flight motor to changing energetic requirements during aerial steering. This potentially enhances flight efficiency and is thus of interest for the development of technical vehicles that employ bioinspired strategies of power delivery to flapping wings.
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STOKES, DARRELL R., and ROBERT K. JOSEPHSON. "The Mechanical Power Output of a Crab Respiratory Muscle." Journal of Experimental Biology 140, no. 1 (November 1, 1988): 287–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.140.1.287.
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The mechanical power output was measured from scaphognathite (SG = gill bailer) muscle L2B of the crab Carcinus maenas (L.). The work was determined from the area of the loop formed by plotting muscle length against force when the muscle was subjected to sinusoidal length change (strain) and phasic stimulation in the length cycle. The stimulation pattern (10 stimuli per burst, burst length = 20% of cycle length) mimicked that which has been recorded from muscle L2B in intact animals. Work output was measured at cycle frequencies ranging from 0.5 to 5 Hz. The work output at optimum strain and stimulus phase increased with increasing cycle frequency to a maximum at 2–3 Hz and declined thereafter. The maximum work per cycle was 2.7 J kg−1 (15 °C). The power output reached a maximum (8.8 W kg−1) at 4 Hz. Both optimum strain and optimum stimulus phase were relatively constant over the range of burst frequencies examined. Based on the fraction of the total SG musculature represented by muscle L2B (18%) and literature values for the oxygen consumption associated with ventilation in C. maenas and for the hydraulic power output from an SG, we estimate that at a beat frequency of 2 Hz the SG muscle is about 10% efficient in converting metabolic energy to muscle power, and about 19% efficient in converting muscle power to hydraulic power.
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Gabaldón, Annette M., Frank E. Nelson, and Thomas J. Roberts. "Relative shortening velocity in locomotor muscles: turkey ankle extensors operate at low V/Vmax." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 294, no. 1 (January 2008): R200—R210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00473.2007.
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The force-velocity properties of skeletal muscle have an important influence on locomotor performance. All skeletal muscles produce less force the faster they shorten and typically develop maximal power at velocities of ∼30% of maximum shortening velocity (Vmax). We used direct measurements of muscle mechanical function in two ankle extensor muscles of wild turkeys to test the hypothesis that during level running muscles operate at velocities that favor force rather than power. Sonomicrometer measurements of muscle length, tendon strain-gauge measurements of muscle force, and bipolar electromyographs were taken as animals ran over a range of speeds and inclines. These measurements were integrated with previously measured values of muscle Vmax for these muscles to calculate relative shortening velocity (V/Vmax). At all speeds for level running the V/Vmax values of the lateral gastrocnemius and the peroneus longus were low (<0.05), corresponding to the region of the force-velocity relationship where the muscles were capable of producing 90% of peak isometric force but only 35% of peak isotonic power. V/Vmax increased in response to the demand for mechanical power with increases in running incline and decreased to negative values to absorb energy during downhill running. Measurements of integrated electromyograph activity indicated that the volume of muscle required to produce a given force increased from level to uphill running. This observation is consistent with the idea that V/Vmax is an important determinant of locomotor cost because it affects the volume of muscle that must be recruited to support body weight.
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Barclay, C. J. "Efficiency of fast- and slow-twitch muscles of the mouse performing cyclic contractions." Journal of Experimental Biology 193, no. 1 (August 1, 1994): 65–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.193.1.65.
Full textAbstract:
The mechanical efficiency of mouse fast- and slow-twitch muscle was determined during contractions involving sinusoidal length changes. Measurements were made of muscle length, force production and initial heat output from bundles of muscle fibres in vitro at 31 degrees C. Power output was calculated as the product of the net work output per sinusoidal length cycle and the cycle frequency. The initial mechanical efficiency was defined as power output/(rate of initial heat production+power output). Both power output and rate of initial heat production were averaged over a full cycle of length change. The amplitude of length changes was +/- 5% of muscle length. Stimulus phase and duration were adjusted to maximise net work output at each cycle frequency used. The maximum initial mechanical efficiency of slow-twitch soleus muscle was 0.52 +/- 0.01 (mean +/- 1 S.E.M. N = 4) and occurred at a cycle frequency of 3 Hz. Efficiency was not significantly different from this at cycle frequencies of 1.5-4 Hz, but was significantly lower at cycle frequencies of 0.5 and 1 Hz. The maximum efficiency of fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus muscle was 0.34 +/- 0.03 (N = 4) and was relatively constant (0.32-0.34) over a broad range of frequencies (4-12 Hz). A comparison of these results with those from previous studies of the mechanical efficiency of mammalian muscles indicates that efficiency depends markedly on contraction protocol.
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Josephson, Robert K. "Mechanical Power output from Striated Muscle during Cyclic Contraction." Journal of Experimental Biology 114, no. 1 (January 1, 1985): 493–512. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.114.1.493.
Full textAbstract:
1. The mechanical power output of a synchronous insect muscle was determined by measuring tension as the muscle was subjected to sinusoidal length change and stimuli which occurred at selected phases of the length cycle. The area of the loop formed by plotting muscle tension against length over a full cycle is the work done on that cycle; the work done times the cycle frequency is the mechanical power output. The muscle was a flight muscle of the tettigoniid Neoconocephalus triops. The measurements were made at the normal wing-stroke frequency for flight (25 Hz) and operating temperature (30°C). 2. The power output with a single stimulus per cycle, optimal excursion amplitude, and optimal stimulus phase was 1.52 J kg−1 cycle−1 or 37W kg−1. The maximum power output occurs at a phase such that the onset of the twitch coincides with the onset of the shortening half of the length cycle. The optimum excursion amplitude was 5.5% rest length; with greater excursion, work output declined because of decreasing muscle force associated with the more rapid shortening velocity. 3. Multiple stimulation per cycle increases the power output above that available with twitch contractions. In this muscle, the maximum mechanical power output at 25 Hz was 76 W kg−1 which was achieved with three stimuli per cycle separated by 4-ms intervals and an excursion amplitude of 6.0% rest length. 4. The maximum work output during the shortening of an isotonic twitch contraction was about the same as the work done over a full sinusoidal shortening-lengthening cycle with a single stimulus per cycle and optimum excursion amplitude and phase.
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Josephson, R. K., J. G. Malamud, and D. R. Stokes. "Power output by an asynchronous flight muscle from a beetle." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 17 (September 1, 2000): 2667–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.17.2667.
Full textAbstract:
The basalar muscle of the beetle Cotinus mutabilis is a large, fibrillar flight muscle composed of approximately 90 fibers. The paired basalars together make up approximately one-third of the mass of the power muscles of flight. Changes in twitch force with changing stimulus intensity indicated that a basalar muscle is innervated by at least five excitatory axons and at least one inhibitory axon. The muscle is an asynchronous muscle; during normal oscillatory operation there is not a 1:1 relationship between muscle action potentials and contractions. During tethered flight, the wing-stroke frequency was approximately 80 Hz, and the action potential frequency in individual motor units was approximately 20 Hz. As in other asynchronous muscles that have been examined, the basalar is characterized by high passive tension, low tetanic force and long twitch duration. Mechanical power output from the basalar muscle during imposed, sinusoidal strain was measured by the work-loop technique. Work output varied with strain amplitude, strain frequency, the muscle length upon which the strain was superimposed, muscle temperature and stimulation frequency. When other variables were at optimal values, the optimal strain for work per cycle was approximately 5%, the optimal frequency for work per cycle approximately 50 Hz and the optimal frequency for mechanical power output 60–80 Hz. Optimal strain decreased with increasing cycle frequency and increased with muscle temperature. The curve relating work output and strain was narrow. At frequencies approximating those of flight, the width of the work versus strain curve, measured at half-maximal work, was 5% of the resting muscle length. The optimal muscle length for work output was shorter than that at which twitch and tetanic tension were maximal. Optimal muscle length decreased with increasing strain. The curve relating work output and muscle length, like that for work versus strain, was narrow, with a half-width of approximately 3 % at the normal flight frequency. Increasing the frequency with which the muscle was stimulated increased power output up to a plateau, reached at approximately 100 Hz stimulation frequency (at 35 degrees C). The low lift generated by animals during tethered flight is consistent with the low frequency of muscle action potentials in motor units of the wing muscles. The optimal oscillatory frequency for work per cycle increased with muscle temperature over the temperature range tested (25–40 degrees C). When cycle frequency was held constant, the work per cycle rose to an optimum with increasing temperature and then declined. We propose that there is a temperature optimum for work output because increasing temperature increases the shortening velocity of the muscle, which increases the rate of positive work output during shortening, but also decreases the durations of the stretch activation and shortening deactivation that underlie positive work output, the effect of temperature on shortening velocity being dominant at lower temperatures and the effect of temperature on the time course of activation and deactivation being dominant at higher temperatures. The average wing-stroke frequency during free flight was 94 Hz, and the thoracic temperature was 35 degrees C. The mechanical power output at the measured values of wing-stroke frequency and thoracic temperature during flight, and at optimal muscle length and strain, averaged 127 W kg(−1)muscle, with a maximum value of 200 W kg(−1). The power output from this asynchronous flight muscle was approximately twice that measured with similar techniques from synchronous flight muscle of insects, supporting the hypothesis that asynchronous operation has been favored by evolution in flight systems of different insect groups because it allows greater power output at the high contraction frequencies of flight.
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Zhong, Yunjian, Weijie Fu, Shutao Wei, Qing Li, and Yu Liu. "Joint Torque and Mechanical Power of Lower Extremity and Its Relevance to Hamstring Strain during Sprint Running." Journal of Healthcare Engineering 2017 (2017): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/8927415.
Full textAbstract:
The aim of this study was to quantify the contributions of lower extremity joint torques and the mechanical power of lower extremity muscle groups to further elucidate the loadings on hamstring and the mechanics of its injury. Eight national-level male sprinters performed maximum-velocity sprint running on a synthetic track. The 3D kinematic data and ground reaction force (GRF) were collected synchronously. Intersegmental dynamics approach was used to analyze the lower extremity joint torques and power changes in the lower extremity joint muscle groups. During sprinting, the GRF during the stance phase and the motion-dependent torques (MDT) during the swing phase had a major effect on the lower extremity movements and muscle groups. Specifically, during the stance phase, torque produced and work performed by the hip and knee muscles were generally used to counteract the GRF. During the swing phase, the role of the muscle torque changed to mainly counteract the effect of MDT to control the movement direction of the lower extremity. Meanwhile, during the initial stance and late swing phases, the passive torques, namely, the ground reaction torques and MDT produced by the GRF and the inertial movement of the segments of the lower extremity, applied greater stress to the hamstring muscles.
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Peplowski, M. M., and R. L. Marsh. "Work and power output in the hindlimb muscles of Cuban tree frogs Osteopilus septentrionalis during jumping." Journal of Experimental Biology 200, no. 22 (November 1, 1997): 2861–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.200.22.2861.
Full textAbstract:
It has been suggested that small frogs use a catapult mechanism to amplify muscle power production during the takeoff phase of jumping. This conclusion was based on an apparent discrepancy between the power available from the hindlimb muscles and that required during takeoff. The present study provides integrated data on muscle contractile properties, morphology and jumping performance that support this conclusion. We show here that the predicted power output during takeoff in Cuban tree frogs Osteopilus septentrionalis exceeds that available from the muscles by at least sevenfold. We consider the sartorius muscle as representative of the bulk of the hindlimb muscles of these animals, because this muscle has properties typical of other hindlimb muscles of small frogs. At 25 degrees C, this muscle has a maximum shortening velocity (Vmax) of 8.77 +/- 0.62 L0 s-1 (where L0 is the muscle length yielding maximum isometric force), a maximum isometric force (P0) of 24.1 +/- 2.3 N cm-2 and a maximum isotonic power output of 230 +/- 9.2 W kg-1 of muscle (mean +/- S.E.M.). In contrast, the power required to accelerate the animal in the longest jumps measured (approximately 1.4 m) is more than 800 W kg-1 of total hindlimb muscle. The peak instantaneous power is expected to be twice this value. These estimates are probably conservative because the muscles that probably power jumping make up only 85% of the total hindlimb muscle mass. The total mechanical work required of the muscles is high (up to 60 J kg-1), but is within the work capacities predicted for vertebrate skeletal muscle. Clearly, a substantial portion of this work must be performed and stored prior to takeoff to account for the high power output during jumping. Interestingly, muscle work output during jumping is temperature-dependent, with greater work being produced at higher temperatures. The thermal dependence of work does not follow from simple muscle properties and instead must reflect the interaction between these properties and the other components of the skeletomuscular system during the propulsive phase of the jump.
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Tallis, Jason, Rob S. James, Alexander G. Little, Val M. Cox, Michael J. Duncan, and Frank Seebacher. "Early effects of ageing on the mechanical performance of isolated locomotory (EDL) and respiratory (diaphragm) skeletal muscle using the work-loop technique." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 307, no. 6 (September 15, 2014): R670—R684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00115.2014.
Full textAbstract:
Previous isolated muscle studies examining the effects of ageing on contractility have used isometric protocols, which have been shown to have poor relevance to dynamic muscle performance in vivo. The present study uniquely uses the work-loop technique for a more realistic estimation of in vivo muscle function to examine changes in mammalian skeletal muscle mechanical properties with age. Measurements of maximal isometric stress, activation and relaxation time, maximal power output, and sustained power output during repetitive activation and recovery are compared in locomotory extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and core diaphragm muscle isolated from 3-, 10-, 30-, and 50-wk-old female mice to examine the early onset of ageing. A progressive age-related reduction in maximal isometric stress that was of greater magnitude than the decrease in maximal power output occurred in both muscles. Maximal force and power developed earlier in diaphragm than EDL muscle but demonstrated a greater age-related decline. The present study indicates that ability to sustain skeletal muscle power output through repetitive contraction is age- and muscle-dependent, which may help rationalize previously reported equivocal results from examination of the effect of age on muscular endurance. The age-related decline in EDL muscle performance is prevalent without a significant reduction in muscle mass, and biochemical analysis of key marker enzymes suggests that although there is some evidence of a more oxidative fiber type, this is not the primary contributor to the early age-related reduction in muscle contractility.
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Heglund, N. C., and G. A. Cavagna. "Efficiency of vertebrate locomotory muscles." Journal of Experimental Biology 115, no. 1 (March 1, 1985): 283–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.115.1.283.
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We have examined the efficiency of vertebrate striated muscle at two different organizational levels: whole animals and isolated muscles. Terrestrial locomotion is used as a model of ‘normal’ muscular contraction; animal size and running speed are used as independent variables in order to change either the metabolic requirements of the muscles or the mechanical power production by the muscles over a wide range of values. The weight-specific metabolic power input to an animal increases nearly linearly with speed and increases with decreasing body size, while the weight-specific mechanical power output increases curvilinearly with speed and is independent of size. Consequently, the efficiency of the muscles in producing positive work increases with speed and the peak efficiency increases with increasing body size, attaining values of over 70% in large animals, but only 7% in small ones. The isolated muscle experiments were performed on frog muscle, and rat ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ muscles. We measured the work done, the oxygen consumed during recovery from the stimulation, and calculated the efficiency and the ‘economy’ (the cost of maintaining tension). The muscles were made to: (i) emulate the contractions seen during locomotion, i.e. shorten after a pre-stretch; or (ii) shorten at the same velocity and from the same muscle length as in (i), but without the pre-stretch. It was found that in mammalian muscles the peak efficiency with a pre-stretch attained high values, approaching the peak efficiencies in large animals. The maximum efficiency (attained at 1 length s-1 in fast muscle and at 0.5 lengths s-1 in slow muscle) did not differ much in the two muscles, whereas economy was greater in the slow muscle than in the fast muscle.
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Farris, Dominic James, Benjamin D. Robertson, and Gregory S. Sawicki. "Elastic ankle exoskeletons reduce soleus muscle force but not work in human hopping." Journal of Applied Physiology 115, no. 5 (September 1, 2013): 579–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00253.2013.
Full textAbstract:
Inspired by elastic energy storage and return in tendons of human leg muscle-tendon units (MTU), exoskeletons often place a spring in parallel with an MTU to assist the MTU. However, this might perturb the normally efficient MTU mechanics and actually increase active muscle mechanical work. This study tested the effects of elastic parallel assistance on MTU mechanics. Participants hopped with and without spring-loaded ankle exoskeletons that assisted plantar flexion. An inverse dynamics analysis, combined with in vivo ultrasound imaging of soleus fascicles and surface electromyography, was used to determine muscle-tendon mechanics and activations. Whole body net metabolic power was obtained from indirect calorimetry. When hopping with spring-loaded exoskeletons, soleus activation was reduced (30–70%) and so was the magnitude of soleus force (peak force reduced by 30%) and the average rate of soleus force generation (by 50%). Although forces were lower, average positive fascicle power remained unchanged, owing to increased fascicle excursion (+4–5 mm). Net metabolic power was reduced with exoskeleton assistance (19%). These findings highlighted that parallel assistance to a muscle with appreciable series elasticity may have some negative consequences, and that the metabolic cost associated with generating force may be more pronounced than the cost of doing work for these muscles.
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Trumble, D. R., and J. A. Magovern. "Ergometric studies of untrained skeletal muscle demonstrate feasibility of muscle-powered cardiac assistance." Journal of Applied Physiology 77, no. 4 (October 1, 1994): 2036–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1994.77.4.2036.
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The feasibility of biomechanical circulatory assistance hinges on the capacity of skeletal muscle to generate significant hemodynamic work. This study quantifies linear contractile energetics via a customized hydraulic ergometer. Six normal canine latissimus dorsi (LD) muscles (200 +/- 25 g) were evaluated. The muscles were not mobilized; thereby their collateral circulation was preserved. The humeral insertion of the LD muscle was transected and connected to the ergometer. Preload was adjusted to return the LD muscle to its in situ length, and one pulse train was delivered every second. The resulting contractions generated peak pressures of 134 +/- 17 mmHg with mean pressures during shortening of 102 +/- 12 mmHg. Flow rates averaged 5.45 +/- 0.26 l/min. Mechanical work output was calculated at 1.14 +/- 0.18 J/contraction, yielding an average power production of 4.57 +/- 0.72 W during shortening. Continuous LD output power, measured at 5.76 +/- 0.90 mW/g, compares favorably with the 3.48 mW/g typically generated by a 350-g human heart. We therefore conclude that skeletal muscle of sufficient mass can sustain work rates suitable for cardiac assistance despite the 50% power losses typically experienced after muscle training.
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Gould, Paula. "Energetic fuels provide muscle power." Materials Today 9, no. 5 (May 2006): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1369-7021(06)71482-1.
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Askew, Graham N., Richard L. Marsh, and Charles P. Ellington. "The mechanical power output of the flight muscles of blue-breasted quail (Coturnix chinensis) during take-off." Journal of Experimental Biology 204, no. 21 (November 1, 2001): 3601–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.21.3601.
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SUMMARYBlue-breasted quail (Coturnix chinensis) were filmed during take-off flights. By tracking the position of the centre of mass of the bird in three dimensions, we were able to calculate the power required to increase the potential and kinetic energy. In addition, high-speed video recordings of the position of the wings over the course of the wing stroke, and morphological measurements, allowed us to calculate the aerodynamic and inertial power requirements. The total power output required from the pectoralis muscle was, on average, 390 W kg–1, which was similar to the highest measurements made on bundles of muscle fibres in vitro (433 W kg–1), although for one individual a power output of 530 W kg–1 was calculated. The majority of the power was required to increase the potential energy of the body. The power output of these muscles is the highest yet found for any muscle in repetitive contractions.We also calculated the power requirements during take-off flights in four other species in the family Phasianidae. Power output was found to be independent of body mass in this family. However, the precise scaling of burst power output within this group must await a better assessment of whether similar levels of performance were measured across the group. We extended our analysis to one species of hawk, several species of hummingbird and two species of bee. Remarkably, we concluded that, over a broad range of body size (0.0002–5 kg) and contractile frequency (5–186 Hz), the myofibrillar power output of flight muscles during short maximal bursts is very high (360–460 W kg–1) and shows very little scaling with body mass. The approximate constancy of power output means that the work output varies inversely with wingbeat frequency and reaches values of approximately 30–60 J kg–1 in the largest species.
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Wakeling, J. M., K. M. Kemp, and I. A. Johnston. "The biomechanics of fast-starts during ontogeny in the common carp cyprinus carpio." Journal of Experimental Biology 202, no. 22 (November 15, 1999): 3057–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.202.22.3057.
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Common carp Cyprinus carpio L. were reared a constant temperature of 20 degrees C from the larval (7 mm total length) to the juvenile (80 mm) stage. Body morphology and white muscle mass distribution were measured. Fast-start escape responses were recorded using high-speed cinematography from which the velocities, accelerations and hydrodynamic power requirements were estimated. All three measures of fast-start performance increased during development. White muscle contraction regimes were calculated from changes in body shape during the fast-starts and used to predict the muscle force and power production for all longitudinal positions along the body. Scaling arguments predicted that increases in body length would constrain the fish to bend less rapidly because the cross-sectional muscle area, and hence force production, does not increase at the same rate as the inertial mass that resists bending. As predicted, the increases in body length resulted in decreases in muscle shortening velocity, and this coincided with increases in both the force and power produced by the muscles. The hydrodynamic efficiency, which relates the mechanical power produced by the muscles to the inertial power requirements in the direction of travel, showed no significant change during ontogeny. The increasing hydrodynamic power requirements were thus met by increases in the power available from the muscles. The majority of the increases in fast-start swimming performance during ontogeny can be explained by size-dependent increases in muscle power output. For all sizes, there was a decrease in muscle-mass-specific power output and an increase in muscle stress in a posterior direction along the body due to systematic variations in fibre strain. These changing strain regimes result in the central muscle bulk producing the majority of the power requirements during the fast-start, and this power is transmitted to the tail region of the fish and ultimately to the water via muscle in the caudal myotomes.
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Ward, S., U. Möller, J. M. V. Rayner, D. M. Jackson, D. Bilo, W. Nachtigall, and J. R. Speakman. "Metabolic power, mechanical power and efficiency during wind tunnel flight by the European starlingSturnus vulgaris." Journal of Experimental Biology 204, no. 19 (October 1, 2001): 3311–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.19.3311.
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SUMMARYWe trained two starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) to fly in a wind tunnel whilst wearing respirometry masks. We measured the metabolic power (Pmet) from the rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production and calculated the mechanical power (Pmech) from two aerodynamic models using wingbeat kinematics measured by high-speed cinematography. Pmet increased from 10.4 to 14.9 W as flight speed was increased from 6.3 to 14.4 m s–1 and was compatible with the U-shaped power/speed curve predicted by the aerodynamic models. Flight muscle efficiency varied between 0.13 and 0.23 depending upon the bird, the flight speed and the aerodynamic model used to calculate Pmech. Pmet during flight is often estimated by extrapolation from the mechanical power predicted by aerodynamic models by dividing Pmech by a flight muscle efficiency of 0.23 and adding the costs of basal metabolism, circulation and respiration. This method would underestimate measured Pmet by 15–25 % in our birds. The mean discrepancy between measured and predicted Pmet could be reduced to 0.1±1.5 % if flight muscle efficiency was altered to a value of 0.18. A flight muscle efficiency of 0.18 rather than 0.23 should be used to calculate the flight costs of birds in the size range of starlings (approximately 0.1 kg) if Pmet is calculated from Pmech derived from aerodynamic models.
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Scholz, Melanie N., Kristiaan D'Août, Maarten F. Bobbert, and Peter Aerts. "Vertical jumping performance of bonobo ( Pan paniscus ) suggests superior muscle properties." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273, no. 1598 (June 19, 2006): 2177–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3568.
Full textAbstract:
Vertical jumping was used to assess muscle mechanical output in bonobos and comparisons were drawn to human jumping. Jump height, defined as the vertical displacement of the body centre of mass during the airborne phase, was determined for three bonobos of varying age and sex. All bonobos reached jump heights above 0.7 m, which greatly exceeds typical human maximal performance (0.3–0.4 m). Jumps by one male bonobo (34 kg) and one human male (61.5 kg) were analysed using an inverse dynamics approach. Despite the difference in size, the mechanical output delivered by the bonobo and the human jumper during the push-off was similar: about 450 J, with a peak power output close to 3000 W. In the bonobo, most of the mechanical output was generated at the hips. To account for the mechanical output, the muscles actuating the bonobo's hips (directly and indirectly) must deliver muscle-mass-specific power and work output of 615 W kg −1 and 92 J kg −1 , respectively. This was twice the output expected on the basis of muscle mass specific work and power in other jumping animals but seems physiologically possible. We suggest that the difference is due to a higher specific force (force per unit of cross-sectional area) in the bonobo.
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Selk Ghafari, A., A. Meghdari, and G. R. Vossoughi. "Biomechanical analysis for the study of muscle contributions to support load carrying." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 224, no. 6 (June 1, 2010): 1287–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/09544062jmes1559.
Full textAbstract:
The objective of this study was to quantify individual muscle function differences between level walking and backpack load carriage at the same speed by using a muscle-actuated forward dynamics simulation. As experimental investigations have revealed that backpack loads of up to 64 per cent of an individual's body mass have little effect on the sagittal plane gait kinema-tics, further biomechanical analyses are necessary to investigate the contributions of individual muscle coordination strategies to achieve a given motor task by mechanical power generation, absorption, and transference to each body segment. A biomechanical framework consisting of a musculoskeletal model actuated by 18 Hill-type musculotendon actuators per leg and a non-linear suspension model of a backpack equipped with shoulder straps and waist belt was utilized to perform the simulation study. An optimization framework based on minimizing the muscle energy consumption was employed to investigate the muscle load sharing mechanism during simulation of the movements under investigation. Estimated muscle activations were in good agreement with the salient features of the corresponding electromyographic recordings of the major lower extremity muscles. Furthermore, simulated joint kinematics closely tracked experimental quantities with root-mean-squared errors less than one degree. Segmental power analysis for individual muscles was performed to elucidate the muscle's contribution to body support and forward progression in load carriage. Comparing muscle functions during the activities under investigation illustrated the different functional performance of the lower extremity muscles and the capability of the joints and segments to reduce the transmission of force during load carriage.
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Askew, G. N., and R. L. Marsh. "The effects of length trajectory on the mechanical power output of mouse skeletal muscles." Journal of Experimental Biology 200, no. 24 (December 1, 1997): 3119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.200.24.3119.
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The effects of length trajectory on the mechanical power output of mouse soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were investigated using the work loop technique in vitro at 37 degrees C. Muscles were subjected to sinusoidal and sawtooth cycles of lengthening and shortening; for the sawtooth cycles, the proportion of the cycle spent shortening was varied. For each cycle frequency examined, the timing and duration of stimulation and the strain amplitude were optimized to yield the maximum power output. During sawtooth length trajectories, power increased as the proportion of the cycle spent shortening increased. The increase in power was attributable to more complete activation of the muscle due to the longer stimulation duration, to a more rapid rise in force resulting from increased stretch velocity and to an increase in the optimal strain amplitude. The power produced during symmetrical sawtooth cycles was 5-10 % higher than during sinusoidal work loops. Maximum power outputs of 92 W kg-1 (soleus) and 247 W kg-1 (EDL) were obtained by manipulating the length trajectory. For each muscle, this was approximately 70 % of the maximum power output estimated from the isotonic force-velocity relationship. We have found a number of examples suggesting that animals exploit prolonging the shortening phase during activities requiring a high power output, such as flying, jet-propulsion swimming and vocalization. In an evolutionary context, increasing the relative shortening duration provides an alternative to increasing the maximum shortening velocity (Vmax) as a way to increase power output.
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Marechal, G., G. R. Coulton, and G. Beckers-Bleukx. "Mechanical power and myosin composition of soleus and extensor digitorum longus muscles of ky mice." American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology 268, no. 2 (February 1, 1995): C513—C519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.1995.268.2.c513.
Full textAbstract:
Muscles of ky/ky homozygote mice exhibit neonatal muscle fiber necrosis and regeneration with subsequent motor nerve sprouting and development of a prominent kyphoscoliosis from approximately 100 days onward. Soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles from ky mice weighted < 50% of control muscles from age-matched NMRI mice. Maximal tetanic force was more reduced in soleus than in EDL. In EDL, the velocity constant of the force-velocity relation, maximal velocity, twitch time-to-peak, and isomyosin content were normal at all ages. The early mechanical changes seen in ky soleus muscles (47 day) were not accompanied by significant alterations in isomyosin or myosin heavy- and light-chain composition, since ky and NMRI expressed slow-twitch native myosin 2 (SM2, type I fibers) and intermediate-twitch native myosin (IM, type IIa fibers). Adult ky soleus (172 day) showed wholesale loss of IM and sole expression of SM2. This is sufficient to account for the markedly slowing of the force-velocity relation and the twitches observed in adult ky soleus. We propose that since shifts in muscle type only occurred in soleus, this reflects the persistent requirement to withstand the force of gravity.
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Roberts, Thomas J. "Some Challenges of Playing with Power: Does Complex Energy Flow Constrain Neuromuscular Performance?" Integrative and Comparative Biology 59, no. 6 (June 26, 2019): 1619–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/icz108.
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Abstract Many studies of the flow of energy between the body, muscles, and elastic elements highlight advantages of the storage and recovery of elastic energy. The spring-like action of structures associated with muscles allows for movements that are less costly, more powerful and safer than would be possible with contractile elements alone. But these actions also present challenges that might not be present if the pattern of energy flow were simpler, for example, if power were always applied directly from muscle to motions of the body. Muscle is under the direct control of the nervous system, and precise modulation of activity can allow for finely controlled displacement and force. Elastic structures deform under load in a predictable way, but are not under direct control, thus both displacement and the flow of energy act at the mercy of the mechanical interaction of muscle and forces associated with movement. Studies on isolated muscle-tendon units highlight the challenges of controlling such systems. A carefully tuned activation pattern is necessary for effective cycling of energy between tendon and the environment; most activation patterns lead to futile cycling of energy between tendon and muscle. In power-amplified systems, “elastic backfire” sometimes occurs, where energy loaded into tendon acts to lengthen active muscles, rather than accelerate the body. Classic models of proprioception that rely on muscle spindle organs for sensing muscle and joint displacement illustrate how elastic structures might influence sensory feedback by decoupling joint movement from muscle fiber displacements. The significance of the complex flow of energy between muscles, elastic elements and the body for neuromotor control is worth exploring.
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Gilmour, K. M., and C. P. Ellington. "POWER OUTPUT OF GLYCERINATED BUMBLEBEE FLIGHT MUSCLE." Journal of Experimental Biology 183, no. 1 (October 1, 1993): 77–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.183.1.77.
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The properties of asynchronous insect flight muscle have been examined using a glycerol- extracted single-fibre preparation of dorsal longitudinal muscle from the bumblebees Bombus lucorum and B. terrestris. Chemical, mechanical and thermal conditions were controlled with the objective of maximizing power output. The problems arising from diffusion limitation were avoided through a combination of fibre paring and the use of an ATP backup system. Work and power output tended to increase with increasing oscillatory strain in the range 1–5 %. Workloop shape, and hence work and power, varied with fibre extension; optimum extensions ranged from 4 to 12 %. The mechanical performance of glycerinated bumblebee muscle fibres was strongly temperature-dependent, and rate processes (frequency, power) displayed higher thermal sensitivities than processes associated with tension development (work). The experimental conditions that maximized the power output were identified as: oscillatory strain epsilon=4-5 %, extension epsilono=8-10 %, oscillation frequency f=50 Hz and temperature T=40°C. The maximum power output observed under these ‘optimal’ conditions was about 110 W kg-1 (muscle), demonstrating for the first time that glycerinated fibres are capable of producing the power predicted from free-flight studies to be required for flight: 100 W kg-1.
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Marsh, R. L., and J. M. Olson. "Power output of scallop adductor muscle during contractions replicating the in vivo mechanical cycle." Journal of Experimental Biology 193, no. 1 (August 1, 1994): 139–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.193.1.139.
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Because measurements on isolated skeletal muscles are often made with limited knowledge of in vivo kinematics, predictions of mechanical performance during natural movements are subject to considerable uncertainties. We used information on the in vivo length cycle and phase of activation of the scallop adductor during swimming at 10 degrees C to design an in vitro contractile regime that replicated the natural cycle. Replicating the in vivo length cycle and stimulation regime resulted in power output during cyclic contractions that matched in vivo performance both qualitatively and quantitatively. When sinusoidal length changes were used instead of the natural length trajectory, the adductor muscle produced a similar average power output (approximately 30 W kg-1 at 1.9 Hz), but the distribution of power throughout the cycles was quite different. We examined the instantaneous force-velocity properties during cyclic contractions and found that the muscle operated on or near its isotonic force-velocity curve for only 30-40% of the time required for shortening. During sinusoidal length cycles, the force-velocity trajectory was quite different. We conclude that during cyclic contractions the isotonic force-velocity curve of skeletal muscle sets an approximate boundary to the force-velocity trajectory, but the shape of this trajectory, and thus the distribution of power output, depends on the pattern of length change.
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Flynn, Timothy W., and Robert W. Soutas-Little. "Mechanical Power and Muscle Action during Forward and Backward Running." Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 17, no. 2 (February 1993): 108–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1993.17.2.108.
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Usherwood, J. R., and N. W. Gladman. "Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power." Biology Letters 16, no. 10 (October 2020): 20200579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0579.
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The fastest land animals are of intermediate size. Cheetah, antelope, greyhounds and racehorses have been measured running much faster than reported for elephants or elephant shrews. Can this be attributed to scaling of physical demands and explicit physiological constraints to supply? Here, we describe the scaling of mechanical work demand each stride, and the mechanical power demand each stance. Unlike muscle stress, strain and strain rate, these mechanical demands cannot be circumvented by changing the muscle gearing with minor adaptations in bone geometry or trivial adjustments to limb posture. Constraints to the capacity of muscle to supply work and power impose fundamental limitations to maximum speed. Given an upper limit to muscle work capacity each contraction, maximum speeds in big animals are constrained by the mechanical work demand each step. With an upper limit to instantaneous muscle power production, maximal speeds in small animals are limited by the high power demands during brief stance periods. The high maximum speed of the cheetah may therefore be attributed as much to its size as to its other anatomical and physiological adaptations.
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Taylor, C. R. "Force development during sustained locomotion: a determinant of gait, speed and metabolic power." Journal of Experimental Biology 115, no. 1 (March 1, 1985): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.115.1.253.
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This paper develops three simple ideas about force development during sustained locomotion which provide some insights into the mechanisms that determine why animals change gait, how fast they can run, and how much metabolic energy they consume. The first idea is that the alternate stretch-shorten pattern of activity of the muscles involved in locomotion allows muscle-tendon units to function as springs, affecting the amount of force a given cross-sectional area of muscle develops, and the metabolic requirements of the muscles for force development. Animals select speeds and stride frequencies which optimize the performance of these springs. The second idea is that muscle stress (force/cross-sectional area) determines when animals change gait, how fast they run and their peak accelerations and decelerations. It is proposed that terrestrial birds and mammals develop similar muscle stresses under equivalent conditions (i.e. preferred speed within a gait) and that animals change gaits in order to reduce peak stresses as they increase speed. Finally, evidence is presented to support the idea that it is the time course of force development during locomotion, rather than the mechanical work that the muscles perform, that determines the metabolic cost of locomotion.
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Larkin, Lisa M., William M. Kuzon, and Jeffrey B. Halter. "Synergist muscle ablation and recovery from nerve-repair grafting: contractile and metabolic function." Journal of Applied Physiology 89, no. 4 (October 1, 2000): 1469–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2000.89.4.1469.
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After nerve-repair grafting of medial gastrocnemius muscle, there is incomplete recovery of specific force and sustainable power, perhaps due to overcompensation by synergistic muscles. We hypothesized that increased workload due to synergist ablation would enhance graft recovery. Contractile and metabolic properties of control and nerve-repair grafted muscles, with and without synergist ablation, were determined after 120 days recovery. Specific force (N/cm2) and normalized power (W/kg) were less in the experimental groups compared with controls. Sustained power (W/kg) in the synergist-ablated nerve-repair grafted muscle was higher than nerve-repair grafted muscle, returning to control values. GLUT-4 protein was higher and glycogen content was diminished in both synergist-ablated groups. In summary, synergist ablation did not enhance the recovery of specific force or normalized power, but sustained power did recover, suggesting that metabolic and not mechanical parameters were responsible for this recovery. The enhanced endurance after synergist ablation was accompanied by increased GLUT-4 protein, suggesting a role for increased uptake of circulating glucose during contraction.
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George, David T., Stuart A. Binder-Macleod, Thomas N. Delosso, and William P. Santamore. "Variable-frequency train stimulation of canine latissimus dorsi muscle during shortening contractions." Journal of Applied Physiology 83, no. 3 (September 1, 1997): 994–1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.3.994.
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George, David T., Stuart A. Binder-Macleod, Thomas N. Delosso, and William P. Santamore. Variable-frequency train stimulation of canine latissimus dorsi muscle during shortening contractions. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(3): 994–1001, 1997.—In cardiomyoplasty, the latissimus dorsi muscle (LDM) is wrapped around the heart ventricles and electrically activated with a constant-frequency train (CFT). This study tested the hypotheses that increased mechanical performance from the LDM could be achieved by activating the muscle with variable-frequency trains (VFTs) of shorter duration or containing fewer stimulus pulses than the CFT now used. The mechanical performance of the canine LDM ( n = 7) during shortening contractions was measured while the muscle was stimulated with 5- and 6-pulse CFTs (of duration 132 and 165 ms, respectively) and 5- and 6-pulse VFTs (of duration 104 and 143 ms, respectively) that were designed to take advantage of the catchlike property of skeletal muscle. Measurements were made from fresh and fatigued muscles. For the fresh muscles, the VFTs elicited significantly greater peak power than did the 6-pulse CFT. When the muscles were fatigued, VFT stimulation significantly improved both the peak and mean power produced compared with stimulation by CFTs. These results show that stimulation of the LDM with shorter duration VFTs is potentially useful for application in cardiomyoplasty.
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Cordero-Sánchez, Juan, Pedro Pérez-Soriano, and Bruno Bazuelo-Ruiz. "Effect of the upper material of running shoes on muscle mechanical power transfer on lower limbs." Journal of Industrial Textiles 52 (August 2022): 152808372211305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/15280837221130520.
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This study focuses on determining the effects of the upper material of running shoes on the mechanical power flows of the muscles of the lower limbs during the support phase of running. Two models of running shoes—differentiated only by the upper structure and material—have been used, being randomly assigned to 19 participants. Five measurements of each participant per shoe model were obtained at 3.3 m·s−1 to perform inverse dynamic analysis with the data obtained. Statistically significant differences have been found between the two models for the muscle power flow variables in the ankle, knee and hip joints, as well as at the ends of adjacent segments. The KNIT-upper model (model 2) presents higher generation (8.87 ± 7.63 W/kg; p < .001; d = -.13) and less absorption (−5.11 W/kg; p < .001; d = −6.7) of mechanical power in the ankle compared to the MESH-upper model (model 1). The mechanical power flows in the knee and hip indicate that with model 2, greater mechanical power is generated and absorbed by the flexor and extensor muscle groups of these joints compared to model 1 (-.38 ± 2.9 W/kg vs -.22 ± 2.54 W/kg for the knee and −1.75 ± 2.91 W/kg vs −1.15 ± 2.07 W/kg for the hip, respectively). Therefore, it can be concluded that the upper material has an influence on mechanical power flow patterns. However, more studies are needed in order to accurately and reliably establish the impact that the upper material of the shoes has on performance and on the prevention of sports injuries.
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Jandaĉka, Daniel, and František Vaverka. "Validity of Mechanical Power Output Measurement at Bench Press Exercise." Journal of Human Kinetics 21, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 33–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10078-09-0004-7.
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Validity of Mechanical Power Output Measurement at Bench Press ExerciseIn sport training and rehabilitation practice, it is usual to use methods of mechanical muscle power output measurement, which are based mainly on indirect force measurement. The aim of this study was to verify the validity of indirect measurement for mechanical muscle power output with bench press exercise. As a criterion of validity, we selected a combination of kinematic and dynamic analyses. Ten men participated in this study. Average age of tested subjects was 28.0 ± 3.4 years. At mechanical power output measurement, these subjects lifted at maximum possible speed loads of 18, 26.5, 39.2 and 47.7 kg. Validity of mechanical power output measurement by means of a method using indirect force measurement was estimated using Spearmen's Correlation Coefficient. Factual significance of differences in average values of power output, force and velocity, measured by a method using indirect force measurement, in comparison to the selected criterion, was evaluated by means of effect of size. Power output measurement method using indirect force measurement showed lower values of force in relation to the criterion in the whole scope of selected loads. Velocity values in the whole scope of selected loads did not show any significant difference between the criterion and the verified method. The mechanical muscle power output measured by the method using indirect force measurement is lower in relation to the criterion, especially in the low scope of loads, where also validity rate was low (R = 0.5).
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Gribble, P. L., and D. J. Ostry. "Origins of the power law relation between movement velocity and curvature: modeling the effects of muscle mechanics and limb dynamics." Journal of Neurophysiology 76, no. 5 (November 1, 1996): 2853–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1996.76.5.2853.
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1. When subjects trace patterns such as ellipses, the instantaneous velocity of movements is related to the instantaneous curvature of the trajectories according to a power law-movements tend to slow down when curvature is high and speed up when curvature is low. It has been proposed that this relationship is centrally planned. 2. The arm's muscle properties and dynamics can significantly affect kinematics. Even under isometric conditions, muscle mechanical properties can affect the development of muscle forces and torques. Without a model that accounts for these effects, it is difficult to distinguish between kinematic patterns that are attributable to central control and patterns that arise because of dynamics and muscle properties and are not represented in the underlying control signals. 3. In this paper we address the nature of the control signals that underlie movements that obey the power law. We use a numerical simulation of arm movement control based on the lambda version of the equilibrium point hypothesis. We demonstrate that simulated elliptical and circular movements, and elliptical force trajectories generated under isometric conditions, obey the power law even though there was no relation between curvature and speed in the modeled control signals. 4. We suggest that limb dynamics and muscle mechanics-specifically, the springlike properties of muscles-can contribute significantly to the emergence of the power law relationship in kinematics. Thus, without a model that accounts for these effects, care must be taken when making inferences about the nature of neural control.