Journal articles on the topic 'Municipal Art Society of Baltimore'

Teodora Hadzhidimitrova (1884–1963) was a painter, pedagogue, fashion designer, decorator, folklorist, local historian, the first female art teacher and municipal councillor, defender of women’s rights, writer, and founding member of the following societies: Ravnopravie (Equality), Rodno izkustvo (Native Art), the Society of the Sliven artists, and the Club of cultural figures in Sliven. She was the first compiler and publisher of a Bulgarian textbook on the history of clothing.

This article explores the capacity of art in consolidation of the society on ethnic grounds. This affects the sustainability of regional development, results of the exchange of sociocultural experience between the generations of culture bearers and, and overcoming severe socioeconomic and sociopolitical problems in general. The subject of this research is the ethno-consolidating role of art. The theoretical-methodological framework of leans on the trend of ethnic art studies. The article is based not only on the theoretical consideration of the indicated vector, but also on the results of empirical research, such as expert survey of administrative employees of the cultural, art and educational institutions (cross-border regions of Russia: Altai Krai, Altai Republic, Kemerovo Region, Kazakhstan: Pavlodar and East Kazakhstan Regions, n=120); expert survey of the government officials and local self-governance that are responsible for implementation of regional and municipal programs aimed at preservation and development of ethno-national cultural assets in cross-border regions of the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan (n=65). The following conclusions were formulated: 1) ethnic consolidation of culture bearers in cross-border regions can be effectively realized through the phenomena of traditional and indigenous art; 2) the current processes of assimilation of cultural values and norms, ethnic tension, intercultural dialogue, and the phenomenon of multiculturalism as a whole can blunt the effect of art upon ethnic consolidation of the society, although not affecting the pace of intergenerational interaction, in which the important role is allocated to art; 3) art carries out a consolidating role in the society based on continuity of values and norms.

A versatile art of heraldry includes historical, geographical, legal, and certainly, cultural components. Heraldic symbols reflect notions of basic, fundamental values of society, groups and separate individuals, preserve traditional values and, due to respective symbols, contribute to the formation of notional values. It is impossible to imagine modern society without coats of arms, flags, official signs or emblems. In the article, the authors consider regional and municipal aspects of heraldry which provide a symbolic basis for the development of the area as a part of the whole, integral state. All the above mentioned aspects define a responsible approach to such an essential process as art of heraldry. The article highlights a largely unknown for a broad public and confusing story of the coat of arms of Irkutsk, several versions explaining this peculiar case are taken into account. The authors offer a journey into the history of the city and investigate different representations of the symbol of Irkutsk.

The knowledge of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is a new definition of the knowledge structure of higher vocational college teachers in the era of information society. This study investigated the prominent problems in TPACK training of teachers in higher vocational college of arts in our city by sampling. Firstly, in the professional training of provincial or municipal teachers, emphasis was placed on “theory or method propaganda” rather than “guidance of technology integration training”; Secondly, focus on “discipline knowledge”, “teaching knowledge” and “technical knowledge” of a single module of training, but lack of “integration and deep integration of the three”; In view of the above problems, it is suggested that educational administrative departments or universities should pay attention to the training of “subject teaching with technology integration” in the professional training of teachers, and pay attention to the deep integration of “Content knowledge”, “Pedagogical knowledge” and “ Technological knowledge” in the training process. In order to effectively improve the TPACK knowledge structure of the teachers in higher vocational college of arts, promote the high-quality development of vocational education in our city.

The cemetery is a cultural landscape that represents themes of great relevance to interpret the structure of a society, roles, and hierarchies, as a reflection of its social life. The cemetery gathers a whole symbolic universe where local social histories are represented, beyond the history of art and the architectural aspect. As a heritage element, the cemetery shows us the socio-cultural changes of a territory: religious questioning, changes linked to the family, individualization of contemporary society or broader questions about socio-economic structure. This article presents the experience conducted during the last 6 years in the Cemetery “Nuestro Padre Jesús” in Murcia (Spain), through a collaboration among the Sociedad Murciana de Antropolgía (SOMA), the University of Murcia and the Municipality of Murcia, developing the project “Funerary Cultures”, whose main objective is to promote the heritage, cultural and historical values of the funerary culture. Specifically, as a result of this teaching innovation experience, the six thematic guides to visit the cemetery are presented as an experience of patrimonialization of elements of the cemetery and its consequent selection and consensus exercise to determine what was considered as heritage in the context of the cemetery. Finally, a proposal of a systematic process in the valuation and selection of the material objects in the cemetery is presented; this proposal allows us to establish a debate on what considerations to take into account when considering the relationship between cultural heritage and the cemetery as a cultural landscape in permanent transformation.

The article is devoted to the study of the problem of training future teachers of fine art in the context of the implementation of the Concept of the New Ukrainian School in order to comparatively analyze the existing level of their professional training in accordance with the new requirements and needs of society, where project technology is the basis of training as a condition for the development of a successful person. The author identifies issues related to the training of teachers of fine art in higher education institutions that require scientific research in order to update the process of preparing future teachers of fine art to work in the New Ukrainian School, clarifies the essence of the concept of professional competence of a teacher of fine art, its structure and criteria for assessing the levels of formation given competency. In the process of research, the advantages of teaching with the help of creative design, its capabilities in the training of fine art teachers are revealed and substantiated. During the ascertaining experiment, which was conducted with the participation of students of the Municipal institution of higher education “Khortytsia National Training and Rehabilitation Academy” of the Zaporizhzhia Regional Council, it was established and justified the need to update the process of professional training of teachers of fine art and the possibility of increasing the existing level of professional competence formation using creative design as an effective means of formation. The relationship between the level of formation of professional competence and the motivational sphere has been practically established, the need to use the visual art of creative design in the training of teachers is logically substantiated.

In the Nordic tradition, public cultural policy has been endowed with an enlightening and welfarepolitical aim. Nordic cultural policies are based on an overall socio-political objective of furthering the empowerment of the individual, universal enlightenment ("Bildung") and the continued democratisation of society (Nielsen 2003). Locally, an important actor is a municipal cultural sector that is one specialized sector in a municipality's administration. Cultural and art institutions (such as libraries, museums, theatres) are working under the cultural sector administration, although they might sometimes have their own separate administration. According to Gray (2002, pp. 82-83) the arts as a coherent policy sector within local government is weak because of low political salience and a fragmented field of activity, with many actors having a role to play in the provision of services and development of arts policies.

The paper aims to explore innovations in architecture & urban design (UD) of public spaces executed with materials created out of waste products to demonstrate concepts of circular principles as exemplar to the society at large. Focus on designing public spaces is to showcase- firstly, immediate need to address waste crisis; secondly, ways by which recycled waste can be adopted as a mainstream attitude. Trash need not be abused in landfills, rather can become input for production. Study objectives dwell in addressing developing countries, where paradigm of ‘Waste to Wealth’ becomes one of the fundamental criteria for emerging as Smart cities. Once civic spaces attribute responsibility to the impending environmental crisis, momentum gains at grassroot-community level as public spaces bear more visibility & appeal. Need for industrial ‘re-revolution’ is sensed to reverse the negative impacts and encourage upcycling culture with efficient management of Municipal solid waste (MSW) which forms largest component of a city’s waste-output. This study discusses theories and case studies which adopted MSW in innovative ways under two broad objectives of design- aesthetics and functionality. Highlight will be on Zero-waste economical urban initiatives to enhance imagery. The study derives a ‘Toolkit for public space design’ using MSW as framework for UD schemes.

The article describes some peculiarities of using the basic approaches of state administration for professional and amateur arts. It is established that for the State it is necessary to provide an assistance to artistic development in all spheres of its appearance. The use of an indicative approach to professional and amateur art management is recommended. It is revealed that indicative state management of art will be able to transform the subjects of management into the subjects of responsibility, who will achieve clearly defined spiritual and educational tasks and become accountable. This will contribute to systematic assessment of the practice of state and municipal management of professional and amateur art and will allow to adjust educational policy at all levels of government — the state, the region, the settlement, a separate union of artists. It is proved that the formation of professional and amateur arts in the system of public administration should take place through the process of understanding the aspects of individual and group behavior, the system analysis, planning methods, motivation and control, quantitative methods and decision making. Applying the philosophical approach to the problem under study, I believe that a healthy society can not be imagined without art. Man in its essence tends to be beautiful, to recreate the surrounding world through the prism of their own feelings of objective reality in works of art. That is why, for the state, it is extremely necessary to ensure the promotion of artistic development in all areas of its manifestation. It is noted that one of the main approaches of the state administration to the formation of professional and amateur art is the author of this article considers the philosophical approach. There are also special connections of personality and social factors that determine the spiritual crisis of man.

This article explores how a holistic combination of three components, society, art, and architecture, can contribute to the successful revitalisation of derelict buildings and, at the same time, improve the well-being of the users of reclaimed spaces. The author uses a case study of a playground designed by the artist Iza Rutkowska in cooperation with children in a specific location at the Intermediae Matadero centre in Madrid. The centre is located in a revitalised warehouse in the complex of former municipal slaughterhouses, built at the beginning of the 20th century. The analysis of Iza Rutkowska’s work is conducted against the background of broader analyses of the elements of the triad and the conditions required for them to enter into dialogue with each other. Their synergic combination is one of the factors that can have a positive impact on the regeneration of even such alien spaces as former industrial buildings. The users’ creative activities fill space with new meanings and turn it into a place perceived as good. At the same time, the effects go beyond the walls of the redeveloped buildings, positively influencing the well-being of the users and creating social relationships.

A prohibition for persons holding government (municipal) positions, for government (municipal) employees, and some other employees of the public sphere who are public officials to receive remuneration (gifts) is aimed at preventing bribery (Art. 290, 291, 291.2 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), and could be viewed as a measure of anti-corruption criminological security. However, the existing collisions of civil, administrative and criminal law norms that regulate this prohibition lead to an ongoing discussion in research publications and complexities in practice. The goal of this research is to study the conditions and identify the problems of the legal regulation of receiving remuneration (gifts) in connection with the performance of official duties that prevent the implementation of anti-corruption criminological security. The authors use the legal theory of security measures to analyze the provisions of Clause 3, Part 1, Art. 575 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and Clause 6, Part 1, Art. 17 of the Federal Law «About the Public Civil Service in the Russian Federation», examine the doctrinal approaches to defining the priority of enforcing the above-mentioned norms, study the significant features of the category «ordinary gift» and conduct its evaluation from the standpoint of differentiating between gifts and bribes, also in connection with the criteria of the insignificance of the corruption deed. The empirical basis of the study is the decisions of courts of general jurisdiction. The authors also used their experience of working in Commissions on the observance of professional behavior and the resolution of conflicts of interests at different levels. The conducted research allowed the authors to come to the following fundamental conclusions: 1) the special security rule under Clause 6, Part 1, Art. 17 of the Federal Law «About the Public Civil Service in the Russian Federation», which sets a full prohibition for government employees to receive remuneration (gifts) in connection with the performance of official duties, contradicts Clause 3, Part 1, Art. 575 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (the existing legal-linguistic vagueness of categories in Art. 575 of the CC of the RF leads to problems in law enforcement and makes a negative impact on the anti-corruption mentality of people); 2) as the concepts «gift» and «bribe» do not logically intersect, the development of additional normative legal criteria for their delineation seems to be unpromising and will lead to a new wave of scholastic and practical disagreements; 3) the introduction of a uniform and blanket ban on receiving remuneration (gifts) in the public sphere by eliminating Clause 3, Part 1, Art. 575 of the CC of the RF seems to be an effective measure of preventing bribery, and its application is justified until Russian society develops sustainable anti-corruption mentality.

The article raises the problem of self-education of residents of the Karelian border region and the Arctic as the most important aspect of preserving human capital in the territory of the Republic in conditions of stable labour migration. The purpose of the article is to detect the influence of soci-ocultural factors on the level of self-education of the population of the districts remote from the capital centers. In a research the complex methodology including standard and non-standard ques-tionnaires, an interview, colloquiums, focus groups and questioning is used. Residents of Kosto-muksh city district, Sortaval, Pitkärant, Lahdenpoh municipal districts were involved as respondents for the study. The study found that the sociocultural situation is one of the determining factors of the self-educational activity of modern man, as it contributes to the formation of his axiosphere at the level of spiritual and material values. Analysis of the real sociocultural situation at the level of factors of internal order (social dynamics, economic model of development, changes in the political regime, state structure), historical factors (national peculiarities of culture, in the context of which the formation of current generations took place) and the factor of influence of global processes can identify the main factors determining the request for self-educational activities of our contemporar-ies. The results of the cameral processing of empirical data have made it possible to identify two main factors affecting the formation of a high motivation for self-education, which allows the in-habitants of Karelia to realize their spiritual and material needs at a high level and to preserve human capital as the main value of society in the unstable situation of a globalizing world.

Gambyong is a Central Javanese dance form with folk origins. Today, it is performed in royal courts, at opening ceremonies for official municipal events, as well as at other social events such as weddings, performing arts festivals, and the anniversaries of establishments. While gambyong developed within the two court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, it is in the latter where the dance has been more prominently cultivated and woven into the social fabric of today. Infused with the aesthetics and prestige of the Central Javanese courts, gambyong characteristically portrays the elegance, amorousness, and alluring liveliness of its female dancers. In this monograph, Sri Rochana Widyastutieningrum discusses the history and recent developments of gambyong, the content and context of its performance, and its practice in the present day. The author also explores gambyong’s sociocultural values and symbolism, its educational value for women’s minds and souls, its aesthetics and philosophical underpinnings, and its musical accompaniment. Citation: Widyastutieningrum, Sri Rochana. A History of Gambyong: From Folk Art to Classical Dance. Translated by Maho Ishiguro, Rajendra Amira L.S., Sonia Pangesti Lambangsari, and Thow Xin Wei. Ethnomusicology Translations, no. 14. Bloomington, IN: Society for Ethnomusicology, 2024. Originally published as: Widyastutieningrum, Sri Rochana. Sejarah Tari Gambyong: Seni Rakyat Menuju Istana. Surakarta, Indonesia: Citra Etnika Surakarta, 2004.

Tourism is one of the most important ways influencing social and economic land use development. Tourism industry development has multiplicative effect and helps to advance different business areas, such as tourism companies’ services, hospitality facilities, transportation, trading and catering, souvenir manufacturing, folk craft and art production, agriculture, building and construction. Thereby tourism development is very important for society and government in total as well as for regional and municipal units in particular. Modern Russian reality makes tourism industry development one of the most important government social and economic goals. Russian Federation has enormous resources to advance the tourism sphere. Most territories could become recreation and tourism areas. However, tourism development in Russia is currently being restrained by different social and economical problems such as tourism infrastructure underdevelopment, tourism services quality and prices incompatibility, lack of science-based strategy of creating positive country image, local budgets deficit, low level of tourism services differentiation, lack of professionals involved in tourism industry. According to the authors, these problems solution lays in using cluster approach in tourism. Introduction of such modern method as tourism cluster makes it possible to develop every type of tourism, provide differentiated services and solve some of social and economic problems currently existing on some of Russian territories

The article presents an overview of the all-Russian scientific and practical conference (with international participation) “Information Context of Culture: Resources, Technologies, Service” (the 11th conference of heads and specialists of information services for culture and art). The conference, orga­nized by the Russian State Library, the Russian State Library of Arts, and the St. Petersburg State Institute of Culture, on the instructions of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, was held in Moscow on September 24—25, 2019. Its purpose was to summarize the results of scientific research and practical experience on the issues of information support of the cultural sector in the digital age, to identify some problems and find ways to overcome them, and to demonstrate the best achievements in this field. The conference was attended by more than 90 representatives of cultural management bodies, federal, regional and municipal libraries, universities, training centers and other organizations of culture, science, education and mass media from 22 regions of Russia, as well as heads and specialists of national libraries of Armenia, Belarus and Kazakhstan (via video link). Thanks to the online broadcast, the total audience of the event increased by almost 200 people. The conference participants noted the importance of scientific and information activities in the cultural sector both for society in general and for the sector’s development in particular. In order to improve this work, the conference participants recommended to promote its digitalization, which is aimed at creating public resources for culture and art and organizing information services in the 7/24 mode via the Internet, including on mobile devices; to intensify the mutual use of resources through participation in joint projects; and to strictly observe copyright when creating information resources and methodological materials.

As a traditional Chinese folk art that often appears during important festivals or commercial activities, the cultural value and influence of the lion dance is very far-reaching. In the past 20 years, with the rapid development of society, the protection and inheritance of traditional Chinese culture have become a top priority on the road to preserving historical memory, and the lion dance culture popular in southern China and Southeast Asia, like many other traditional Chinese cultures, is facing the challenge of how to continue passing on. By reviewing the materials, this study learned that there is a lion dance cultural hall in Wuzhou, Guangxi, which has a history of nearly 200 years - Bilin Tang, which has received the support of the Wuzhou Municipal Government to deliberately establish the first professional lion dance major in the Tengxian Secondary School. Out of a desire to gain a clearer understanding of the current status of the preservation and inheritance of this traditional Chinese culture, the author finally contacted Mr. Zhong Dao Ren, the current director of Bilin Tang, and with his support, the author went to Tengxian Secondary School to interview in person. The author communicated with Mr. Deng and the students of the lion dance troupe and obtained a lot of valuable information and materials. Meanwhile, the author conducted more in-depth research under the guidance of Professor Bradd Shore at Emory University, resulting in this paper. The inheritance of the lion dance culture encounters not only the problems of funding, government support, and motivation for an inheritance but also the problem of how to make the inheritance of traditional Chinese culture and the development of the trend of the times mutually integrate into the current social context. To avoid the extinction of traditional Chinese folk art like the Southern Lion culture, it is necessary to attract more attention and resonate the interest of young people in such culture. Only the organic integration of traditional culture with modern elements can be an effective means for the long-term survival of traditional Chinese culture.

Violence is an issue that has been discussed in our society due to the degree that it has reached that has brought a series of negative consequences for the entire population. The school as part of this societycould not escape this situation and, although the Ministries of Education and Health advocate preventive educational activities on violence, these are still incipient in the classroom environment. In this perspective, starting from a behavioral approach, the objective of this work is to elaborate, apply and evaluate a set of activities in the discipline of Art, Elementary School I, focused on the prevention of school violence and bullying. The research site was a Municipal School of Elementary Education ina small city in the interior of São Paulo. The research is a quasi-experimental, descriptive and interventional study. The participants were students in the 5th year of elementary school I. The procedures involved the collection of information about the behavior of the students, using the records of the school's occurrence book and elaborating the activities of a teaching program. These activities were designed following the procedures of behavioral theory and trying to meet the characteristics of the behaviors raised in the book of occurrences. The results show that the applied procedure was effective, since the students presented high percentages of correct answers about the knowledge worked and began to recognize the violence with characteristics of bullying. It is considered that this study has brought subsidies for the work of prevention of violence, especially bullying among elementary school children.

Property right is one of the key legal institutions of society, and the protection of property right plays an important role in guaranteeing this institution. The issue of protection of property right remains problematic, when there is a conflict of interest between bona fide purchasers and original owners, especially in cases where the original owner is the state or local community, which misused the property and therefore, initiated the process of illegal transfer of the property right. There are serious differences in law-enforcement practice regarding the views on resolving disputes over the recovery of state or municipal property from bona fide purchasers. The most problematic in these cases is the establishment whether the property was taken out of the possession of the owner or the person to whom he transferred the property into possession, not on their will (paragraph 3 of Part 1 of the Art. 388 of the Civil Code of Ukraine). They usually try to prove the illegality of the decision of public authorities or local self-government agency in these cases and that their actions were committed in excess of authority. The author has studied the problematic issues of deprivation of the property right of a bona fide purchaser due to illegal actions of public authorities in case of concluding agreements on this property. Aspects of proportionality of state intervention into the property right of a person in accordance with the standards of the European Court of Human Rights have been analyzed, taking into account the principle of proper administration. When deciding on the possibility of depriving a person of property due to an error made by a public authority, the following should be taken into account: 1) the position of the ECHR, according to which the need to correct a former “error” should not disproportionately interfere with the new right acquired by a person who expected to rely on the legitimacy of good faith actions of a state agency; 2) the claim may be made within the guarantees provided in the Art. 1 of the Protocol No. 1; 3) violation of the property right, in particular the possibility of claiming the disputed property, which went beyond the will of the owner, according to the provisions of the Art. 388 of the Civil Code of Ukraine; 4) the existence of a direct legislative prohibition on the alienation of the relevant property from state property, when, for example, it is established by the Law of Ukraine; 5) the purpose of interfering in the peaceful possession of a person’s property should be the real protection of the property right, and not the delimitation of powers between public authorities.

The Historical Museum in ÅrhusThe Age of Enlightenment resulted in museums coming into existence all over Europe. Their purpose was to preserve exceptional items for posterity and to promote knowledge associated with these items. The museum idea fused with the national movements current at that time. In Århus a Society of History and Antiquities was formed in 1861. The purpose of the society was to promote knowledge of antiquities by creating a collection, and to inform the public about the past through presentations and lectures. The society was led by an honorary committee which was in charge of the scholarly work. The collection was housed in the town hall (fig. 3).Over the years, the museum experienced fluctuations in its development as different people influenced its work. In the beginning, the cause met great support, but public interest was lost during the war with Germany in 1864, and interest was not re-established until later. The greatest scholarly authority of the museum, Edvard Erslev, left town, and others took over (fig. 2). Around 1870, the museum thrived again under the strong influence of Vilhelm Boye, a former employee of the Old Nordic Museum in Copenhagen, who was able to impart great scholarly expertise to the Århus museum. When he moved away from the town, the museum languished again. Around this time, a large new museum was built. However, most of its space was taken up by the art collection, whereas the historical collection was limited to a box-room-like area in the attic (figs. 5 and 10). Christian Kjær, a lawyer, came to the rescue. Although engaged in many other forms of business, he managed to make a constructive contribution to the running of the museum (fig. 6). He maintained good relations with the Old Nordic Museum – or the National Museum as it had been renamed – and he succeeded in raising a considerable government grant for a planned extension to the museum (fig. 7). At the same time, the society was changed into an independent institution under the supervision of the National Museum. The name was changed into The Historical Department of Århus Museum. The scholarly work now secured higher priority, and the museum began to undertake archaeological excavations on a larger scale. The next persons to represent the museum were Captain Smith (fig. 8) and lawyer Reeh, who were both recognised for their professional skills. By the early 1900s, the museum faced a dilemma: the funds were insufficient for working with anything but prehistory, but interest in recent cultural history had grown, and the need to include this in the museum work was pressing. The result was that P. Holm (fig. 12) left the museum committee to found ´Den Gamle By, Danmarks Købstadsmuseum´ (The Old Town, Denmark’s Municipal Town Museum). In the 1920s the two museums began to cooperate, and the historical museum deposited its collections from the Middle Ages and later times in ‘Den Gamle By’. Now the Historical Department of Århus Museum consisted of a prehistoric collection and a coin collection. Librarian Eiler Haugsted (fig. 13) headed the museum and improved the exhibition of the reduced collections.Everyone agreed that the museum and the university would benefit from closer cooperation. The extensive collection of plaster casts of antique works of art was moved to the university’s Department of Classical Archaeology and became the nucleus of its study collection. This resulted in much better space in the museum building. P. V. Glob was appointed Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology and leader of the museum. The engagement of a permanently employed, skilled leader resulted in marked changes in the museum, which now concentrated on Prehistoric Archaeology and Ethnography and soon achieved a special position within these fields. Within a few years – from being a museum run almost completely by volunteers – the museum had developed into a big institution with a large, professional staff. Jens SkriverMoesgård MuseumTranslated by Annette Lerche Trolle

The displays of particular artistic associations in the Municipal Museum in Bydgoszcz between 1930 and 1936 are being discussed. The history of Pomeranian artistic associations is not a well-known subject, and no dedicated monographs have been written to date. It appears commonly in the history of the regional chapter of the Polish Association of Visual Artists (Związek Polskich Artystów Plastyków) located in Bydgoszcz. The basic sources include the Archive of the Leon Wyczółkowski District Museum in Bydgoszcz and information contained in Polish press of the period in question. There were two main goals to be achieved for the Pomeranian artists: while aspiring to equal the art represented by more important artistic centres of the country, to show a close connection with their own region and its Polish heritage. During the interwar period, a number of artistic organisations appeared in Bydgoszcz. The most significant were the local branch of the Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts (Towarzystwo Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych), established in September 1921, and the Artistic and Cultural Council (Rada Artystyczno-Kulturalna), founded in December 1934. The first exhibition of the Pomeranian Association of Visual Artists (Związek Plastyków Pomorskich) was opened in December 1930 as a summary of the Association’s achievements of that year. It comprised 92 works by 15 artists. Subsequent exhibitions in December 1931 and December 1932 served a similar purpose. The turning point in the history of Pomeranian artistic associations took place in 1933 when – as a result of an internal conflict – the Group of Pomeranian Visual Artists (Grupa Plastyków Pomorskich) was formed. The Group quickly became the leading artistic force of the region, with their first exhibition opening in December 1933. The 4th annual exhibition of the Group of Pomeranian Visual Artists took place in December 1934, simultaneously with the founding of the Artistic and Cultural Council (Rada Artystyczno-Kulturalna) in Bydgoszcz. The Council coordinated, implemented, and documented artistic movements in specially dedicated sections for literature, music, visual arts and radio, quickly becoming an intermediary between artists and their audience. Tanks to their efforts, the first Salon Bydgoski exhibition was organised in 1936. That very year the Group of Pomeranian Visual Artists changed their name to the Group of Visual Artists of Bydgoszcz. Both organizations lacked a well-defined artistic programme, whereas their members were mainly connected for non-artistic motivations, such as the possibility to exhibit their works in well-known institutions or prestige. All of the discussed displays were widely covered in the local press, especially by Henryk Kuminek and Marian Turwid, two leading art critics of the region.

Introduction. Theoretical background. The territorial formation and economic development of Оlexandrivsk and the district is associated with the activation of social, including artistic, life all aspects in the Russian Empire. The creative potential of small towns, including Olexandrivsk, has become a fertile ground for the development of the principles and means of theatrical and stage creativity. Theater, as the most democratic form of art, is directly connected with changes in public life. The theater significant social role and insufficient knowledge on it in the Olexandrivsk conditions and its district determined the relevance of the research topic. The researches by S. Voitkovsky (2014), G. Dadamyan (1987), M. Yevreinov (2019) constitute the scientific and theoretical basis of the work. The study of theatrical art in the Oleksandrivsk (Zaporizhzhya) region is based on the works of O. Antonenko (2017), S. Grushkina (2011), T. Martynyuk (2003). The aim of the research is to study the theater art in Olexandrivsk and the district of the same name as an integral phenomenon of a certain time. The tasks of the work are determine the origins of the theater art in the region, coverage of the features of this phenomenon, identification of theater companies’ organizational forms, study of the theater groups’ repertoire and genre priorities, consideration of theater art professionalization issues in the region. The methodology involves the application of the basic dialectic principles (to reveal the internal contradictions of the research subject and the sources of its development); historical principle (to study the theater’ development as a process of changes in existence’ some forms); comparative method (to identify the theater art characteristics in the region); source study method (to create an archival and historical base for studying the problem); axiological approach (to identify of the theater artistic troupes’ value orientations in the region). Results of the research. Historical materials contain a few facts about the theatrical entertainment of the local population long before the foundation of Olexandrivsk. Similar to the more inhabited neighboring regions, in these territories the existence of a folk theater is likely, the roots of which M. Yevreinov sees in magical actions, rituals and buffoonery. The researcher considers the theater of Russia, the roots of which are in the theatrical art of Europe, to be a counterbalance to folk theater. At the state level, these traditions have been inculcated since the 17th century. This process in the region began from the time of Olexandrivsk foundation. There are two most stable groups of theater collectives in the theater environment of the region. Domestic and foreign drama and opera troupes, which were guided by the Western European theater traditions, are made up the first group. Ukrainian artists’ association and local amateur drama circles that further developed the traditions of folk theater consisted the second group. They united by the idea of national dramatic art. The factors of theater collective’ differentiation in this region are the form of organization of theater business, repertoire and genre priorities, issues of professionalization. The sole proprietorship form is characteristic for the Western European tradition collectives. In Olexandrivsk and the district, the private enterprise was the dominant form, as the most active organization type of theater business. This type of enterprise does not have the conventions of imperial, state, municipal and other theaters in terms of repertoire and personnel relations. This provided it with freedom, mobility and ingenuity. The organizational form of the partnership is characteristic for the troupes oriented towards the traditions of folk theater. Democracy of this form manifested itself in collective decisionmaking. The next factor in differentiating theater groups is repertoire and genre priorities. The Western European tradition troupes gave preference to the works of Western European and Russian authors. Ukrainian authors’ works, Ukrainian song and dance folklore dominated in the repertoire of Ukrainian associations, which continued the traditions of folk theater. These groups preferred works of a pronounced national orientation. The repertoire differences between the two groups reflected to the methods and skills of acting. It is necessary to master Italian vocal technique, classic instrumental technique, conducting symphonic skills in the Western European tradition troupes. In Ukrainian troupes’ music and dramatic performances, universal training actor is needed, equally skillful in stage speech, the folk dance, the style of folk singing. The theater groups’ genre preferences repertoire related to an orientation towards the original artistic traditions. The Western European tradition’ collectives repertoire abounded in dramas, operas, operettas and the romances, arias, opera scenes in the concert departments. The Ukrainian folk-theater tradition repertoire dominated by music and drama plays, simple Ukrainian opera and Ukrainian folk songs, romances by domestic composers in concert departments. In Olexandrivsk and the district, questions of theater art’ professionalization were not publicly raised widely. Some striving for the performances artistic level increase we can saw in the practice of inviting famous artists for touring performances. Thanks to this, acting skills, methods of working on the role and the performance as a whole enriched. Invitations to participation in the performance of famous performers of the folk-theatrical tradition to Ukrainian troupes were episodic. An indicative fact of development was the director’s position emergence in the Western European tradition troupes. Conclusions. The peculiarity of theater art in the Olexandrivsk region is the absence of a local professional theater, represented, on the one hand, by the work of guest domestic and foreign troupes, on the other – by Ukrainian artistic societies and local amateur associations. The dominant groups of groups embodied two types of theater: Western European tradition and folk tradition. These types of theater functioned in various organizational forms. Dramatic and operatic corpses of the European tradition were characterized by a form of individual private enterprise; Ukrainian groups that developed the traditions of folk theater – a form of acting society. Theater troupes of these two traditions distinguished by their repertoire priorities. The core of the repertoire of the Western European tradition groups was the Russian and Western European authors’ works. The groups, which developed the folk theater, staged mainly plays by Ukrainian and local authors. The vector of theatrical art development in the Olexandrivsk and region is not clear enough at the historical period under consideration. An organized and purposeful movement towards the theater art professionalization in the region of this historical period is not visible. Certain facts of attracting famous artists and interaction with other groups as well as the emergence of the directed theater can be considered as elements of а professionalization.

Statement of the problem. The creative personality of N. A. Belik-Zolotarova, choral conductoris known not only in Slobozhanshchyna but also throughout Ukraine. Kotlyarevsky, winner of the I. Slatin Municipal Prize (2004) and the Person of the Year 2004 rating, is well known not only in Slobozhanshchyna but throughout Ukraine. Her work in choral art has long been respected by the music community. The author of this article personally observed all stages of the formation and development of the creative phenomenon of Natalia Belik-Zolotareva. The analysis of recent research and publications has no special scientific study of N.A. Belik-Zolotarova’s life and work. There are a number of responses, reviews, and journalistic publications that to some extent cover her personality. There is one single article «Harmony of Life and Work» by V. Palkin dedicated to the multifaceted devotion of N. A. Belik-Zolotareva. The study also relies on the works of the artist herself. The main objective is implementation of determination of N. A. BelikZolotareva’s creative activity as a bright figure of the modern national musical culture and to identify the constants of her creative and performing outlook and artistic thinking. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the comprehension of the creative figure and the disclosure of the essence of Natalia Belik-Zolotareva’s performing acme. The research methodology is based on the use of a typological approach to the integrity of the conductor’s personality in professional activity and empirical research of individual psychological characteristics of N. Belik-Zolotareva’s creative personality. The results of the study are based on the understanding of the concept of personality as a reflection of the social nature of a person, on the consideration of him or her as an individual and a subject of society. The article examines the factors that influenced the formation and development of N. Belik-Zolotareva, identifying a set of properties that contributed to the manifestation of her individuality. Conclusions. The phenomenon of N. A. Belik-Zolotareva’s creative personality is revealed at the genetic and mental, psychological and personal, general social and life-creative levels. As a result of the analysis of the artist’s creative activity, it is established that the bright creative personality of N. BelikZolotareva is manifested in the breadth of worldview guidelines, the variety of artistic preferences, and reliance on spiritual and social constants.

The article outlines the crimes of the Russian occupiers against the cultural heritage of Mariupol. The norms of international humanitarian law, which protect cultural values during military operations, are analyzed. The autor explains that the parties to the conflict are obliged to respect and protect them, prohibit, warn and stop any acts of theft, robbery or misappropriation of cultural values in any form, as well as any acts of vandalism. The characteristics of the most damaged or completely destroyed architectural monuments of Mariupol are given. The paper emphasizes that the only cultural institution preserved in the city is the famous Mariupol Chamber Philharmonic, which has become a refuge for Mariupol residents thanks to the dedication and daily work of its director, Honored Artist of Ukraine, chief conductor of the Mariupol Municipal Chamber Orchestra «RENASSIN» Vasyl Kryachko. The autor indicates that restitution is the main means of compensation for damage caused to cultural heritage and cultural values as a result of violation of international norms during the armed conflict. The task of restitution is not just to return individual cultural values and compensate for the damage, but also restore the cultural objects as an integral cultural heritage of the nation and the state. The second form of restitution is related to the replacement of cultural values with similar objects lost as a result of hostilities. Thus, on March 21, 2022, the building of the Arkhip Kuindzhi Art Museum in Mariupol was destroyed by a direct hit from an air bomb of the Russian occupiers. The aggressor state is responsible for this. That is why the Russian Federation should hand over masterpieces similar to the lost ones from its collections to Ukraine and reimburse the cost of the destroyed museum premises or build a new one. The study makes it possible to conclude that restoration of cultural heritage and return of cultural values will become an important task of the state and society after the victory of Ukraine. Ukrainian cultural heritage is part of the world cultural heritage, therefore, all the states of the world have an obligation to preserve and return it. The facts and patterns revealed as a result of the research can become the basis for further study of the war crimes of the Russian army against the cultural heritage of Ukraine.

Classical poetry has become a highly challenging literary genre today, but originally, it was an art form that combined music and literature and received love from various classes of the society. Valuable efforts to popularize and update classical poetry include the following: recordings and videos of Sijochang & Gagokchang as daily Gugak by the National Gugak Center; King records’ Gagok and Gasa wonryu; Hyangga and Goryeogayo for children from Gugak FM Inc.; Synnara record’s Gyeonggi 12 Japga; various albums like Seoul Performing Arts Comapany’s “Sanwhaga”, Jeongeup Municipal Gugak Troupe’s “Sangchungok” and “Jeongeup Love Song”, and Songolmae’s “Cheoyong’s Sorrow”; music videos including Moon Sook-hee’s “Cheongsanbyeolgok”, theatrical performances like Lee Yun-taek’s “Dosolga”, and various dance and music performances in cities like Gyeongju, Buyeo, Samcheok, Ulsan, and Pohang. These are all significant contributions to the promotion and modernization of classical poetry. Unfortunately, since there was no systematic evaluation and support for the works, they were not very memorable to the public. However the film “My Love, Don’t Cross That River” (5 million viewers), the movie “Ssanghwajeom” (3.78 million viewers), and the SBS historical drama “Seodongyo” (from 2005 to 2006, viewer rating 21.4%), which used video effects effectively, were popular successes. The main points emphasized in this paper as part of the effort to popularize and modernize classical poetry are as follows: proactive development of related cultural heritage travel routes, the development of content that combines history and literature, the restoration and reenactment of original performances, enhancing historic, on-site, and dynamic experiences in secondary school curricula, exhibition promotion using characters and calligraphy, building archives through the establishment of classical poetry museums, and the continuous discovery and adaptation of original storytelling in classical poetry. First and foremost, scholars should establish definitive source texts in modern- language for classical poetry (especially Goryeogayo and Hyangga) included in secondary school curricula and the works targeted for popularization. Subsequently, education and explanations should not merely dwell on simple interpretations of the works but should vividly evoke history and expand literary imagination. The goal should be to convey the works in an easy and engaging manner, enabling them to resonate with the joys and sorrows of today and stand the test of time. For example, 〈Woojeokga〉, which contains the narrative of monk Youngjae’s awakening of 60 thieves, says, “The poem I wrote, let alone the group of 60 thieves/Not even a single heart was touched/So I will have to sell my computer and hide deep in the mountains” (Lee Seung-ha, 〈Woojeokga〉), Likewise, “Cheongsanbyeolgok” is transformed into a modern interpretation as “Living, living for capital, living for capital / Eating heads and legs, living for capital / Yalri-yalri yalrang-syeong yal-lari yal-lara” (from Park Nam-chul’s poem “Living for capital”), offering good examples of how classical poetry can be adapted into contemporary meaning.

-Valerie I.J. Flint, Margarita Zamora, Reading Columbus. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. xvi + 247 pp.-Riva Berleant-Schiller, Historie Naturelle des Indes: The Drake manuscript in the Pierpont Morgan Library. New York: Norton, 1996. xxii + 272 pp.-Neil L. Whitehead, Charles Nicholl, The creature in the map: A journey to Eldorado. London: Jonathan Cape, 1995. 398 pp.-William F. Keegan, Ramón Dacal Moure ,Art and archaeology of pre-Columbian Cuba. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996. xxiv + 134 pp., Manuel Rivero de la Calle (eds)-Michael Mullin, Stephan Palmié, Slave cultures and the cultures of slavery. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995. xlvii + 283 pp.-Bill Maurer, Karen Fog Olwig, Small islands, large questions: Society, culture and resistance in the post-emancipation Caribbean. London: Frank Cass, 1995. viii + 200 pp.-David M. Stark, Laird W. Bergad ,The Cuban slave market, 1790-1880. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. xxi + 245 pp., Fe Iglesias García, María Del Carmen Barcia (eds)-Susan Fernández, Tom Chaffin, Fatal glory: Narciso López and the first clandestine U.S. war against Cuba. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996. xxii + 282 pp.-Damian J. Fernández, María Cristina García, Havana USA: Cuban exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959-1994. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. xiii + 290 pp.-Myrna García-Calderón, Carmen Luisa Justiniano, Con valor y a cómo dé lugar: Memorias de una jíbara puertorriqueña. Río Piedras: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1994. 538 pp.-Jorge Pérez-Rolon, Ruth Glasser, My music is my flag: Puerto Rican musicians and their New York communities , 1917-1940. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995. xxiv + 253 pp.-Lauren Derby, Emelio Betances, State and society in the Dominican Republic. Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1995. xix + 162 pp.-Michiel Baud, Bernardo Vega, Trujillo y Haiti, Volumen II (1937-1938). Santo Domingo: Fundación Cultural Dominicana, 1995. 427 pp.-Danielle Bégot, Elborg Forster ,Sugar and slavery, family and race: The letters and diary of Pierre Dessalles, Planter in Martinique, 1808-1856. Elborg & Robert Forster (eds. and trans.). Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1996. 322 pp., Robert Forster (eds)-Catherine Benoit, Richard D.E. Burton, La famille coloniale: La Martinique et la mère patrie, 1789-1992. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994. 308 pp.-Roderick A. McDonald, Kathleen Mary Butler, The economics of emancipation: Jamaica & Barbados, 1823-1843. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. xviii + 198 pp.-K.O. Laurence, David Chanderbali, A portrait of Paternalism: Governor Henry Light of British Guiana, 1838-48. Turkeyen, Guyana: Dr. David Chanderbali, Department of History, University of Guyana, 1994. xiii + 277 pp.-Mindie Lazarus-Black, Brian L. Moore, Cultural power, resistance and pluralism: Colonial Guyana 1838-1900. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press; Mona, Kingston: The Press-University of the West Indies, 1995. xv + 376 pp.-Madhavi Kale, K.O. Laurence, A question of labour: Indentured immigration into Trinidad and British Guiana, 1875-1917. Kingston: Ian Randle; London: James Currey, 1994. ix + 648 pp.-Franklin W. Knight, O. Nigel Bolland, On the March: Labour rebellions in the British Caribbean, 1934-39. Kingston: Ian Randle; London: James Currey, 1995. viii + 216 pp.-Linden Lewis, Kevin A. Yelvington, Producing power: Ethnicity, gender, and class in a Caribbean workplace. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995. xv + 286 pp.-Consuelo López Springfield, Alta-Gracia Ortíz, Puerto Rican women and work: Bridges in transnational labor. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996. xi + 249 pp.-Peta Henderson, Irma McClaurin, Women of Belize: Gender and change in Central America. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996. x + 218 pp.-Bonham C. Richardson, David M. Bush ,Living with the Puerto Rico Shore. José Gonzalez Liboy & William J. Neal. Durham: Duke University Press, 1995. xx + 193 pp., Richard M.T. Webb, Lisbeth Hyman (eds)-Bonham C. Richardson, David Barker ,Environment and development in the Caribbean: Geographical perspectives. Mona, Kingston: The Press-University of the West Indies, 1995. xv + 304 pp., Duncan F.M. McGregor (eds)-Alma H. Young, Anthony T. Bryan ,Distant cousins: The Caribbean-Latin American relationship. Miami: North-South-Center Press, 1996. iii + 132 pp., Andrés Serbin (eds)-Alma H. Young, Ian Boxill, Ideology and Caribbean integration. Mona, Kingston: The Press-University of the West Indies, 1993. xiii + 128 pp.-Stephen D. Glazier, Howard Gregory, Caribbean theology: Preparing for the challenges ahead. Mona, Kingston: Canoe Press, University of the West Indies, 1995. xx + 118 pp.-Lise Winer, Richard Allsopp, Dictionary of Caribbean English usage. With a French and Spanish supplement edited by Jeanette Allsopp. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. lxxviii + 697 pp.-Geneviève Escure, Jacques Arends ,Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1995. xiv + 412 pp., Pieter Muysken, Norval Smith (eds)-Jacques Arends, Angela Bartens, Die iberoromanisch-basierten Kreolsprachen: Ansätze der linguistischen Beschreibung. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1995. vii + 345 pp.-J. Michael Dash, Richard D.E. Burton, Le roman marron: Études sur la littérature martiniquaise contemporaine. Paris: L'Harmattan. 1997. 282 pp.

The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation of metrology as government regulated activity in France. The article has discussed the historical process of development of metrological activity in France. It was revealed that the history of metrology is considered as an auxiliary historical and ethnographic discipline from a social and philosophical point of view as the evolution of scientific approaches to the definition of individual units of physical quantities and branches of metrology. However, in the scientific literature, the little attention is paid to the process of a development of a centralized institutional metrology system that is the organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. The article by Irena Grebtsova and Maryna Kovalska is devoted to the of the development of the source criticism’s knowledge in the Imperial Novorossiya University which was founded in the second half of the XIX century in Odesa. Grounding on a large complex of general scientific methods, and a historical method and source criticism, the authors identified the stages of the formation of source criticism in the process of teaching historical disciplines at the university, what they based on an analysis of the teaching activities of professors and associate professors of the Faculty of History and Philology. In the article, the development of the foundations of source criticism is considered as a complex process, which in Western European and Russian science was the result of the development of the theory and practice of everyday dialogue between scientists and historical sources. This process had a great influence on the advancement of a historical education in university, which was one of the important factors in the formation of source studies as a scientific discipline. The article by Tetiana Malovichko is devoted to the study of what changes the course of the probability theory has undergone from the end of the 19th century to our time based on the analysis of The Theory of Probabilities textbook by Vasyl P. Ermakov published in 1878. The paper contains a comparative analysis of The Probability Theory textbook and modern educational literature. The birth of children after infertility treatment of married couples with the help of assisted reproductive technologies has become a reality after many years of basic research on the physiology of reproductive system, development of oocyte’s in vitro fertilization methods and cultivation of embryos at pre-implantation stages. Given the widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies in modern medical practice and the great interest of society to this problem, the aim of the study authors from the Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was to trace the main stages and key events of assisted reproductive technologies in the world and in Ukraine, as well as to highlight the activities of outstanding scientists of domestic and world science who were at the origins of the development of this area. As a result of the work, it has been shown that despite certain ethical and social biases, the discovery of individual predecessor scientists became the basis for the efforts of Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe to ensure birth of the world's first child, whose conception occurred outside the mother's body. There are also historical facts and unique photos from our own archive, which confirm the fact of the first successful oocyte in vitro fertilization and the birth of a child after the use of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine. In the next article, the authors tried to consider and structure the stages of development and creation of the “Yermak”, the world's first Arctic icebreaker, and analyzed the stages of preparation and the results of its first expeditions to explore the Arctic. Systematic analysis of historical sources and biographical material allowed to separate and comprehensively consider the conditions and prehistory for the development and creation of “Yermak” icebreaker. Also, the authors gave an assessment to the role of Vice Admiral Stepan Osypovych Makarov in those events, and analyzed the role of Sergei Yulyevich Witte, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky in the preparation and implementation of the first Arctic expeditions of the “Yermak”icebreaker. The authors of the following article considered the historical aspects of construction and operation of train ferry routes. The article deals with the analysis and systematization of the data on the historical development of train ferry routes and describes the background for the construction of train ferry routes and their advantages over other combined transport types. It also deals with the basic features of the train ferries operating on the main international train ferry routes. The study is concerned with both sea routes and routes across rivers and lakes. The article shows the role of train ferry routes in the improvement of a national economy, and in the provision of the military defense. An analysis of numerous artefacts of the first third of the 20th century suggests that the production of many varieties of art-and-industrial ceramics developed in Halychyna, in particular architectural ceramic plastics, a variety of functional ceramics, decorative tiles, ceramic tiles, facing tiles, etc. The artistic features of Halychyna art ceramics, the richness of methods for decorating and shaping it, stylistic features, as well as numerous art societies, scientific and professional associations, groups, plants and factories specializing in the production of ceramics reflect the general development of this industry in the first half of the century and represent the prerequisites the emergence of the school of professional ceramics in Halychyna at the beginning of the 20th century. The purpose of the next paper is to analyze the formation and development of scientific and professional schools of art-and-industrial ceramics of Halychyna in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the environmental crisis, electric transport (e-transport) is becoming a matter for scientific inquiry, a subject of discussion in politics and among public figures. In the program for developing the municipal services of Ukraine, priorities are given to the development of the infrastructure of ecological transport: trolleybuses, electric buses, electric cars. The increased attention to e-transport on the part of the scientific community, politicians, and the public actualizes the study of its history, development, features of operation, etc. The aim of the next study is to highlight little-known facts of the history of production and operation of MAN trolleybuses in Ukrainian cities, as well as to introduce their technical characteristics into scientific circulation. The types, specific design solutions of the first MAN trolleybus generation and the prerequisites for their appearance in Chernivtsi have been determined. Particular attention has been paid to trolleybuses that were in operation in Germany and other Western European countries from the first half of the 1930s to the early 1950s. The paper traces the stages of operation of the MAN trolleybuses in Chernivtsi, where they worked during 1939–1944 and after the end of the Second World War, they were transferred to Kyiv. After two years of operation in the Ukrainian capital, the trolleybuses entered the routes in Dnipropetrovsk during 1947–1951. The purpose of the article by authors from the State University of Infrastructure and Technologies of Ukraine is to thoroughly analyze unpaved roads of the late 18th – early 19th century, as well as the project of the first wooden trackway as the forerunner of the Bukovyna railways. To achieve this purpose, the authors first reviewed how railways were constructed in the Austrian Empire during 1830s – 1850s. Then, in contrast with the first railway networks that emerged and developed in the Austrian Empire, the authors made an analysis of the condition and characteristics of unpaved roads in Bukovyna. In addition, the authors considered the first attempt to create a wooden trackway as a prototype and predecessor of the Bukovyna railway.

Inspections of seminars by state authorities in Poland in 1960–1971In 1960–1971 the government conducted inspections of seminars, both diocesan seminars and those run by religious orders, all over Poland. The success of the authorities’ efforts depended on the seminar in question and the year. As early as in February 1950 the first attempts were made to subordinate some seminars to state control, specifically, the control of the Ministry of Education, on the basis of Articles 96–107 of the Decree 28 October 1947, which dealt with the organisation of schools and higher education institutions. The remaining seminars were to be controlled by the respective Boards of Education, in accordance with the Private Schools Act of 11 March 1932. Invoking these legislative acts, the authorities wanted to exercise the right to grant approval to statutes, curricula, appointment of teaching staff as well as supervise the implementation of the curricula in the seminars. Yet their efforts produced meagre results. This did not change until 1959, when the communist authorities realised that freedom of educating and forming future priests was extremely problematic for them and that the process was completely out of their control. A conviction that in its seminars the Church was educating future priests in an atmosphere that was hostile to the people’s republic and was promoting views hostile to the interests of society prompted the communist authorities to take action seeking to take control of seminars. The seminars were to abide by the provisions of the Act of 19 April 1950 on the Change of the Organisation State Authorities with Regard to Municipal and Public Administration, Private Schools Act of 11 March 1932, and then the Act of 15 July 1961 on the Development of the Education System as well as the Ordinance of the Minister of Education of 26 February 1965 on the Rules and Conditions of Running Non-State Schools and Other Education Institutions. They were also subordinated to the control of the state authorities. After more than a decade of battles between the government and the Polish Episcopate, the question of control over seminars was finally resolved in 1971, when the authorities ceased their inspections of seminars.Visitationen der höheren Priesterseminare durch staatliche Behörden in Polen in den Jahren 1960–1971In den Jahren 1960-1971 führten staatliche Behörden auf dem ganzen Gebiet Polens Visitationen in den höheren Seminaren der Diözesen und der Orden durch. Bereits im Februar 1950 versuchte man, einen Teil der Priesterseminare der Kontrolle des Staates, also des Ministeriums für Bildung und Erziehung auf Grund der Art. 96–107 des Dekretes vom 28. Oktober 1947, die die Organisation der Wissenschaft und des höheren Schulwesens betreffen, zu unterziehen. Die restlichen höheren und kleinen Seminare sollten der Kontrolle der Schulkuratorien gemäß dem Gesetz vom 11. März 1932 über Privatschulen und wissenschaftliche sowie erzieherische Einrichtungen unterliegen. Aufgrund dieser Rechtsakte wollten die Behörden über das Recht verfügen, die Satzungen, Programme und Unterrichtspläne zu bestätigen, das Lehrpersonal zu berufen und die Ausübung der Programme in den Seminaren ständig zu kontrollieren, was ihnen jedoch nicht gelang. Eine Änderung erfolgte erst im Jahre 1959, als die kommunistischen Behörden sich dessen bewusst wurden, dass die Freiheit des Unterrichtes und der Erziehung der Priesterkandidaten eine sehr heikle und durch den Staat nicht kontrollierte Angelegenheit blieb. Aufgrund der Überzeugung, dass die Ausbildung in den Seminaren in einer staatsfeindlichen Atmosphäre verläuft und dort Meinungen gefördert werden, die sozialfeindlich sind, haben die Volksbehörden Maßnahmen zur Kontrolle der höheren Priesterseminare getroffen. Die höheren Priesterseminare wurden damals dem Gesetz vom 19. April 1950 über die Änderung der Organisation der obersten Staatsbehörden im Bereich der kommunalen Wirtschaft und der öffentlichen Verwaltung, dem Gesetz vom 11. März 1932 über Privatschulen und weiterhin dem Gesetz vom 15. Juli 1961 über die Entwicklung des Bildungssystems und Erziehungswesens und der Verordnung des Kultusministers vom 26. Februar 1965 in Sachen der Grundsätze und Bedingungen der Führung nicht staatlicher Schulen und anderer schulischer und pädagogischer Zentren unterordnet sowie der Aufsicht staatlicher Behörden unterzogen. Nach mehr als zehn Jahren eines Kampfes zwischen den Staatsbehörden und dem Episkopat Polens wurde die Aufsicht über die höheren Priesterseminare endgültig im Jahre 1971 eingestellt.

In recent years, STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics) has received wide attention. STEAM complements early childhood learning needs in honing 2nd century skills. This study aims to introduce a loose section in early childhood learning to pre-service teachers and then to explore their perceptions of how to use loose parts in supporting STEAM. The study design uses qualitative phenomenological methods. FGDs (Focus Group Discussions) are used as data collection instruments. The findings point to two main themes that emerged from the discussion: a loose section that supports freedom of creation and problem solving. Freedom clearly supports science, mathematics and arts education while problem solving significantly supports engineering and technology education. Keywords: Early Childhood Educators, Loose-part, STEAM References: Allen, A. (2016). Don’t Fear STEM: You Already Teach It! Exchange, (231), 56–59. Ansberry, B. K., & Morgan, E. (2019). Seven Myths of STEM. 56(6), 64–67. Bagiati, A., & Evangelou, D. (2015). Engineering curriculum in the preschool classroom: the teacher’s experience. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 23(1), 112–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2014.991099 Becker, K., & Park, K. (2011). Effects of integrative approaches among science , technology , engineering , and mathematics ( STEM ) subjects on students ’ learning : A preliminary meta-analysis. 12(5), 23–38. Berk, L. E. (2009). Child Development (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. Can, B., Yildiz-Demirtas, V., & Altun, E. (2017). The Effect of Project-based Science Education Programme on Scientific Process Skills and Conception of Kindergargen Students. 16(3), 395–413. Casey, T., Robertson, J., Abel, J., Cairns, M., Caldwell, L., Campbell, K., … Robertson, T. (2016). Loose Parts Play. Edinburgh. Cheung, R. H. P. (2017). Teacher-directed versus child-centred : the challenge of promoting creativity in Chinese preschool classrooms. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 1366(January), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2016.1217253 Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2016). Math, Science, and Technology in the Early Grades. The Future of Children, 26(2), 75–94. Cloward Drown, K. (2014). Dramatic lay affordances of natural and manufactured outdoor settings for preschoolaged children. Dejarnette, N. K. (2018). Early Childhood Steam: Reflections From a Year of Steam Initiatives Implemented in a High-Needs Primary School. Education, 139(2), 96–112. DiGironimo, N. (2011). What is technology? Investigating student conceptions about the nature of technology. International Journal of Science Education, 33(10), 1337–1352. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2010.495400 Dugger, W. E., & Naik, N. (2001). Clarifying Misconceptions between Technology Education and Educational Technology. The Technology Teacher, 61(1), 31–35. Eeuwijk, P. Van, & Zuzana, A. (2017). How to Conduct a Focus Group Discussion ( FGD ) Methodological Manual. Flannigan, C., & Dietze, B. (2018). Children, Outdoor Play, and Loose Parts. Journal of Childhood Studies, 42(4), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.18357/jcs.v42i4.18103 Fleer, M. (1998). The Preparation of Australian Teachers in Technology Education : Developing The Preparation of Australian Teachers in Technology Education : Developing Professionals Not Technicians. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education & Development, 1(2), 25–31. Freitas, H., Oliveira, M., Jenkins, M., & Popjoy, O. (1998). The focus group, a qualitative research method: Reviewing the theory, and providing guidelines to its planning. In ISRC, Merrick School of Business, University of Baltimore (MD, EUA)(Vol. 1). Gomes, J., & Fleer, M. (2019). The Development of a Scientific Motive : How Preschool Science and Home Play Reciprocally Contribute to Science Learning. Research in Science Education, 49(2), 613–634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017-9631-5 Goris, T., & Dyrenfurth, M. (n.d.). Students ’ Misconceptions in Science , Technology , and Engineering . Gull, C., Bogunovich, J., Goldstein, S. L., & Rosengarten, T. (2019). Definitions of Loose Parts in Early Childhood Outdoor Classrooms: A Scoping Review. The International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 6(3), 37. Hui, A. N. N., He, M. W. J., & Ye, S. S. (2015). Arts education and creativity enhancement in young children in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 35(3), 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.875518 Jarvis, T., & Rennie, L. J. (1996). Perceptions about Technology Held by Primary Teachers in England. Research in Science & Technological Education, 14(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514960140104 Jeffers, O. (2004). How to Catch a Star. New York: Philomel Books. Kiewra, C., & Veselack, E. (2016). Playing with nature: Supporting preschoolers’ creativity in natural outdoor classrooms. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 4(1), 70–95. Kuh, L., Ponte, I., & Chau, C. (2013). The impact of a natural playscape installation on young children’s play behaviors. Children, Youth and Environments, 23(2), 49–77. Lachapelle, C. P., Cunningham, C. M., & Oh, Y. (2019). What is technology? Development and evaluation of a simple instrument for measuring children’s conceptions of technology. International Journal of Science Education, 41(2), 188–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2018.1545101 Liamputtong. (2010). Focus Group Methodology : Introduction and History. In Focus Group MethodoloGy (pp. 1–14). Liao, C. (2016). From Interdisciplinary to Transdisciplinary: An Arts-Integrated Approach to STEAM Education. 69(6), 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2016.1224873 Lindeman, K. W., & Anderson, E. M. (2015). Using Blocks to Develop 21st Century Skills. Young Children, 70(1), 36–43. Maxwell, L., Mitchell, M., and Evans, G. (2008). Effects of play equipment and loose parts on preschool children’s outdoor play behavior: An observational study and design intervention. Children, Youth and Environments, 18(2), 36–63. McClure, E., Guernsey, L., Clements, D., Bales, S., Nichols, J., Kendall-Taylor, N., & Levine, M. (2017). How to Integrate STEM Into Early Childhood Education. Science and Children, 055(02), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.2505/4/sc17_055_02_8 McClure, M., Tarr, P., Thompson, C. M., & Eckhoff, A. (2017). Defining quality in visual art education for young children: Building on the position statement of the early childhood art educators. Arts Education Policy Review, 118(3), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2016.1245167 Mishra, L. (2016). Focus Group Discussion in Qualitative Research. TechnoLearn: An International Journal of Educational Technology, 6(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-5223.2016.00001.2 Monhardt, L., & Monhardt, R. (2006). Creating a context for the learning of science process skills through picture books. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(1), 67–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-006-0108-9 Monsalvatge, L., Long, K., & DiBello, L. (2013). Turning our world of learning inside out! Dimensions of Early Childhood, 41(3), 23–30. Moomaw, S. (2012). STEM begins in the early years. School Science & Mathematics, 112(2), 57–58. Moomaw, S. (2016). Move Back the Clock, Educators: STEM Begins at Birth. School Science & Mathematics, 116(5), 237–238. Moomaw, S., & Davis, J. A. (2010). STEM Comes to Preschool. Young Cihildren, 12–18(September), 12–18. Munawar, M., Roshayanti, F., & Sugiyanti. (2019). Implementation of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, Mathematics)-Based Early Childhood Education Learning in Semarang City. Jurnal CERIA, 2(5), 276–285. National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. Nicholson, S. (1972). The Theory of Loose Parts: An important principle for design methodology. Studies in Design Education Craft & Technology, 4(2), 5–12. O.Nyumba, T., Wilson, K., Derrick, C. J., & Mukherjee, N. (2018). The use of focus group discussion methodology: Insights from two decades of application in conservation. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 9(1), 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12860 Padilla-Diaz, M. (2015). Phenomenology in Educational Qualitative Research : Philosophy as Science or Philosophical Science ? International Journal of Educational Excellence, 1(2), 101–110. Padilla, M. J. (1990). The Science Process Skills. Research Matters - to the Science Teacher, 1(March), 1–3. Park, D. Y., Park, M. H., & Bates, A. B. (2018). Exploring Young Children’s Understanding About the Concept of Volume Through Engineering Design in a STEM Activity: A Case Study. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 16(2), 275–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9776-0 Rahardjo, M. M. (2019). Implementasi Pendekatan Saintifik Sebagai Pembentuk Keterampilan Proses Sains Anak Usia Dini. Scholaria: Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan, 9(2), 148–159. https://doi.org/10.24246/j.js.2019.v9.i2.p148-159 Robison, T. (2016). Male Elementary General Music Teachers : A Phenomenological Study. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 26(2), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083715622019 Rocha Fernandes, G. W., Rodrigues, A. M., & Ferreira, C. A. (2018). Conceptions of the Nature of Science and Technology: a Study with Children and Youths in a Non-Formal Science and Technology Education Setting. Research in Science Education, 48(5), 1071–1106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-016-9599-6 Sawyer, R. K. (2006). Educating for innovation. 1(2006), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2005.08.001 Sharapan, H. (2012). ERIC - From STEM to STEAM: How Early Childhood Educators Can Apply Fred Rogers’ Approach, Young Children, 2012-Jan. Young Children, 67(1), 36–40. Siantayani, Y. (2018). STEAM: Science-Technology-Engineering-Art-Mathematics. Semarang: SINAU Teachers Development Center. Sikder, S., & Fleer, M. (2015). Small Science : Infants and Toddlers Experiencing Science in Everyday Family Life. Research in Science Education, 45(3), 445–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-014-9431-0 Smith-gilman, S. (2018). The Arts, Loose Parts and Conversations. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 16(1), 90–103. Sohn, B. K., Thomas, S. P., Greenberg, K. H., & Pollio, H. R. (2017). Hearing the Voices of Students and Teachers : A Phenomenological Approach to Educational Research. Qualitative Research in Education, 6(2), 121–148. https://doi.org/10.17583/qre.2017.2374 Strong-wilson, T., & Ellis, J. (2002). Children and Place : Reggio Emilia’s Environment as Third Teacher. Theory into Practice, 46(1), 40–47. Sutton, M. J. (2011). In the hand and mind: The intersection of loose parts and imagination in evocative settings for young children. Children, Youth and Environments, 21(2), 408–424. Tippett, C. D., & Milford, T. M. (2017). Findings from a Pre-kindergarten Classroom: Making the Case for STEM in Early Childhood Education. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15, 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-017-9812-8 Tippett, C., & Milford, T. (2017). STEM Resources and Materials for Engaging Learning Experiences. International Journal of Science & Mathematics Education, 15(March), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-017-9812-8 Veselack, E., Miller, D., & Cain-Chang, L. (2015). Raindrops on noses and toes in the dirt: infants and toddlers in the outdoor classroom. Dimensions Educational Research Foundation. Yuksel-Arslan, P., Yildirim, S., & Robin, B. R. (2016). A phenomenological study : teachers ’ experiences of using digital storytelling in early childhood education. Educational Studies, 42(5), 427–445. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2016.1195717

Bali, as a province with strong roots in local cultural traditions and significant economic importance for Indonesia, is striving to balance modernity and tradition, economics, especially mass tourism, and cultural identity. This is why Universitas Warmadewa, one of the largest Balinese universities, chooses the theme ‘Local Wisdom and Business Law’ for its international conferences each year.As a non-Indonesian legal scholar, this theme presents two challenges for me. Firstly, I am not an expert in tourism economics and can only approach the topic from a traditional market law perspective, theoretically. Secondly, the terms used in Indonesian legal discussions may seem vague and unclear from a German perspective, as the legal discussion in Indonesia integrates traditional legal phenomena pragmatically into the applicable legal system. This may also be historically conditioned because since independence Indonesia has to handle a legal pluralism in law, which also finds its cause in the legacy of the colonial era.When speaking on the legal perspective of ‘local wisdom’, several questions are unclear to me:What exactly is local wisdom and how can it be defined?Where does it fit into the Indonesian legal system?What role can local wisdom play in contemporary law?Local wisdom may be understood as part of traditional customary law or Adat, at least in terms of its influence on legal issues, as the conference theme suggests. The terminology around ‘customary law’, ‘Adat’, ‘indigenous law’, or ‘living law’ is still a problematic issue in Indonesian scientific discussion and should only be briefly mentioned in this presentation. The term ‘Adat law’ was originally not used in Indonesian society and was first systematically used by the Dutch. Van Vollenhoven, considered the ‘father of Indonesian Adat law’ by Indonesian scholars, defined Adat law as law that is not based on codified legal rules from the legislator. This definition is still used by contemporary Indonesian scholars. Adat law in this sense contains sanctions, making the character of ‘law’. It was characterized by Van Vollenhoven as dynamic and flexible folk law, which combines the term with the often-used term of ‘living law’. There are numerous discussions in Indonesian literature about Indonesian customary law, its functions, and significance, but the terminology has not been clearly defined and the role of religious law is also subject to numerous publications.Therefore, having read various contributions on the topic, I am left confused because some of them discuss the existence of legal principles of living customary law and describe them as “national Indonesian principles,” which can replace parts of the post-colonial Indonesian law, but they do not clearly identify these principles. The topic seems to be of almost patriotic importance to Indonesia, making it particularly difficult for foreign scholars to approach the subject in presentations before Indonesian colleagues. My contribution should be seen in light of this difficulty, as a first observation of the phenomenon from a foreign perspective.The term Adat is already difficult to comprehend, and this is even more true for the term “local wisdom” in a legal context. So, what is the “Local Wisdom” that I am asked to talk about? The Terms of Reference of our conference describe the meaning of “local wisdom” mainly as the clash of market actors in local Balinese tourism that can lead to conflicts, which the law should resolve. These conflicts are said to occur because local communities and institutions, based on a kind of traditionally grown trust, seek to build and maintain their business relationships in the tourism industry. This trust, which one could call “traditional good faith,” meets the need to regulate contractual arrangements more formally in terms of contract law (“more official...instead of just relying on promises or good faith”).In this sense, local wisdom is an aspect of good faith. Based on this understanding of the term, I have no systematic issues with the term “local wisdom.” However, it should be noted that good faith and contract, as a predictable shaping of legal relationships between market actors, should not be seen as opposites. It is possible and necessary to resolve disruptions in contractual relationships in light of good faith and, if necessary, adapt contractual regulations. Here, “local wisdom” should not be understood as a unique source of good faith, but as a general aspect that can influence the expectations of the contracting parties and their trust in shaping the law. This raises the question of which factors should be taken into account by the non-local contracting party in good faith, and which should not. It is a question of the concrete assessment of the structure of interests and the balance of the contract, how to allocate risk and assign external aspects to the contracting parties and which aspects should be considered subsequently.This is a theoretical matter, and it is unlikely to play a significant role in practice since local market actors and communities have the freedom, within the framework of private autonomy, to incorporate their traditional interests into the contract negotiations. This allows for traditional interests to participate in the “equivalence justice” of the contract. However, if the traditional interests of the local community result in unacceptable consequences for the contract’s execution, the question of whether these reasons can lead to a change in the contract’s basis may arise. In civil law systems, the clausula rebus sic stantibus is regulated as a limitation of the pacta sunt servanda principle and falls under the principle of good faith (bona fides). If the invocation of “local wisdom” by one party leads to the other party having to agree to an adjustment, it would have to be examined.I would like to give you an example of this, which seems credible even if no prove about the issue can be delivered due to the ‘popular’ source: A person without Indonesian citizenship acquired the right to use a plot of land with a house in Bali ten years ago. Since foreigners cannot acquire land ownership in Indonesia themselves, the foreigner had agreed on a legal arrangement with an Indonesian citizen resident in Bali, in which the Indonesian acquired ownership (hak milik) of the land with the foreigner’s money and agreed on right to use for the foreign partner. After ten years, the foreigner wanted to sell the property again to move to his country of origin. The agreement with the Indonesian partner stipulated that the Indonesian partner must agree to the sale of the plot on the wish of the foreign partner and would receive 10% of the sale amount in the event of a sale. In the case described, however, the Indonesian partner seems to have refused to sell the property on the agreed terms. He was not satisfied with the 10% share and demanded a 70% share instead. As justification for this, he argued that the contract terms should be changed because he had spiritually enhanced the property over the years through certain religious rituals and this required a revaluation of his shareholding.It is not known whether the case was heard in an Indonesian court and how it was finally settled. Assuming the case had occurred as described, from the perspective of Indonesian civil law, it is clear that no change in the business basis of the contract occurred as a result of the Indonesian partner’s spiritual acts, which can lead to an adjustment of the agreement between him and the foreign contractual partner. Just as local communities depend on their interests in cultural identity being taken into account even in legal relations with partners coming from outside, foreign investors must be able to rely on certain standards of contractual obligation. The principle of good faith would be grotesquely overstretched if local contracting partners could use fuzzy notions of ‘local wisdom’ to make contractual arrangements more flexible in their favour.Another example of the clash between traditional legal customs and supra-regional legal ideas in highly traditional markets with supra-regional economic importance, such as Bali, is the handling of legal disputes and methods of dispute resolution. The trust of traditional communities in supra-legal ties of interest in business relationships, as mentioned in the Terms of Reference to this Conference, meets a systemic trust in formal contractual regulations of non-local actors. The reference points of trust of the respective groups of market actors thus differ. This also affects dispute resolution. According to Sulastriyono, the voluntary character of traditional customary law has the advantage over civil law methods of litigation and dispute resolution of a ‘win-win’ solution, which leads to greater acceptance of the solution by the parties to the conflict. In theory, this is undeniable. However, it is questionable whether this acceptance can also be achieved among contract participants who do not originate from the respective culture, because the existence of sufficient advantages for a party may well depend on the integration of the party in the respective local society. Moreover, the indisputable advantages of consensual dispute resolution can also be well integrated in state procedural law via mediation mechanisms.Cases such as the one outlined one above would in principle be likely to erode the confidence of foreign investors in Indonesian law in general if courts do not rule clearly and draw clear boundaries here. The example seems to be a particularly extreme case, but it shows how important it is to clearly determine the meaning and possible role of terms such as ‘local wisdom’ and ‘tradition’ for use in law. Culturally related aspects are prone to serve as a tool for discrimination against individuals and companies that do not belong to the respective cultural environment. The difficulty, for example, of establishing an intellectual property right on cultural heritage follows not only from the contrast between individual subjective rights and collective subjective rights. It follows above all from the problem of determining the collective rights holders who are to benefit from ‘their’ cultural heritage. Who is a member of a certain culture? Is there a generational link or does it depend on the integration of the individual into his or her living environment? If the legal system does not want to fall back to abstruse considerations of ‘blood identity’, what remains is the assignment of such claims to territorial authorities or the state itself, whose task it is to protect cultural diversity on its territory. This is the path that the Indonesian legislature had taken in Art 38 Law No 28/2014 on copyright law.The misuse of cultural aspects carried into the application of law is also visible in another aspect: In another paper I have pointed out the problem that the concept of traditional customary law in Indonesian law and the position of Adat law in the hierarchy of norms seems in need of clarification. Shidarta notes that there is no sufficient clarity about the relationship between Adat law and state law and thus no consistent system of Indonesian law as a whole. Accordingly, the maturation of an independent Indonesian legal system suffers to this day from the internal conflict with the colonial legacy of existing state law based on Dutch civil law and the lack of a consistent overarching pluralistic concept of law. This is seen by Shidarta as a major reason why the systematic positions of customary law, Islamic law and western law within national law are not clearly defined and why a clear hierarchical determination of the various sources of law in relation to national law is lacking. The doubts about the systematic location and certainly also the failure to establish the principles of traditional customary law as original Indonesian law after the attainment of independence instead of the sources of law inherited from the colonial period are probably due - in addition to the idea of the state founders of an Indonesian unitary state (‘eenheidstaat’) - above all to the disagreement about the concept of customary law, which is formally understood in the sense of a binding source of law defined during the colonial period, or as post-colonial Adat law in the sense of traditional customary rights of various Indonesian ethnic groups either with a binding character or as norms of social order based on voluntariness. In this respect, too, different definitions of the term can be found in the literature:There is thus generally a more philosophical recognition of the importance of traditional customary law in the sense that customary law reflects the actual sense of law of the people and the Indonesian people as a nation. The latter statement seems problematic to me because the statement only applies with regard to the significance of customary law as a source of law, but not to the content of the individual customary laws of the various ethnic groups, in which different legal customs apply in each case. It therefore seems questionable to me whether Adat law can be understood in the sense of an alternative to Indonesian state law. In my opinion, Adat as a source of concrete legal norms has a supplementary development perspective in the communal area. Here it can certainly have an influence on economic life in the regions if it is applied consistently and transparently, and its importance would grow especially if the autonomy of municipal territorial units were strengthened, and a strong federalism were developed. However, a scientific inventory of norms and principles of local customary law is then required, and a clear formulation of such norms is needed, because it must be ruled out that the invocation of undefined, non-transparent or arbitrarily formulated Adat rules unduly restricts the freedom of market actors and are used as protectionist instruments in the provinces.In this sense, I believe that the postulate that Indonesian law must simply recognise Adat law as it has grown and as it is applied alive within the Indonesian local societies falls short, because the compatibility of social rules based on voluntariness and constantly changing with the overall legal system based on the rule of law is at least debatable. In other words: either one renounces the legal certainty and predictability of legal norms in the area of traditional customary law. This could then constitute a breach of the constitutionally enshrined principle of the Rule of Law. Or one formulates clear norms based on traditional legal principles, which have the character of binding legal norms and applies them in the sense of subsidiarity in the local environment with priority over central state law in certain predefined aspects. Then the rules of the hierarchy of norms must be correspondingly clear. However, the question of the hierarchy of norms then no longer presents itself as a problem of the nature of Adat or customary law because the latter would have lost its character as actual customary law. The advocates of a strong recognition of Adat by state law will, however, reject this path because they see the advantage of traditional customary law over state law precisely in its flexibility and ability to change. This flexibility would no longer be readily available through an integration of traditional principles into a local classical law in the sense of imperative norms.A clear hierarchy of norms defined by constitutional law seems indispensable, because such local customary law cannot displace state law without further ado, but only if the principle of subsidiarity and the better regulation of local circumstances by local law indicates otherwise. This would also be in line with the philosophical assessment of local customary law as the law that best captures the living conditions of the people in its cultural area of application. The importance of the principle of subsidiarity should generally be given more attention in the discussion on legal pluralism in Indonesia. This can not only ensure greater recognition of traditional customary law, but also enable the transparency necessary for the predictability of the law.Insofar as Adat is to be understood as the source of ‘abstract normative’ aspects, as certain common Indonesian legal values and principles in the sense of a ‘pan-Indonesian’ legal order and, as such, is to find its way into an independent state Indonesian civil law, legal scholarship in Indonesia will also have to identify and clearly define these principles. In doing so, it will be necessary to determine which principles of traditional customary law in the various regions of the archipelago are suitable as overarching legal principles, so that they can possibly have an identity-forming effect in a national private law. This difficult process might lead to reform of the Indonesian Civil Law which meets the special requirements of a socially and culturally integrated legal system.Indonesia as a state with a unified internal market needs a cross-cultural private law and commercial law. Consideration of the interests of local communities and traditions is of importance in a multicultural state. The Indonesian constitution therefore emphasises the specifics of traditional rights and thus guarantees Adat its own status in the legal system. However, there seems to be a lack of a clear hierarchy of norms in the legal system and a clear definition of the nature of Adat. A hint of a certain hierarchy between Adat and state law is indeed found in agricultural law (Art. 5 Law No. 5/1960 on the Basic Regulations of Agrarian Principles) and in forestry law (Law No. 41/1999 on Forestry). Adat is recognised here but must harmonise with state law. It is therefore likely to be in a relationship of subsidiarity to state law. The fundamental assertion of the primacy of state law over other co-existing legal systems is also in line with the view of Indonesian legal scholars such as Sunaryati Hartono. Referring to Griffiths’ formulation of “weak legal pluralism”, where co-existing legal systems are subordinated to a dominant formalistic national law, it can be stated that the Indonesian legal system follows this model.In my opinion, the integration of traditional customary law into the legal system should not be done as a mere tolerance of state law towards deviating regulations of facts in certain regions. From my perspective as a foreign observer, this seems to lead to significant problems for the development of the Indonesian economy and for investment. In particular, this seems to me to be the case for Bali. Local Wisdom can be incorporated into the contractual relations of the parties within the framework of private autonomous arrangements. A ‘creative’ qualification of protectionist measures against outside market actors or the justification of the failure to sanction breaches of contract or violations of law against outsiders as ‘Adat’ or ‘protection of local traditions’ should be consistently avoided.Incidentally, it seems to me that in contract law there is no real opposition between state law and traditional customary law. Either the parties trust each other, in which case state law does not prevent an agreement based on good faith. Or they do not, in which case only state contract law can lead to proper solutions. The same applies to traditional dispute resolution methods, to which the parties to the conflict can easily submit. In contrast, the integration of customary law as independent Indonesian legal principles or as legal norms at the local or municipal level into Indonesian law would require considerable academic effort. For this, the principles concerned would have to be clearly identified, systematised, and formulated to be able to substantiate a claim to validity beyond the respective local communities. The mere reference to historically evolved convictions of local communities is too vague. The term ‘local wisdom’ seems to me to be problematic in this sense to accurately describe the question of the collision of traditional customs and expectations of outside market actors, especially since it is already conceptually positively evaluative. Finally, it should not be forgotten, that the continental European codifications are culturally neutral and in big parts based on the Roman law. Roman law itself was not developed under the cultural framework of northern and middle European regions, however it served well as source for the modern European codifications. These codifications are working fine until these days in different nations without obvious incompatibilities with local traditions. The amount of a ‘Volksgeist’ after the idea of Friedrich Carl von Savigny within the Private Law does not play a big role in the contemporary discussion as law should be seen in a pragmatic way as a viable tool to organize the modern society. Indonesia is an important economically emerging nation. As such it might be a good idea to keep an internationally compatible private law, which might be carefully adapted to certain peculiarities of the Indonesian society. The use of general clauses as entrance doors for local legal convictions seems to be a good way for that and a clearly defined legal hierarchy with a constitutionally based legal subsidiarity principle seems important. In contrast, the foundation of modern law on nationalistic, local, or indigenous traditional customs should only be done with extreme caution, if at all. The contemporary discussion on the role of Adat in Indonesian law shows the great difficulty of determining viable legal rules that can enter a future reformed Indonesian private law as ‘originally Indonesian’. The criticism against Von Savigny’s ‘Volksgeist’ idea also applies here: Defining who the ‘people’ are and what constitutes their common identity is already hardly rationally possible in a non-multi-ethnic state, even more in a multi-ethnic state. National identity-forming circumstances are hardly suitable as common principles for pluralistic societies.

RESUMENLos balnearios-sauna castreños del noroeste peninsular son monumentos con horno con una arquitectura muy original, posiblemente asociada a los diversos modelos termales. Se conocen cerca de tres decenas, distribuidos por el noroeste peninsular. La arquitectura compleja de estos monumentos se organiza estructuralmente hacia posibilitar baños de sauna y baños de agua fría. Las dos áreas son divididas por una estela, monolítica, normalmente ornamentada – la pedra formosa. El papel simbólico que tendrían en el seno de la sociedad castreña de la Edad del Hierro del noroeste peninsular permanece por aclarar y envuelto en gran misticismo, fruto de una posible sacralidad. Este entorno, referido por diversos autores a lo largo de los tiempos, está posiblemente asociado al culto de los dioses de las aguas y a la sacralidad del baño purificador, medicinal, que se refleja en las decoraciones frontales de las pedras formosas, cuya maestría de los escultores que las insculpieran, tipología decorativa, interpretación simbólica y semiótica estudiamos, como objetivos primordiales, a lo largo de este trabajo de investigación.PALABRAS CLAVE: Protohistoria, monumentos con horno, decoración pétrea, interpretación simbólica / semiótica.ABSTRACTThe Iron Age sauna-baths of the northwest peninsular are monuments with an oven with very original architecture, possibly associated with the diverse thermal models. There are about three dozen known sauna-baths spread over the northwest peninsular. The complex architecture of thesemonuments is structurally organized to allow for cold water baths and sauna baths. The two areas are divided by a tectiforme stele, monolithic, usually ornamented, known as pedra formosa (beautiful stone). The symbolic role that they would have had in the heart of the Iron Age “castreña” society in the northwest peninsular remains unclear and shrouded in mysticism, the fruit of a possible sacredness. This environment, referred to by various authors throughout the ages, is possibly associated with the worship of the water gods and the sacredness of the medicinal and purifying bath, which is reflected in the frontal decorations of the pedras formosas, whose masterful sculpting, decorative typology, symbolic interpretation and semiotics we studied as primary objectives of this research work.KEYWORDS: Protohistory, monuments with oven, stone decoration, symbolic / semiotic interpretation. BIBLIOGRAFIAAlmagro-Gorbea, M. e Álvarez Sanchís, J. R. (1993), “La ‘sauna’ de Ulaca: saunas y baños iniciáticos en el mundo céltico”, Cuadernos de Arqueología de la Universidad de Navarra, 1, pp. 177-232.Almagro-Gorbea, M. e Moltó, L. (1992), “Saunas en la Hispania prerromana”, Espacio, Tempo y Forma, 3 (5), pp. 67-102.Almeida, C.A.F. (1974), “O monumento com forno de Sanfins e as escavações de 1973”, III Congresso Nacional de Arqueologia, pp. 149-172.— (1983), “O Castrejo sob o domínio romano. A sua transformação”, Estudos de Cultura Castrexa e de Historia Antiga da Galícia, pp. 187-198.— (1986), “Arte Castreja. A sua lição para os fenómenos de assimilação e resistência a Romanidade”, Arqueologia, 13, pp. 161-172.Araújo, J. R. (1920), Perosinho: Apontamentos para a sua monografia, Porto.Azevedo, A. (1946), “O “Monumento Funerário” da Citânia (Nova interpretação)”, Revista de Guimarães, 56 (1-2), pp. 150-164.Berrocal Rangel, L., Martínez Seco, P. e Ruíz Triviño, C. (2002), El Castiellu de Llagú, Madrid.Bosch Gimpera, P. (1921), “Los Celtas y la civilización celtica en la Península Ibérica”, Boletin de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones, 29, pp. 248-300.Cabré, J. (1922), “Una nueva hipótesis acerca de “Pedra Formosa” de la Citania de Sabroso (sic)”, Sociedad Espanhola de Antropologia, Etnografía y Prehistoria, 1, pp. 56-71.Calo Lourido, F. (1983), “Arte, Decoracion, Simbolismo e outros elementos da Cultura material Castrexa, ensaio de síntese”, Estudos de Cultura Castrexa e de História Antiga de Galicia, pp. 159-185.— (1993), A cultura castrexa, Vigo.Carballo Arceo, L. X. e Soto Arias, P. (1998), “A escultura xeométrica castrexa”, Historia da Arte Galega I. A Nosa Terra. Vigo, pp. 161-176.Cardozo, M. (1928), “A Pedra Formosa”, Revista de Guimarães, 38, 1-2, 139-152; 39,1-2, pp. 87-102.— (1931-1932), “A última descoberta arqueológica na Citânia de Briteiros e a interpretação da ‘Pedra Formosa’”, Revista de Guimarães, 41 (1-2), 55-60; 41 (3), 201-209; 41 (4), 250-260; 42 (1-2); 1932, 7 -25; 42 (3-4), pp. 127-139.— (1934), “A Pedra Formosa da Citânia de Briteiros e a sua interpretação arqueológica”, Brotéria, 18, 3, 30-43.— (1946), “O ‘monumento funerário’ da Citânia”, Revista de Guimarães, 56 (3-4), pp. 289-308.Cardozo, M. (1949), “Nova estela funerária do tipo da ‘Pedra Formosa’”, Revista de Guimarães, 59 (34), pp. 487-516.Cartailhac, E. (1886), Ages préhistoriques de 1’ Espagne et du Portugal, Paris.Chamoso Lamas, M. (1955), “Santa Mariña de Aguas Santas (Orense)”, Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos, 10 (30), pp. 41-88.Conde Valvis, F. (1955), “Las termas romanas de la ‘Cibdá’ de Armea en Santa Marina de Aguas Santas”, III Congreso Arqueologico Nacional, pp. 432-446.Craesbeck, F. (1726), Memorias ressuscitadas da Província de Entre-Douro-e-Minho, Manuscrito da Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, 217 do Núcleo Geral.Dias, L. A. T. (1997), Tongóbriga, Lisboa.Dinis, A. P. (2002), “O balneário do Alto de Quintãs (Póvoa de Lanhoso, Norte de Portugal). Um novo caso a juntar ao livro negro da arqueologia de Entre-Douro-e-Minho”, Mínia, 3ª Série, 10, pp. 159-179.Dechelette, J. (1909), “Essai sur la chronologie de la Péninsule Ibérique“, Revue Archéologique, 13, pp. 26-36.Eco, H. (1972), “Semiologia de los mensajes visuales”, Análises de las imagenes, pp. 23-80.— (1988), O Signo, Labor.— (1979), A Theory of Semiotics, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.Estrabón (1965), Livro III Da Geografia, Amphitheatrvm, IX, Porto.Fernández Fuster, L. (1953), “Sobre la interpretación de los monumentos con ‘pedras formosas’”, Archivo Español de Arqueología, 26 (88), pp. 379-384.Ferreira, E. Veiga (1966), “Uma estela do tipo Pedra Formosa encontrada no Castro de Fontalva (Elvas)”, Revista de Guimarães, 76, pp- 359-363.Fernández Vega, P. A., Mantecón Callejo, L., Callejo Gómez, J. y Bolado del Castillo, R. (2014), “La sauna de la Segunda edad del Hierro del oppidum de Monte Ornedo (Cantabria, España)”, Munibe, 65, pp. 177-195.García Quintela, M. V. e Santos-Estévez M. (2015), “Iron Age saunas of northern Portugal: state of the art and research perspectives”, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 34(1), pp. 67–95.García Quintela, M. V. (2016), “Sobre las saunas de la Edad del Hierro en la Península ibérica: novedades, tipologías e interpretaciones”, Complutum, 27 (1), pp. 109-130.García y Bellido, A. (1931), “Las relaciones entre el Arte etrusca y el ibérico”, Archivo Español de Arte y Arqueología, 7, pp. 119-148.— (1940), “El castro de Coaña (Asturias) y algunas notas sobre el posible origen de esta cultura”. Revista de Guimarães, 50(3–4), pp. 284-311.— (1968), “Las cámaras funerarias de la cultura castreña”, Archivo Español de Arqueología, 41, pp. 16-44.Gómez Tabanera, J. M., La caza en la Prehistoria, Madrid, Istmo, 1980.González Ruibal, A. (2006), “Galaicos. Poder y comunidad en el Noroeste de la península Ibérica (1200 a.C.-50 d.C.)”. Brigantium, 18, A Coruña.Höck, M. (1984), “Acerca dos elementos arquitectónicos decorados de castros do noroeste peninsular”, Revista Guimarães, 94, pp. 389-405.Hübner, E. (1879), “Citania”, Dispersos, pp. 445-462.Jordá Cerdá, F. (1969), Guía del Castrillón de Coaña. Salamanca, 8-12.— (1983), “Introducción a los problemas del arte esquemático de la Península Ibérica”, Zephyrvs, 36, pp. 7-12.Júnior, J. R. S. (1966), “Dois fornos do povo em Trás-os-Montes”, Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia, 1-2, 20, pp. 119-146.Lemos, F. S., Leite, J. M. F., Bettencourt, A. M. S. e Azevedo, M. (2003), “O balneário pré-romano de Braga”, Al-madan, II série, 12, pp. 43-46.López Cuevillas, F. (1953), La civilización celtica en Galicia, Compostela.Lorenzo Fernández, J. (1948), “El monumento proto-histórico de Águas Santas y los ritos funerarios de los castros”, Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos, 2 (10), pp. 157-211.Martin, H. (1881), “La Citania de Briteiros“, Revue Archéologique, 42, pp. 160-164.Monteagudo, L. (1952), “Monumentos propiedad de la Sociedad Martins Sarmento”, Archivo Español de Arqueología, 25 (85), pp. 112-116.Moreira, A. B. (2013), “O Balneário Castrejo do Monte Padrão, Santo Tirso”, Santo Tirso Arqueológico, 5, pp. 7-36.Parente, J. (2003), O Castro de S. Bento (concelho de Vila Real) e o seu ambiente arqueológico. Vila Real.Queiroga, F. e Dinis, A. (2008-2009), “O Balneário Castrejo do Castro das Eiras”, Portugália, 39-40, pp. 139-152.Ramil, G. E. (1995-96), “O monumento com forno do Castro dos Prados-Espasante (Ortigueira, A Coruña) Memoria de investigação”, Brigantium, 9, pp. 13-60.Ribeiro, F. (1930-34), “Novas descobertas arqueológicas na Citânia de Briteiros”, Revista de Guimarães, 40 (3-4), 171-175; 44 (3-4), pp. 205-208.Ríos González, S. (2000), “Consideraciones funcionales y tipológicas en torno a los baños castreños del NO. de la Península Ibérica”, Gallaecia, 19, pp. 93-124.Romero Masiá, A. (1976), El habitat castreño, Santiago de Compostela.Santa-Olalla, J. (1932), “Las estelas funerarias en forma de casa en España”, Revista Investigación y Progreso, 10, pp. 182-193.Santos-Estévez, M. (2017), “Pitágoras na Gallaecia”, http://www.gciencia.com/author/manuel-santos-estevez/ [Consulta: 12-09-2017].Santos, J. N. (1963), “Serpentes geminadas em suástica e figurações serpentiformes do Castro de Guifões”, Lucerna, pp. 120-140.Sarmento, F. M. (1888), “Antigualhas”, Revista de Guimarães, 5, p. 150.— (1881), “Expedição Cientifica a Serra da Estrela”, Dispersos, 1933, pp. 127-152.— (1899), “A arte micénica no Noroeste de Espanha”, Portugália, 1, pp. 431-442.— (1904), “Materiaes para a Archeologia do Concelho de Guimarães”, Revista de Guimarães, 31.Silva, J. N. (1876), “Esculptura Romana conhecida pelo nome de Pedra Formosa achada em Portugal, e o que ella representa”, Boletim Real Associação dos Architectos Civis e Archeologos Portugueses, 9, 2.Silva, A. C. F. (1981-82), “Novos dados sobre a organização social castreja”, Portugália, Nova Série, 2-3, pp. 83-96.— (1983), Citânia de Sanfins (Paços de Ferreira). Paços de Ferreira.— (1983-84), “A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal: habitat e cronologias”, Portugalia, Nova Série, 3-4, pp. 121-129.— (1986), A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal, Paços de Ferreira.— (2007), “Pedra formosa: arqueologia experimental”, MNA/CMVNF, Vila Nova de Famalicão).Silva, A. C. F. e Maciel, T. (2004), “Balneários castrejos do noroeste peninsular. Notícia de um novo monumento do Castro de Roques”, Portugália, Nova Série, 25, pp. 115-131.Silva, A. C. F., Oliveira, J. e Lobato, R. (2010-11), “Balneários Castrejos: Do Primeiro Registo à Arqueologia Experimental”, Boletim Cultural Câmara Municipal de Vila Nova de Famalicão, III série, 6/7, pp. 79-87.Silva, A. C. F., Ferreira, J. S. (2016), “O Balneário Castrejo do Castro de Eiras/Aboim das Choças (Arcos de Valdevez): notícia do achado e ensaio interpretativo”, Al-Madan, II Série, 20, pp. 27-34.Silva, M. F. M. (1986a), “Subsídios para o estudo da Arte Castreja-Arte Decorativa Arquitectónica”, Revista de Ciências Históricas, 1, pp. 31-68.— (1987), “Subsídios para o estudo da Arte Castreja-Arte Decorativa Arquitectónica-II”, Revista de Ciências Históricas, 2, pp. 124-147.— (1988), Subsídios para o Estudo da Arte Castreja. A cultura dos Berrões: ensaio de Síntese”, Revista de Ciências Históricas, 3, pp. 57-93.— (2017), “Os primórdios do Termalismo: os balneários castrejos e o seu potencial turístico”, Tourism and Hospitality International Journal, 9(2), pp. 4-28.Trabant, J. (1980), Elementos de Semiótica, Editorial Presença, Lisboa.Tranoy, A. (1981), La Galice romaine. Recherches sur le Nord-Ouest de la Péninsule Ibérique dans l’Antiquité, Paris.Uría Ríu, J. (1941), “Excavaciones en el Castellón de Coaña”, Revista de la Universidad de Oviedo, 2, pp. 85-114.Vasconcelos, J. L. (1913), Religiões da Lusitânia, 3, Lisboa.Villa Valdés, A. (1999), “Castro del Chao Samartín (Grandas de Salime)”, Excavaciones arqueológicas en Asturias, 1995-1998, 4, pp. 11-123.— (2000), “Saunas castreñas en Asturias”, Termas romanas en el Occident del Imperio, pp. 97-114.— (2012), “Santuarios urbanos en la Protohistoria cantábrica: algunas consideraciones sobre el significado y función de las saunas castreñas”, Boletín del Real Instituto de Estudios Asturianos, 177, pp. 65-102.— (2016), “Laberintos en cruz, lacería, sogueado y otros patrones geométricos en la plástica de la Edad del Hierro de Asturias y su pervivencia en época romana”, Arqueología y Prehistoria del Interior Peninsular, 05, pp. 96-109.Villa Valdés, Á., Menéndez Granda, A., Fanjul Mosteirin, J. A. (2007), “Excavaciones arqueológicas en el poblado fortificado de Os Castros, en Taramundi”, Excavaciones Arqueológicas en Asturias 1999–2002, pp. 267-275.

Use value refers to the usefulness of social productions in the sense of the increasingly effective fulfillment of human needs, as well as the production of new, ever richer, more human needs. However, in a society oriented by the logic of capital, thus oriented to the production of goods for exchange (commodities), the use value will always be determined, though not unilaterally, by the fact that it is in indissoluble unity with the exchange value, which leads, as a rule, to the secondary consideration of supplying/ production of needs in favor of the increased production of plus-value, the source of capital profit. This paper analyzes, employing literature review, a discussion about the contradiction of use value / exchange value incident on the use of digital media in education. Based on the Marxian dialectical method, a discussion is made about this contradiction, analyzing (abstracting, isolating) on the one hand the rich possibilities opened by the development of these technologies; and on the other hand, the process of commodification incident on the educational phenomenon, which interferes with the realization of that possibilities. As a synthesis, it is argued that the ontologically human moment, oriented to the use value, although determined by the purpose of producing plus-value, constitutes the fundamental social reference for the critique of the commodification process that occurs in education in general, with consequences in the way the means necessary to achieve the ends are conceived and adopted, a fundamental critical attitude for digital technologies to be part of an effective humanization process.ResumoO valor de uso refere-se à utilidade das produções sociais, no sentido do atendimento cada vez mais efetivo das necessidades humanas, bem como de produção de novas necessidades, cada vez mais ricas, mais humanas. Entretanto, em uma sociedade regida pela ordem do capital, orientada, portanto, à produção de bens para a troca (mercadorias), o valor de uso estará sempre determinado, embora não unilateralmente, pelo fato de se encontrar em unidade indissolúvel com o valor de troca, o que leva em regra à secundarização desse papel de atendimento/produção de necessidades em favor da extração ampliada de mais-valor, fonte de lucro do capital. Este artigo, analisa, empregando revisão de literatura, uma discussão sobre a contradição valor de uso/valor de troca incidente sobre o emprego das mídias digitais na educação. Tomando-se como base o método dialético marxiano, faz-se uma discussão, sobre essa contradição, analisando (abstraindo, isolando) por um lado, as ricas possibilidades abertas pelo desenvolvimento dessas tecnologias; e de outro lado, o processo de mercantilização incidente no fenômeno educativo, que interfere na efetivação daquele potencial. Como síntese, sustenta-se que o momento ontologicamente humano, orientado ao valor de uso, embora determinado pela busca da produção de mais-valor, constitui referência social fundamental para a crítica do processo de mercantilização que incide na educação de forma geral, com rebatimentos na maneira como se escolhem e adotam os meios necessários para atingimento dos fins, crítica fundamental para que as tecnologias digitais se insiram em um efetivo processo de humanização.ResumenEl valor de uso se refiere a la utilidad de las producciones sociales en el sentido de la satisfacción cada vez más efectiva de las necesidades humanas, así como a la producción de nuevas necesidades cada vez más ricas y más humanas. Sin embargo, en una sociedad gobernada por el orden del capital, orientada a la producción de bienes para el intercambio (mercancías), el valor de uso siempre estará determinado, aunque no de manera unilateral, por el hecho de que está en una unidad indisoluble con el valor de cambio, lo que lleva, por regla general, a la secundarización del papel de satisfacción / producción de necesidades en favor de una mayor extracción de más valor, fuente de ganancias del capital. Este artículo analiza, utilizando una revisión de la literatura, una discusión sobre la contradicción valor de uso / valor de cambio incidente en el uso de las medias digitales en la educación. Basado en el método dialéctico marxista, se discute sobre esta contradicción, analizando (abstrayendo, aislando) por un lado las ricas posibilidades abiertas por el desarrollo de estas tecnologías; y, por otro lado, el proceso de mercantilización que ocurre en el fenómeno educativo, que interfiere con la realización de ese potencial. En síntesis, se argumenta que el momento ontológicamente humano, orientado al valor de uso, aunque determinado por la búsqueda de la producción de más valor, constituye una referencia social fundamental para la crítica del proceso de mercantilización que ocurre en la educación en general, con efectos en la forma en que se eligen y adoptan los medios necesarios para lograr los fines, una crítica fundamental para que las tecnologías digitales sean parte de un proceso de humanización efectivo.Palavras-chave: Marxismo, Trabalho e educação, Assimilação crítica de tecnologia. Keywords: Marxism, Education and work, Technology uses in education.Palabras claves: Marxismo, trabajo y educación, asimilación crítica de la tecnología.ReferencesBARRETO, Raquel. G. Uma análise do discurso hegemônico acerca das tecnologias na educação. Perspectiva, Florianópolis, v. 30, n. 1, p. 41-58, jan.-abr. 2012. Disponível em <https://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/perspectiva/ article/view/2175-795X.2012v30n1p41>. Acesso em: 02 out. 2019.BARRETO, Raquel Goulart. A formação de professores a distância como estratégia de expansão do ensino superior. Educ. Soc., Campinas, v. 31, n. 113, p. 1299-1318, dez. 2010. Disponível em <http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0101-73302010000400013&lng=pt&nrm=iso>. Acesso em 10 out. 2019.BRASIL. Decreto n. 9.057, de 25 de maio de 2017. Regulamenta o art. 80 da Lei nº 9.394, de 20 de dezembro de 1996, que estabelece as diretrizes e bases da educação nacional. Presidência da República, Secretaria-Geral, Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Brasília, 2017a.BRASIL, Decreto nº 9.235, de 15 de dezembro de 2017. Dispõe sobre o exercício das funções de regulação, supervisão e avaliação das instituições de educação superior e dos cursos superiores de graduação e de pós-graduação no sistema federal de ensino. Presidência da República, Secretaria-Geral Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Brasília, 2017b.DUARTE, Newton. O debate contemporâneo das teorias pedagógicas. In: MARTINS, Ligia; DUARTE, Newton (Orgs.). Formação de professores – Limites contemporâneos e alternativas necessárias. São Paulo: Cultura acadêmica – UNESP, 2010. pp. 33-49.ENGELS, Introdução. In: MARX, Karl. Trabalho assalariado e Capital & Salário, preço e lucro. São Paulo: Expressão popular. 2010. 141 p.EXAME. Mudança na Kroton não convence e grupo perde mais de R$ 1 bi na bolsa. Exame [online]. 8 out 2019. Disponível em <https://exame.abril.com.br/mercados/mudanca-na-kroton-nao-convence-e-acao-cai-mais-de-3/>. Acesso em: 12 out. 2019.FERREIRA, Benedito. J. P. Tecnologias da informação e comunicação na educação: avanço no processo de humanização ou fenômeno de alienação? Germinal: Marxismo e Educação em Debate, v. 7, n. 1, p. 89-99, jun. 2015. Disponível em: <https://portalseer.ufba.br/index.php/revistagerminal/ article/view/12434>. Acesso em: 12 set. 2019.FREITAS, Luiz C. de. A reforma empresarial da educação: nova direita, velhas odeias – 1. ed. – São Paulo: Expressão popular, 2018. 160 p.FREITAS, Luiz C. de. Os reformadores empresariais da educação: Da desmoralização do magistério à destruição do sistema público de educação. Educ. Soc., Campinas, v. 33, n. 119, p. 379-404, abr.-jun. 2012.FREITAS JR., José Maria de. Políticas de tecnologia na educação e a Formação de Professores: um estudo da experiência do NIED/SEMEC-Belém-Pará. 2015. 131 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação) – Instituto de Ciências da Educação, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação, Universidade Federal do Pará, 2015.GRAMSCI, Antonio. Os intelectuais e a organização da cultura. 9. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1995. 244 p.HARVEY, David. 17 contradições e o fim do capitalismo. 1. ed. - São Paulo: Boitempo, 2016. 297 p.HARVEY, David. O neoliberalismo: história e implicações. 5. ed. - São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 2014. 252 p.HYPOLITO, Álvaro Moreira; VIEIRA, Jarbas Santos; PIZZI, Laura Cristina Vieira. Reestruturação curricular e auto-intensificação do trabalho docente. Currículo sem Fronteiras, v.9, n.2, p. 100-112, Jul/Dez 2009.LUKÁCS, G. O trabalho. In: LUKÁCS, G. Para uma ontologia do ser social II. 1. ed. - São Paulo: Boitempo. 2013. p. 41-157.MACEDO, Alexandra L.; BEHAR, Patricia A.; REATEGUI, Eliseo B. Rede de Conceitos: tecnologia de mineração de texto para apoiar práticas pedagógicas no acompanhamento da escrita coletiva. Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, [S.l.], v. 19, n. 01, p. 04, ago. 2011. ISSN 2317-6121. Disponível em: <https://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/1290/1158>. Acesso em: 13 set. 2019.MARX, Karl. O Capital: crítica da economia política. Livro I: o processo de produção do capital. 2. ed. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2017a. 894 p.MARX, Karl. O Capital: crítica da economia política. Livro III: O processo global da produção capitalista, 1. ed. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2017b. 984 p.MARX, Karl. Grundrisse: manuscritos econômicos de 1857-1858. Esboços da crítica da economia política. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2011. 788 p.MARX, Karl. Manuscritos econômico-filosóficos. [4. reimpr.] – São Paulo: Boitempo, 2010. 190 p.MARX, Karl. Contribuição à crítica da economia política. 2. ed. São Paulo: Expressão Popular, 2008. 285 p.PRIOSTE, Cláudia. O adolescente e a internet: Laços e embaraços no mundo virtual. São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2016. 368 p.RIBEIRO ROCHA, Paul Symon; DE LIMA, Rommel Wladimir; QUEIROZ, Paulo Gabriel Gadelha. Tecnologias para o ensino da Língua Brasileira de Sinais (LIBRAS): Uma revisão sistemática da literatura. Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, [S.l.], v. 26, n. 03, p. 42, set. 2018. ISSN 2317-6121. Disponível em: <https://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/ article/view/7140>. Acesso em: 04 out. 2019.ROCHA, Eucenir F.; CASTIGLIONI, Maria do Carmo. Reflexões sobre recursos tecnológicos: ajudas técnicas, tecnologia assistiva, tecnologia de assistência e tecnologia de apoio. Rev. Ter. Ocup. São Paulo, v. 16, n. 3, p. 97-104, set. -dez. 2005. Disponível em <http://www.revistas.usp.br/rto/article/view/13968>. Acesso em: 03 out. 2019.SALCEDO, Edna Manotas. Los cursos masivos en línea, MOOC: ¿cursos para la inmensa minoría?: una revisión de posturas sobre el impacto de la educación virtual para el acceso a la educación en América Latina. Investigación & desarrollo. vol. 26, n° 2, 2018. Disponível em <http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0121-32612018000200109&script=sci_abstract&tlng=es>. Acesso em: 02 out. 2019.SÁNCHEZ VÁZQUEZ, Adolfo. Filosofia da Práxis. 1. ed. São Paulo: Expressão Popular, 2007.SAVIANI, Dermeval. Pedagogia histórico crítica: primeiras aproximações. 9. ed. Campinas, SP: Autores Associados, 2005. 160 p.SAVIANI, Dermeval. Escola e Democracia. Ed. comemorativa. Campinas, SP: Autores Associados, 2008.SAVIANI, Dermeval. Trabalho e educação: fundamentos ontológicos e históricos. Rev. Bras. Educ., Rio de Janeiro, v. 12 n. 34 jan.-abr. 2007. Disponível em <http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbedu/v12n34/a12v1234.pdf>. Acesso em: 02 out. 2019.SAVIANI, Dermeval. Educação: do senso comum à consciência filosófica. Campinas: Autores Associados, 1996. 312 p.SAVIANI, Dermeval; DUARTE, Newton. A formação humana na perspectiva histórico-ontológica. Rev. Bras. Educ., Rio de Janeiro, v. 15 n. 45 set.-dez. 2010. Disponível em <http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbedu/v15n45/02>. Acesso em: 02 out. 2019.SGUISSARDI, Valdemar. Educação superior no Brasil. Democratização ou massificação mercantil? Educ. Soc., Campinas, v. 36, n. 133, p. 867-889, out.-dez., 2015. Disponível em <http://www.scielo.br/pdf/es/v36n133/1678-4626-es-36-133-00867.pdf>. Acesso em: 02 out. 2019.SHIROMA, Eneida O. Gerencialismo e formação de professores nas agendas das Organizações Multilaterais. Momento: diálogos em educação, Rio Grande/RS, v. 27, n. 2, p. 88-106, mai.-ago, 2018. Disponível em <https://periodicos.furg.br/momento/article/view/8093/5344>. Acesso em: 02 set. 2019.SOUZA, José da Cruz. A formação docente para o uso pedagógico das novas tecnologias de informação e comunicação: o papel do Núcleo de Tecnologia Municipal - NTM da Semed-Marabá. 2017. 131 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação) – Instituto de Ciências da Educação, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação, Universidade Federal do Pará, 2017.TORI, Romero et al. VIDA ODONTO: Ambiente de Realidade Virtual para Treinamento Odontológico. Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, [S.l.], v. 26, n. 02, p. 80, maio 2018. ISSN 2317-6121. Disponível em: <https://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/7123>. Acesso em: 6 out. 2019.VALENCIA, Adrián S. Crisis capitalista y desmedida del valor – Un enfoque desde los Grundrisse. México, D.F: Editorial Itaca, 2010. 143 p.YUAN, Li; POWELL, Stephen. MOOCs and Open Education: Implications for Higher Education - A white paper. JISC- CETIS (Centre for educations technology & interoperability standards). Bolton/Manchester, 2013. Disponível em <https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/619735/1/MOOCs-and-Open-Education.pdf>. Acesso em: 02 set. 2019.e3773071

Aunque la arqueología de Al-Andalus no se constituyó como disciplina propia hasta hace unos cuarenta años, el interés hacia las fortalezas llamadas por entonces “hispano-musulmanas” se manifestó mucho antes, centrado esencialmente en los aspectos arquitectónicos y de poliorcética. Más recientemente, la aproximación al proceso de la fortificación medieval se ha ido diversificando. No son pocos los trabajos que buscan en él unas respuestas a preguntas más ambiciosas, relativas a la organización de la sociedad campesina, a las estructuras de poblamiento y a la ordenación del territorio, o a las formas adoptadas por el control estatal.Después de unas breves observaciones introductorias sobre el cambio metodológico experimentado a finales de los años 1970, el artículo hace hincapié en la polisemia de los términos árabes referidos a la arquitectura defensiva. A continuación, se centra en las polémicas surgidas a propósito de uno de estos términos, el ḥiṣn (en el ámbito rural) y en las hipótesis avanzadas al respecto. Finalmente, plantea la cuestión de la existencia en al-Andalus de graneros colectivos fortificados y de ribāṭ-s, estructuras mejor documentadas en África del Norte. Palabras claves: fortificación, estructura social islámica, ordenación del espacioTopónimos: al-AndalusPeriodo: siglos VIII-XV ABSTRACTUntil about forty years ago, the archeology of al-Andalus was not regarded as a discipline in itself. However, interest in the so-called “Moorish” fortresses had been expressed much earlier, focused primarily on architectural and polyorcetic aspects. More recently, the approach to the process of medieval fortification has become more diverse: today many scholars seek within it answers to more ambitious questions, related to the organization of peasant society, settlement structures, land-use planning, or formulae of state control.After some preliminary remarks on the methodological change that occurred in the late 1970s, this paper emphasizes the polysemy of Arabic terms referring to defensive architecture. It then focuses on the debates that arose with regard to one of these terms, the ḥiṣn (in rural areas), and on the hypotheses proposed in this respect. Finally, the paper raises the question of the existence in al-Andalus of ribāṭ-s and fortified collective granaries, structures long considered to be specific to North Africa. Keywords: fortification, Islamic social structure, spatial planningPlace names: al-AndalusPeriod: 8th-15th centuries REFERENCIASAcién Almansa, M. (1992a), “Poblamiento y fortificación en el sur de al-Andalus. La formación de un país de ḥuṣūn”, en III Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Oviedo. 27 de marzo - 1 abril 1989, I, Oviedo, Universidad de Oviedo, pp. 135-150.— (1992b), “Sobre la función de los ḥuṣūn en el sur de al-Andalus. La fortificación en el califato”, en Coloquio hispano-italiano de arqueología medieval, Granada, Patronato de la Alhambra y el Generalife, pp. 263-274.— (1995), “Los ṯugūr del reino de Granada. Ensayo de identificación”, en A. Bazzana (ed.), Castrum 5. Archéologie des espaces agraires méditerranéens au Moyen Âge, Madrid-Roma, Casa de Velázquez-École française de Rome, pp. 427-438.— (2006), “Las torres/burūŷ en el poblamiento andalusí”, Al-Ándalus, espaço de mudança. Balanço de 25 anos de história e arqueología medievais, Mértola, Campo Arqueológico de Mértola, pp. 21-28.— (2008), “Un posible origen de la torre residencial en al-Andalus”, en R. Martí Castelló (ed.), Fars de l’Islam. Antigues alimares d’al-Andalus, Barcelona, EDAR, pp. 57-88.Albarrán, J. y Daza, E. (eds.) (2019), Fortificación, espiritualidad y frontera en el islam medieval: ribāṭs de al-Andalus, el Magreb y más allá, Cuadernos de Arquitectura y fortificación, 6, (número monográfico), Madrid, La Ergástula ediciones.Almagro Gorbea, A. (1991), “La torre de Romilla. Una torre nazarí en la Vega de Granada”, Al-Qanṭara, XII (1), pp. 225-250.Amigues, F. y De Meulemeester, J. (1995), “Archéologie d’un grenier collectif fortifié hispano-musulman : le Cabezo de la Cobertera (vallée du río Segura, Murcie)”, en A. Bazzana (ed.), Archéologie des espaces agraires méditerranéens au Moyen Âge, Madrid-Roma-Murcia, Casa de Velázquez-École Français de Rome-Ayuntamiento de Murcia, pp. 347-359.Amri, N. (2011), “Ribāṭ et idéal de sainteté à Kairouan et sur le littoral Ifrīqiyen du IIe/VIIIe au IVe/Xe siècle d’après le Riyāḍ al-Nufūs d’al-Mālikī”, en D. Valérian (ed.), Islamisation et arabisation de l’Occident musulman médiéval (VIIe-XIIe siècle), París, Éditions de la Sorbonne, pp. 336-368.Azuar Ruiz, R. (1982), “Una interpretación del ḥiṣn musulmán en el ámbito rural”, Revista del Instituto de Estudios Alicantinos, 37, pp. 33-41.— (1989), La Rábita Califal de las dunas de Guardamar (Alicante). Cerámica. Epigrafía. Fauna. Malacofauna, Memorias de excavaciones, Alicante : Museo arqueológico de Alicante.— (dir.) (1994), El Castillo del Río (Aspe, Alicante). Arqueología de un asentamiento andalusí y la transición al feudalismo (siglos XII-XIII), Alicante, Diputación Provincial, Colección “ExcavacionesArqueológicas-Memorias” 2.Barceló, M. (1998), “Los ḥuṣūn, los castra y los fantasmas que aún los habitan”, en A. Malpica Cuello (ed.), Castillos y territorio en al-Andalus, Granada, Athos-Pérgamos, pp. 10-42.Barroso Cabrera, R., Malalana Ureña, A., Carrobles Santos, J. y Morín de Pablo, J. (2021), “Ribāṭ-s y ḥuṣūn en la marca media toledana: del ṯagr al-awsaṭ a la transierra de Castilla”, Boletín de arqueología medieval, 19, pp. 89-138.Bazzana, A. (1992), “Le ḥiṣn et le ma’aqil dans l’organisation du peuplement musulman d’al-Andalus”, Château Gaillard, 15, pp. 19-31.— (1998), “Ḥiṣn et territoire dans l’organisation du peuplement islamique dans al-Andalus”, en M. Barceló y P. Toubert (eds.), «L’incastellamento». Actas de las reuniones de Girona (26-27 noviembre 1992) y de Roma (5-7 de mayo 1994), Roma, Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología en Roma pp. 179-205.— (2009), “Castillos y sociedad en al-Andalus: cuestiones metodológicas y líneas actuales de investigación”, en Á. L. Molina Molina y J. Eiroa Rodríguez (eds.), El castillo medieval en tiempos de Alfonso X el Sabio, Murcia, Universidad de Murcia, pp. 9-40.Bazzana, A. y Guichard, P. (1978), “Les tours de défense de la Huerta de Valence au XIII s.”, Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, 14, pp. 73-105.Bazzana, A., Cressier, P. y Guichard, P. (1988), Les châteaux ruraux d’al-Andalus. Histoire et archéologie des ḥuṣūn du sud-est de l’Espagne, Madrid, Casa de Velázquez.Belatik, M. (2019), “Lkāy, une ville-forteresse médiévale dans le Pré-Rif marocain”, Bulletin d’Archéologie Marocaine, 24, pp. 93-109.Beltrán Martinez, A. (coord.) (2008), La Aljafería, Zaragoza, Cortes de Aragón.Benhima, Y. (2000), “L’habitat fortifié au Maroc médiéval. Éléments d’un bilan et perspectives de recherche”, Archéologie islamique, 10, pp. 79-102.Bertrand, M. (1987), “Los covarrones-refugio de Guadix. Primeros datos cronológicos”, en II Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, II, pp. 451-465.Bokbot, Y, Cressier, P., Delaigue, M.-Ch., Izquierdo Benito, R., Mabrouk, S. y Onrubia Pintado, J., (2002), “Enceintes refuges, greniers fortifiés et qasaba-s: fonctions, périodisation et interprétation de la fortification en milieu rural pré-saharien”, en I. C. Ferreira Fernandes (ed.), Mil anos de fortificações na Península ibérica e no Magreb (500-1500). Actas do Simposio Internacional sobre Castelos, Lisbonne-Palmela, Colibri, pp. 213-227.Caballero Zoreda, L. y Mateo Sagasta, A. (1990), “El grupo de atalayas de la sierra de Madrid”, Madrid del siglo IX al XI, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, Consejería de Cultura, Dirección General de Patrimonio Cultural, pp. 65-77.Castaño Aguilar, J. M. (2016), “El final de la villa y la continuidad del poblamiento, un debate entre turres y ḥuṣūn: el caso de la Serranía de Ronda”, Mainake, 36, pp. 111-136.— (2019), “¿Torres sin alquerías? De nuevo sobre el origen de la torre residencial en Al-Ándalus”, Arqueología y Territorio Medieval, 26, pp. 7-30.Castrum 1 (1983), “Habitats fortifiés et organisation de l’espace en Méditerranée médiévale”, en A. Bazzana, J.-M. Poisson y P. Guichard (eds.), Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient 4, Lyon, 1983.Castrum 2 (1988), Structures de l’habitat et occupation du sol dans les pays méditerranéens. Les méthodes et l’apport de l’archéologie extensive, en G. Noyé (ed.), Collection de l’École française de Rome 105 - Publications de la Casa de Velázquez/Série archéologie IX, Roma - Madrid.Castrum 3 (1988), Guerre, fortification et habitat dans le monde méditerranéen au Moyen Âge (1988), en A. Bazzana (ed.), Collection de la Casa de Velázquez/Série archéologie XII - Collection de l’École française de Rome 105, Madrid - Roma.Castrum 4 (1992), Frontière et peuplement dans le monde méditerranéen au Moyen Âge, en J.-M. Poisson (ed.), Collection de l’École française de Rome 105 - Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 38, Madrid - Roma.Castrum 5 (1999), Archéologie des espaces agraires méditerranéens au Moyen Âge, en A. Bazzana (ed.), Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 55 - Collection de l’École française de Rome 105, Madrid - Murcia - Roma.Castrum 6 (2000), Maisons et espace domestique dans le monde méditerranéen au Moyen Âge, en A. Bazzana y É. Hubert (dirs.), Collection de l’École française de Rome 105/6 - Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 72, Roma - Madrid.Castrum 7 (2001), Zones côtières littorales dans le monde méditerranéen au Moyen Âge : défense, peuplement, mise en valeur, en J.-M. Martin (ed.), Collection de l’École française de Rome 105/7 - Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 76, Roma - Madrid.Castrum 8 (2008), El castillo y la ciudad. Espacios y redes (siglos VI-XI), en P. Cressier (ed.), Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 108, Madrid.Clément, F. (2007), “La terminologie castrale dans les sources du Moyen Âge : l’approche philologique”, en Ph. Sénac (ed.), Le Maghreb, al-Andalus et la Méditerranée occidentale (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle), Toulouse, Méridiennes, pp. 237-251.Cressier, P. (1984), “Le château et la division territoriale dan l’Alpujarra médievale: du ḥiṣn à la tā‘a”, Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, 20, pp. 115-144.— (1986), “Dalías et son territoire : un groupe d’alquerías musulmanes de la basse Alpujarra (province d’Almería)”, Actas del XII congreso de la U.E.A.I. , Málaga, 1984, Madrid, pp. 205-228.— (1991) “Agua, fortificaciones y poblamiento. El aporte de la arqueología a los estudios sobre el Sureste peninsular”, Aragón en la Edad Media, 9, pp. 403-428.— (1995), “Châteaux et terroirs irrigués dans la province d’Alméria (Xe-XVe siècles)”, en A. Bazzana (ed.), Castrum 5. Archéologie des espaces agraires méditerranéens au Moyen Âge, Madrid-Roma-Murcia, Casa de Velázquez-École française de Rome-Ayuntamiento de Murcia, pp. 439-453.— (1998a), “Remarques sur la fonction du château islamique dans l’actuelle province d’Alméria à partir des textes et de l’archéologie”, en M. Barceló y P. Toubert (eds.), «L’incastellamento». Actas de las reuniones de Girona (26-27 noviembre 1992) y de Roma (5-7 de mayo 1994), Roma, Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología en Roma pp. 233-245.— (1998b), “Apuntes sobre fortificación islámica en Marruecos”, en Actas. I Congreso internacional. Fortificaciones en al-Andalus (Algeciras, Noviembre–Diciembre, 1996). Actas, Algeciras, pp. 129-145.— (2004), “Capítulo X. De un ribāṭ a otro. Una hipótesis sobre los ribāṭ-s del Maġrib al-Aqṣà (siglo IX-inicios siglo XI)”, en R. Azuar Ruiz (ed.), Fouilles de la Rábita de Guardamar I. El ribāṭ califal. Excavación e investigaciones (1984-1992), Collection de la Casa de Velázquez 85, Madrid, pp. 203-221.— (2019), “Lecturas arqueológicas del ribāṭ en Ifrīqiya y el Magreb occidental”, en Fortificación, espiritualidad y frontera en el islam medieval: ribāṭs de al-Andalus, el Magreb y más allá, Cuadernos de Arquitectura y fortificación, 6 (número monográfico), Madrid, La Ergástula ediciones pp. 107-126.Cressier, P., El Boudjay, A. El Figuigui, H y Vignet-Zunz, J. (1998), “Haǧar al-Nasr, capitale idrisside du Maroc septentrional : archéologie et histoire (IVe H,/Xe ap. J.-C.)”, en P. Cressier y M. García-Arenal (eds.), M. Meouak (colab.), Genèse de la ville islamique en al-Andalus et au Maghreb occidental, Madrid, Casa de Velázquez-CSIC, pp. 305-334.Dallière-Benelhadj, V. (1983), “Le château en al-Andalus: un problème de terminologie”, en A. Bazzana, J.-M. Poisson y P. Guichard (eds.), Castrum 1. Habitats fortifiés et organisation de l’espace en Méditerranée médiévale, Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient 4, Lyon, 1983, pp. 63-67.Delaigue, M.-C, Onrubia Pintado, J., Bokbot, Y. y Amarir, A. (2011), “Une technique d’engrangement, un symbole perché”, Techniques Culture, 57 | 2011, mis en ligne le 30 juin 2012, consulté le 19 avril 2019. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/tc/5875; DOI: 10.4000/tc.5875Delaigue, M.-C., Onrubia Pintado, J. y Bokbot, Y. (2013), “El agadir de Id Aysa (Amtudi, Marruecos). Materialidad y espacio social”, en S. Gutiérrez Lloret e I. Grau Mira (eds.), De la estructura domestica al espacio social. Lecturas arqueológicas del uso social del Espacio, Alicante, Universidad de Alicante, pp. 299-312.De Meulemeester, J. y Matthys, A. (1995), “Un grenier collectif fortifié hispano-musulman? Le Cabezo de la Cobertera (Vallée du Río Segura / Murcie). Bilan provisoire d’une approche ethnoarchéologique”, en A. Bazzana y M.-Ch. Delaigue (eds.), Ethnoarchéologie mediterranéenne, Madrid, Casa de Velázquez, pp. 181-196.— (1998), “The conservation of grain and the fortified granaries from the Maghreb to Central Europe”, Ruralia II, Památky archeologické – Supplementum 11, Praga, pp. 161-171.Dozy, R. (1927), Supplément au dictionnaires arabes, Leiden-París, Brill-Maisonneuve Frères, 2 vols.Eiroa Rodríguez, J. (2011), “Fortified granaries in southeastern al-Andalus”, en J. Klápště y P. Sommer (eds.), Processing, Storage, Distribution of Food. Food in the Medieval Rural Environment. Ruralia VIII, pp. 1-9, Turnhout, Brepols.El Bahi, A. (2018), “Les ribats aghlabides: un essai d’identification”, en G. D. Anderson, C. Fenwick y M. Rosser-Owen (eds.), The Aghlabids and their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa, Boston-Leiden, Brill, pp. 321-337.Epalza, M. de (1984), “Funciones ganaderas de los albacares, en las fortalezas musulmanas”, Sharq Al-Andalus, 1, pp. 47-54.Escudé-Lacroix, H. (2016-2017), “Alcalá la Real/Qal‛at Banī Sa‛īd, una fortificación andalusí clave en las Subbéticas centrales (siglos XI-XIV)”, Alcazaba, 16-17, pp. 21-54Ettahiri, A. S., Fili, A. y Van Staëvel, J.-P. (2013), “Contribution à l’étude de l’habitat des élites en milieu rural dans le Maroc médiéval : quelques réflexions à partir de la Qasba d’Îgîlîz, berceau du mouvement almohade”, en S. Gutiérrez Lloret, S. e I. Grau (eds.), De la estructura doméstica al espacio social. Lecturas arqueológicas del uso social del espacio, Alicante, Universidad de Alicante, pp. 265-278Fábregas García, A. y González Arévalo, R. (2015), “Los espacios del poder en el medio rural: torres de alquería en el mundo nazarí”, Arqueología y Territorio Medieval, 22, pp. 63-78.Fernandes, I. C. Ferreira (ed.) (2002), Mil Años de Fortificações na Península Ibérica e no Magreb (500-1500). Actas do Simpósio Internacional sobre Castelos, Palmela, Ediçoes Colibrí.— (ed.) (2013), Fortificações e território na Península Ibérica e no Magreb (séculos VI a XVI), Palmela-Mértola, Ediçoes Colibri-Campo Arqueológico de Mértola.Franco Sánchez, F. (ed.) (2004), La rábita en el islam. Estudios interdisciplinares. Congresos Internacionals de Sant Carles de la Ràpita 1989-1997, Alicante, Ajuntament de Sant Carles de la Ràpita-Universitat d’Alacant.— (2017), “Toponimia árabe de los espacios viales y los espacios defensivos en la península ibérica”, en C. Carvalho, M. Planelles Ivánez, E. Sandakova y M. Aragón Cobo (coords.), De la langue à l’expression. Le parcours de l’expérience discursive. Hommage à Marina Aragón Cobo, Estudios románicos, 20, pp. 167-190.García Porras, A. (2015), “Nasrid Frontier Fortresses and Manifestations of Power: The Alcazaba of Moclín Castle as Revealed by Recent Archaeological Research”, en A. Fábregas García y F. Sabaté (eds.), Power and rural communities in al-Andalus, Turnhout. Brepols, pp. 113- 133.— (2016), “La implantación del poder en el medio rural nazarí. Sus manifestaciones materiales en las fortalezas fronterizas granadinas”, en A. Echevarría Arsuaga y A. Fábregas García (eds.), De la alquería a la aljama, Madrid, UNED, pp. 223-259.— (2020), “El Castillo de Moclín. De ḥiṣn a villa fronteriza”, en J. Navarro Palazón y L. García Pulido (eds.), Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean, Valencia-Granada, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia-Universidad de Granada-Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife, pp. 45- 52.Guichard, P. (1976), Al-Andalus. Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en Occidente, Barcelona, Barral Editores.— (1977), Structures sociales «orientales» et «occidentales» dans l’Espagne musulmane, París-La Haya, Mouton.— (1998a), “Château et pouvoir politique”, en Actas I Congreso Internacional. Fortificaciones en al-Andalus, Algeciras. Noviembre-Diciembre 1996, Algeciras, Fundación municipal de Cultura “José Luis Cano”, pp. 25-31.— (1998b), “Château tribal, château féodal: la Méditerranée occidentale entre deux mondes”, en M. Barceló y P. Toubert (eds.), «L’incastellamento». Actas de las reuniones de Girona (26-27 noviembre 1992) y de Roma (5-7 de mayo 1994), Roma, Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología de Roma, pp. 307- 316.Gutiérrez Lloret, Sonia (1996), La Cora de Tudmir de la Antigüedad tardía al mundo islámico: poblamiento y cultura material, Madrid-Alicante, Casa de Velázquez-Instituto Juan Gil Albert.Hernández Giménez, F. (1994), Estudios de geografía histórica española. I, Madrid, Ediciones Polifemo (Biblioteca de Arqueología Medieval Hispánica, 3.— (1997), Estudios de geografía histórica española. II, Madrid, Ediciones Polifemo.Juan Ares, J. de (2016), Análisis arqueológico de un centro de poder: La alcazaba de Ciudad de Vascos, Tesis de doctorado, Madrid, Universidad Complutense.Les Illes Orientals d’al-Andalus (1987), V Jornades d’Estudis històrics locals, Palma de Mallorca, Institut d’Estudis Baleàrics.Kirchner, H. (1998), “Redes de alquerías sin ḥuṣūn. Una reconsideración a partir de los asentamientos campesinos andalusíes de las islas orientales”, en A. Malpica Cuello (ed.), Castillos y poblamiento en al-Andalus, Granada, Athos-Pergamos, pp. 450-469.Lévi-Provençal, É. (1932), L’Espagne musulmane au Xe siècle, París, Larose.— (1953), Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, III. Le Siècle du califat de Cordoue, París, Éditions G. P. Maisonneuve.Malpica Cuello, A. (ed.) (1998), Castillos y territorio en al-Andalus, Granada, Athos-Pérgamos.— (2003), Los castillos en al-Andalus y la organización del territorio, Badajoz, Universidad de Extremadura.Marín, M. (1995), “Documentos jurídicos y fortificaciones”, en Actas I Congreso Internacional. Fortificaciones en al-Andalus, Algeciras. Noviembre-Diciembre 1996, Algeciras, Fundación municipal de Cultura “José Luis Cano”, pp. 79-87.Martí, R. (2008), “Los faros en al-Andalus: un sistema original de transmisión de señales”, en R. Martí Castelló, Fars de l’Islam. Antigues alimares d’al-Andalus, Barcelona, EDAR, pp. 189-218.Martí, R. y Viladrich, M. M. (2018), “Les torres de planta circular de la frontera extrema d’al-Andalus a Catalunya (segles VIII-X)”, Treballs d’Arqueologia, 22, pp. 51-81.Martín Civantos, J. M. (2013), “Del distrito castral a la alquería: las fortificaciones andalusíes en el Sureste de la Península Ibérica (Granada-Almería)”, en I. C. Ferreira Fernandes (ed.), Fortificações e territorio na Península Ibérica e no Magreb (séculos VI a XVI), Lisboa-Palmela, Ediçoes Colibrí, t. 1, pp. 133-140.Mazzoli-Guintard, Ch. (1998), “Ḥiṣn, qal‘a, qaṣaba... chez al-Idrīsī”, Qurṭuba, 3, pp. 95-111.Navarro Palazón, J. y Jiménez Castillo, P. (1995), “El Castillejo de Monteagudo: Qaṣr ibn Sa‘d”, en Casas y palacios de al-Andalus (siglos XII y XIII), Barcelona-Granada, Lunwerg-El Legajo andalusí, pp. 63-104.Negre, J., Pérez-Polo, M., Falomir, F., Aguilella, G., Medina, P. y Blasco, M. (2020), “Una lectura contextual del recinto emiral del Tossal de la Vila (Castelló). Algunas reflexiones sobre el origen, morfología y funciones de los asentamientos en altura en el extremo septentrional del Šarq al-Andalus”, en C. Doménech Belda y S. Gutiérrez Lloret (eds.), El sitio de las cosas. La Alta Edad Media en contexto, Alicante, Universidad de Alicante, pp. 195-217.Negre Pérez, J., Falomir Granell, F., Pérez-Polo, M. y Aguilella Arzo, G. (2022), “La mezquita del fortín emiral del Tossal de la Vila (Castellón). Secuencia estratigráfica y diseño arquitectónico de un edificio religioso rural en los albores del islam andalusí”, Lucentum, Online First, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.14198/LVCENTVM.20030Pavón Maldonado, B. (1999), Tratado de arquitectura hispano-musulmana. Tomo II. Ciudades y fortalezas, Madrid, CSIC.Retuerce Velasco, M. y Hervás Herrera, M. Á. (2020), “Calatrava la Vieja (Ciudad Real). Resultados de las últimas campañas de excavación arqueológica (2015-2019)”, en Actualidad de la investigación arqueológica en España I (2018-2019). Conferencias impartidas en el Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura pp. 551-569.Ribera Gómez, A. (2016), Covetes dels Moros: Cuevas-ventanas del Xarq al-Andalus. Arqueología de las cuevas colgadas artificiales valencianas, tesis de doctorado, Alicante, Universidad de Alicante.Rouco Collazo, J. y Martín Civantos, J. M. (2020), “Análisis espacial del sistema defensivo de la costa granadina en época nazarí y su transformación tras la conquista castellana”, en J. Navarro Palazón y L. J. García-Pulido (eds.), Defensive Architectur of the Mediterranean 10, Valencia-Granada, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia-Universidad de Granada, pp. 189-196.Sénac, P. (2000), La frontière et les hommes. Le peuplement musulman au nord de l’Èbre et les débuts de la reconquête aragonaise (VIIIe-XIIe siècle), París, Maisonneuve et Larose.— (2012), “De la madîna à l’almunia. Quelques réflexions autour du peuplement musulman au nord de l’Èbre”, Annales du Midi, 124 (278), pp. 183-201.Souto Lasala, J. A. (2005), Conjunto fortificado islámico de Calatayud, Zaragoza, Instituto de Estudios Islámicos y del Próximo OrienteTerrasse, H. (1954), “Les forteresses de l’Espagne musulmane”, Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia, CXXXIV, pp. 455-483.Torres Balbás, L. (1953), “La torre de Gabia”, Al-Andalus, XVIII (1), pp. 187-198,— (1954), “La arquitectura militar hispanomusulmana. Cercos de ciudades y de castillos”, África, 151, pp. 327-329.— (1981-1983), Obra dispersa. I. Al-Andalus. Crónica de la España musulmana, Madrid, Instituto de España (8 vols.).Torró, J. (1998), “Fortificaciones en Ŷibal Balansiya. Una propuesta de secuencia”, en A. Malpica Cuello (ed.), Castillos y territorio en al-Andalus, Granada, Athos-Pérgamos, pp. 385-418.Torró, J. y Segura, J. M. (2000), “El Castell d’Almizra y la cuestión de los graneros fortificados”, Recerques del Museu d’Alcoi, 9, pp. 145-164.Varela Gomes, R. y Varela Gomes, M. (2004), O Rîbat da Arrifana (Aljezur, Algarve), Aljezur, Município de Aljezur (separata de la Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia, VII).— (2007), Ribât da Arrifana. Culura material e espiritualidade, Aljezur, Município de Aljezur-Associação da Defesa do Património Histórico e Arqueológico de Aljezur.Vidal Castro, F. (2004), “Terminología castral árabe en la frontera de Jaén y Granada”, en F. Toro Ceballos y J. Rodríguez Molina (eds.), V Estudios de frontera. Funciones de la red castral de frontera: homenaje a don Juan Torres Fontes. Congreso celebrado en noviembre de 2003, Jaén, pp. 785-794.

Process of rapid urbanisation in China during recent years have created the need for names to be given to new urban roads. However, due to the inattention of institutions charged with responsibilities for place-naming, some roads remain unnamed. Although these unnamed roads have been overlooked by China’s municipal authorities and by toponymic scholars, they have attracted the attention of Yulu Ge. In 2013, Ge named an unnamed road in Beijing after himself as a work of public art, aiming to urge the government to improve urban governance and to raise public awareness about the necessity of civic engagement. While there are many studies on the critical toponymy and geographies of public art, little attention has been paid to place-naming as a work of public art and the popular responses to it. This article considers how Ge conducted his public art and the attitudes of city residents who had knowledge of it. It is argued that Ge’s artistic practice has brought convenience to residents’ everyday lives and has led city authorities and urban communities to pay greater attention to unnamed roads. However, questions remain over the role of the artist as a disruptive presence in the city’s orderly structure. Therefore, this article argues that the disputes over the Geyu Road remind artists and scholars to consider how place-naming as an artistic practice can intervene in urban lives in a more appropriate way, and the extent to which authorities and urban society can accommodate creative and effective interventions such as Ge’s place-naming practices.

One of the topical challenges facing South African municipalities recently is corruption. From time-to-time citizens learn about and witness the corrupt practices of public officials in the Local Government sphere. Arguably, the phenomenon of corruption has both direct and indirect impact on service delivery with specific focus to municipalities. Section 152(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) states that the Local Government sphere has the mandate to ensure the provision of services to communities in a sustainable manner. Subsequently, some of the communities across the country still wish to have access to basic services namely: water, electricity, community halls and proper tar roads to name a few. As a result, at times it seems impossible for municipalities to smoothly render such services due to corrupt practices emanating in the South African Local Government sphere. This article aimed to explore the impact of corruption on service delivery in the South African municipalities. The article fully relied on secondary data as it collects information from newspapers, books, journal articles, conference proceedings, officials report and academic dissertations. In pursuit of all this, Afrocentricity: a theory of social change has been placed in context with a view that the needs of the society should be placed at the center of the local government sphere. To be specific, these needs are but not limited to water and electricity. Looking at the findings of the study, indeed literature can confirm that corruptions have negative impact on the ability of the municipalities in South Africa to provide basic services. Because the interests of the public are competing with those of the municipal officials. Therefore, at the end of the day service delivery is compromised due unlawful practices.

AbstractThe quest for a chemical surfactant substitute has been fuelled by increased environmental awareness. The benefits that biosurfactants present like biodegradability, and biocompatibility over their chemical and synthetic counterparts has contributed immensely to their popularity and use in various industries such as petrochemicals, mining, metallurgy, agrochemicals, fertilizers, beverages, cosmetics, etc. With the growing demand for biosurfactants, researchers are looking for low-cost waste materials to use them as substrates, which will lower the manufacturing costs while providing waste management services as an add-on benefit. The use of low-cost substrates will significantly reduce the cost of producing biosurfactants. This paper discusses the use of various feedstocks in the production of biosurfactants, which not only reduces the cost of waste treatment but also provides an opportunity to profit from the sale of the biosurfactant. Furthermore, it includes state-of-the-art information about employing municipal solid waste as a sustainable feedstock for biosurfactant production, which has not been simultaneously covered in many published literatures on biosurfactant production from different feedstocks. It also addresses the myriad of other issues associated with the processing of biosurfactants, as well as the methods used to address these issues and perspectives, which will move society towards cleaner production.

The term “Arab World” is used to denote the geographical and nation-state entities in the modern West Asian and North African region popularly referred in its abbreviated version WANA. Democratic waves encapsulate the popular civilian uprisings, revolts, resistance, revolutionary upsurge, rebellion taking place from time to time in Arab world leading to political - regime transitions and profound convulsions in economy, society, culture ,literature, art and ideas. The contemporary WANA took birth in the interregnum of two world wars involving the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and emergence of new nation-states as designed by the European colonial masters. The new political restructuring fundamentally replaced the ancient tribalism. The characteristics of modern states like bureaucracy, organized army, police force and other coercive apparatuses, hierarchical judicial system, municipal administrative units made their historic appearance. Across the Arab world, the political system has been largely authoritarian and dictatorial in nature. The implanted monarchies referred to as the Sheikhdoms, military dictators usurping power through bloody coups and individual dictators based on popular revolutionary upsurge have been the characteristics of regimes of the Arab world. The popular democratic sentiments were crushed by the state apparatus leading to large scale bloodsheds. The modern Arab political history is replete with such instances of popular civilian democratic waves impacting the entire spectrum of their society. Undoubtedly, these upsurges didn't take place in any vacuum but were largely conditioned by contemporary political and economic changes. Besides this, these democratic waves were based on ideological frameworks containing the elements of Marxian socialism, Arab nationalism and Islam. These democratic waves have also been approached by construction of some typologies involving regional pattern, economic system and regime types. This paper is an humble attempt to understand those ideological frameworks inspiring, instigating, guiding and reinvigorating democratic sentiments and revolutionary movements against authoritarian regimes demanding freedom, liberty, rights, equality, justice, rule of law, representative institutions, responsible and accountable governance. Further, it also endeavors to analyse patterns and typology of those democratic waves convulsing the polities, economies and societies of the Arab world.

Introduction: Artist Villages in Beijing Many of the most renowned sites of Beijing are found in the inner-city districts of Dongcheng and Xicheng: for instance, the Forbidden City, Tiananmen Square, the Lama Temple, the National Theatre, the Central Opera Academy, the Bell Tower, the Drum Tower, the Imperial College, and the Confucius Temple. However, in the past decade a new attraction has been added to the visitor “must-see” list in Beijing. The 798 Art District originated as an artist village within abandoned factory buildings at Dashanzi, right between the city’s Central Business District and the open outer rural space on Beijing’s north-east. It is arguably the most striking symbol of China’s contemporary art scene. The history of the 798 Art District is by now well known (Keane), so this paper will provide a short summary of its evolution. Of more concern is the relationship between the urban fringe and what Howard Becker has called “art worlds.” By art worlds, Becker refers to the multitude of agents that contribute to a final work of art: for instance, people who provide canvasses, frames, and art supplies; critics and intermediaries; and the people who run exhibition services. To the art-world list in Beijing we need to add government officials and developers. To date there are more than 100 artist communities or villages in Beijing; almost all are located in the city’s outskirts. In particular, a high-powered art centre outside the city of Beijing has recently established a global reputation. Songzhuang is situated in outer Tongzhou District, some 30 kilometres east of Tiananmen Square. The Beijing Municipal Government officially classifies Songzhuang as the Capital Art District (CAD) or “the Songzhuang Original Art Cluster.” The important difference between 798 and Songzhuang is that, whereas the former has become a centre for retail and art galleries, Songzhuang operates as an arts production centre for experimental art, with less focus on commercial art. The destiny of the artistic communities is closely related to urban planning policies that either try to shut them down or protect them. In this paper I will take a close look at three artist villages: Yuanmingyuan, 798, and Songzhuang. In tracing the evolution of the three artist villages, I will shed some light on artists’ lives in city fringes. I argue that these outer districts provide creative industries with a new opportunity for development. This is counter to the conventional wisdom that central urban areas are the ideal locality for creative industries. Accordingly, this argument needs to be qualified: some types of creative work are more suitable to rural and undeveloped areas. The visual art “industry” is one of these. Inner and Outer Worlds Urban historians contend that innovation is more likely to happen in inner urban areas because of intensive interactions between people (Jacobs). City life has been associated with the development of creative industries and economic benefits brought about by the interaction of creative classes. In short, the argument is that cities, or, more specifically, urban areas are primary economic entities (Montgomery) whereas outer suburbs are uncreative and dull (Florida, "Cities"). The conventional wisdom is that talented creative people are attracted to the creative milieu in cities: universities, book shops, cafes, museums, theatres etc. These are both the hard and the soft infrastructure of modern cities. They illustrate diversified built forms, lifestyles and experiences (Lorenzen and Frederiksen; Florida, Rise; Landry; Montgomery; Leadbeater and Oakley). The assumption that inner-city density is the cradle of creative industries has encountered critique. Empirical studies in Australia have shown that creative occupations are found in relatively high densities in urban fringes. The point made in several studies is that suburbia has been neglected by scholars and policy makers and may have potential for future development (Gibson and Brennan-Horley; Commission; Collis, Felton, and Graham). Moreover, some have argued that the practice of constructing inner city enclaves may be leading to homogenized and prescriptive geographies (Collis, Felton, and Graham; Kotkin). As Jane Jacobs has indicated, it is not only density of interactions but diversity that attracts and accommodates economic growth in cities. However, the spatiality of creative industries varies across different sectors. For example, media companies and advertising agencies are more likely to be found in the inner city, whereas most visual artists prefer working in the comparatively quiet and loosely-structured outskirts. Nevertheless, the logic embodied in thinking around the distinctions between “urbanism” and “suburbanism” pays little attention to this issue, although both schools acknowledge the causal relationship between locality and creativity. According to Drake, empirical evidence shows that the function of locality is not only about encouraging interactions between SMEs (small to medium enterprises) within clusters which can generate creativity, but also a catalyst for individual creativity (Drake). Therefore for policy makers in China, the question here is how to plan or prepare a better space to accommodate creative professionals’ needs in different sectors while making the master plan. This question is particularly urgent to the Chinese government, which is undertaking a massive urbanization transition throughout the country. In placing a lens on Beijing, it is important to note the distinctive features of its politics, forms of social structure, and climate. As Zhu has described it, Beijing has spread in a symmetrical structure. The reasons have much to do with ancient history. According to Zhu, the city which was planned in the era of Genghis Khan was constituted by four layers or enclosures, with the emperor at the centre, surrounded by the gentry and other populations distributed outwards according to wealth, status, and occupation. The outer layer accommodated many lower social classes, including itinerant artists, musicians, and merchants. This ”outer city” combined with open rural space. The system of enclosures is carried on in today’s city planning of Beijing. Nowadays Beijing is most commonly described by its ring roads (Mars and Hornsby). However, despite the existing structure, new approaches to urban policy have resulted in a great deal of flux. The emergence of new landscapes such as semi-urbanized villages, rural urban syndicates (chengxiang jiehebu), and villages-within-cities (Mars and Hornsby 290) illustrate this flux. These new types of landscapes, which don’t correspond to the suburban concept that we find in the US or Australia, serve to represent and mediate the urban-rural relationship in China. The outer villages also reflect an old tradition of “recluse” (yin shi), which since the Wei and Jin Dynasties allowed intellectuals to withdraw themselves from the temporal world of the city and live freely in the mountains. The Lost Artistic Utopia: Yuanmingyuan Artist Village Yuanmingyuan, also known as the Ming Dynasty summer palace, is located in Haidian District in the north-west of Beijing. Haidian has transformed from an outer district of Beijing into one of its flourishing urban districts since the mid-1980s. Haidian’s success is largely due to the electronics industry which developed from spin-offs from Peking University, Tsinghua University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the 1980s. This led to the rapid emergence of Zhongguancun, sometimes referred to as China’s Silicon Valley. However there is another side of Haidian’s transformation. As the first graduates came out of Chinese Academies of the Arts following the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), creative lifestyles became available. Some people quit jobs at state-owned institutions and chose to go freelance, which was unimaginable in China under the former regime of Mao Zedong. By 1990, the earliest “artist village” emerged around the Yuanmingyuan accommodating artists from around China. The first site was Fuyuanmen village. Artists living and working there proudly called their village “West Village” in China, comparing it to the Greenwich Village in New York. At that time they were labelled as “vagabonds” (mangliu) since they had no family in Beijing, and no stable job or income. Despite financial difficulties, the Yuanmingyuan artist village was a haven for artists. They were able to enjoy a liberating and vigorous environment by being close to the top universities in Beijing[1]. Access to ideas was limited in China at that time so this proximity was a key ingredient. According to an interview by He Lu, the Yuanmingyuan artist village gave artists a sense of belonging which went far beyond geographic identification as a marginal group unwelcomed by conservative urban society. Many issues arose along with the growth of the artist village. The non-traditional lifestyle and look of these artists were deemed abnormal by many of the general public; the way of their expression and behaviour was too extreme to be accepted by the mainstream in what was ultimately a political district; they were a headache for local police who saw them as troublemakers; moreover, their contact with the western world was a sensitive issue for the government at that time. Suddenly, the village was closed by the government in 1993. Although the Yuanmingyuan artist village existed for only a few years, it is of significance in China’s contemporary art history. It is the birth place of the cynical realism movement as well as the genesis of Fang Lijun, Zhang Xiaogang and Yue Mingjun, now among the most successful Chinese contemporary artists in global art market. The Starting Point of Art Industry: 798 and Songzhuang After the Yuanmingyuan artist village was shut down in 1993, artists moved to two locations in the east of Beijing to escape from the government and embrace the free space they longed for. One was 798, an abandoned electronic switching factory in Beijing’s north-east urban fringe area; the other was Songzhuang in Tongzhou District, a further twenty kilometres east. Both of these sites would be included in the first ten official creative clusters by Beijing municipal government in 2006. But instead of simply being substitutes for the Yuanmingyuan artist village, both have developed their own cultures, functioning and influencing artists’ lives in different ways. Songzhuang is located in Tongzhou which is an outer district in Beijing’s east. Songzhuang was initially a rural location; its livelihood was agriculture and industry. Just before the closing down of the Yuanmingyuan village, several artists including Fang Lijun moved to this remote quiet village. Through word of mouth, more artists followed their steps. There are about four thousand registered artists currently living in Songzhuang now; it is already the biggest visual art community in Beijing. An artistic milieu and a local sense of place have grown with the increasing number of artists. The local district government invests in building impressive exhibition spaces and promoting art in order to bring in more tourists, investors and artists. Compared with Songzhuang, 798 enjoys a favourable location along the airport expressway, between the capital airport and the CBD of Beijing. The unused electronics plant was initially rented as classrooms by the China Central Academy of Fine Arts in the 1990s. Then several artists moved their studios and workshops to the area upon eviction from the Yuanmingyuan village. Until 2002 the site was just a space to rent cheap work space, a factor that has stimulated many art districts globally (Zukin). From that time the resident artists began to plan how to establish a contemporary art district in China. Led by Huang Rui, a leading visual artist, the “798 collective” launched arts events and festivals, notably a “rebuilding 798” project of 2003. More galleries, cafés, bars, and restaurants began to set up, culminating in a management takeover by the Chaoyang District government with the Seven Stars Group[2] prior to the Beijing Olympics. The area now provides massive tax revenue to the local and national government. Nonetheless, both 798 and Songzhuang face problems which reflect the conflict between artists’ attachment to fringe areas and the government’s urbanization approach. 798 can hardly be called an artist production village now due to the local government’s determination to exploit cultural tourism. Over 50 percent of enterprises and people working in 798 now identify 798 as a tourism area rather than an art or “creative” cluster (Liu). Heavy commercialization has greatly disappointed many leading artists. The price for renting space has gone beyond the affordability of artists, and many have chosen to leave. In Songzhuang, the story is similar. In addition to rising prices, a legal dispute between artists and local residents regarding land property rights in 2008 drove some artists out of Songzhuang because they didn’t feel it was stable anymore (Smith). The district’s future as a centre of original art runs up against the aspirations of local officials for more tax revenue and tourist dollars. In the Songzhuang Cultural Creative Industries Cluster Design Plan (cited in Yang), which was developed by J.A.O Design International Architects and Planners Limited and sponsored by the Songzhuang local government in 2007, Songzhuang is designed as an “arts capital incorporated with culture, commerce and tourism.” The down side of this aspiration is that more museums, galleries, shopping centres, hotels, and recreation infrastructure will inevitably be developed in order to capitalise on Songzhuang’s global reputation. Concluding Reflections In reflecting on the recent history of artist villages in Beijing, we might conclude that rural locations are not only a cheap place for artists to live but also a space to showcase their works. More importantly, the relation of artists and outlying district has evolved into a symbiotic relationship. They interact and grow together. The existence of artists transforms the locale and the locale in turn reinforces the identity of artists. In Yuanmingyuan the artists appreciated the old “recluse” tradition and therefore sought spiritual liberation after decades of suppression. The outlying location symbolized freedom to them and provided distance from the world of noisy interaction. But isolation of artists from the local community and the associated constant conflict with local villagers deepened estrangement; these events brought about the end of the dream. In contrast, at 798 and Songzhuang, artists not only regarded the place as their worksite but also engaged with the local community. They communicated with local people and co-developed projects to transform the local landscape. Local communities changed; they started to learn about the artistic world while gaining economic benefits in many ways, such as house renting, running small grocery stores, providing art supplies and even modelling. Their participation into the “art worlds” (Becker) contributed to a changing cultural environment, in turn strengthening the brand of these artist villages. In many regards there were positive externalities for both artists and the district, although as I mentioned in relation to Songzhuang, tensions about land use have never completely been resolved. Today, the fine arts in China have gone far beyond the traditional modes of classics, aesthetics, liberation or rebellion. Art is also a business which requires the access to the material world in order to produce incomes and make profits. It appears that many contemporary artists are not part of a movement of rebellion (except several artists, such as Ai Weiwei), adopting the pure spirit of art as their life-time mission, as in the Yuanmingyuan artist village. They still long for recognition, but they are also concerned with success and producing a livelihood. The boundary between inner urban and outer urban areas is not as significant to them as it once was for artists from a former period. While many artists enjoy the quiet and space of the fringe and rural areas to work; they also require urban space to exhibit their works and earn money. This factor explains the recent emergence of Caochangdi and other artist villages in the neighbouring area around the 798. These latest artist villages in the urban fringe still have open and peaceful spaces and can be accessed easily due to convenient transportation. Unfortunately, the coalition of business and government leads to rapid commercialization of place which is not aligned with the basic need of artists, which is not only a free or affordable place but also a space for creativity. As mentioned above, 798 is now so commercialized that it is too crowded and expensive for artists due to the government’s overdevelopment; whereas the government’s original intention was to facilitate the development of 798. Furthermore, although artists are a key stakeholder in the government’s agenda for visual art industry, it is always the government’s call when artists’ attachment to rural space comes into conflict with Beijing government’s urbanization plan. Hence the government decides which artist villages should be sacrificed to give way to urban development and which direction the reserved artist villages or art clusters should be developed. The logic of government policy causes an absolute distinction between cities and outlying districts. And the government’s enthusiasm for “urbanization” leads to urbanized artist villages, such as the 798. A vicious circle is formed: the government continuously attempts to have selected artist villages commercialized and transformed into urbanized or quasi-urbanized area and closes other artist villages. One of the outcomes of this policy is that in the government created creative clusters, many artists do not stay, and move away into rural and outlying areas because they prefer to work in non-urban spaces. To resolve this dilemma, greater attention is required to understand artists needs and ways to combine urban convenience and rural tranquillity into their development plans. This may be a bridge too far, however. Reference Becker, Howard Saul. Art Worlds. 25th anniversary, updated and expanded ed. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2008. Collis, Christy, Emma Felton, and Phil Graham. "Beyond the Inner City: Real and Imagined Places in Creative Place Policy and Practice." The Information Society: An International Journal 26.2 (2010): 104–12. Commission, Outer London. The Mayor's Outer London Commission: Report. London: Great London Authority, 2010. Drake, Graham. "'This Place Gives Me Space': Place and Creativity in the Creative Industries." Geoforum 34.4 (2003): 511–24. Florida, Richard. "Cities and the Creative Class." The Urban Sociology Reader. Eds. Jan Lin and Christopher Mele. London: Routledge, 2005. 290–301. ———. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002. Gibson, Chris, and Chris Brennan-Horley. "Goodbye Pram City: Beyond Inner/Outer Zone Binaries in Creative City Research." Urban Policy and Research 24.4 (2006): 455–71. Jacobs, Jane. The Economy of Cities. New York: Random House, 1969. Keane, Michael. "The Capital Complex: Beijing's New Creative Clusters." Creative Economies, Creative Cities: Asian-European Perspectives. Ed. Lily Kong and Justin O'Connor. London: Springer, 2009. 77–95. Kotkin, Joel. "The Protean Future of American Cities." New Geographer 7 Mar. 2011. 27 Mar. 2011 ‹http://blogs.forbes.com/joelkotkin/2011/03/07/the-protean-future-of-american-cities/›. Landry, Charles. The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators. London: Earthscan Publications, 2000. Leadbeater, Charles, and Kate Oakley. The Independents: Britain's New Cultural Entrepreneurs. London: Demos, 1999. Liu, Mingliang. "Beijing 798 Art Zone: Field Study and Follow-Up Study in the Context of Market." Chinese National Academy of Arts, 2010. Lorenzen, Mark, and Lars Frederiksen. "Why Do Cultural Industries Cluster? Localization, Urbanization, Products and Projects." Creative Cities, Cultural Clusters and Local Economic Development. Ed. Philip Cooke and Luciana Lazzeretti. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008. 155-79. Mars, Neville, and Adrian Hornsby. The Chinese Dream: A Society under Construction. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2008. Montgomery, John. The New Wealth of Cities: City Dynamics and the Fifth Wave. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. Smith, Karen. "Heart of the Art." Beijing: Portrait of a City. Ed. Alexandra Pearson and Lucy Cavender. Hong Kong: The Middle Kingdom Bookworm, 2008. 106–19. Yang, Wei, ed. Songzhuang Arts 2006. Beijing: Hunan Fine Arts Press, 2007. Zhu, Jianfei. Chinese Spatial Strategies Imperial Beijing, 1420-1911. Routledge Curzon, 2004. Zukin, Sharon. The Cultures of Cities. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1995. [1] Most prestigious Chinese universities are located in the Haidian District of Beijing, such as Peking University, Tsinghua University, etc. [2] Seven Star Group is the landholder of the area where 798 is based.

adrienne maree brown (Emergent Strategy) says that “relationships are everything.” The recent popularity of participatory theatre shows in Canada demonstrates just how true that is. These performances make direct audience interaction an essential feature of their dramaturgical design, with audience actions fundamental to propelling the performance experience. As these dramaturgies proliferate, they have given rise to a specific form of participatory theatre focused on decentralized collaboration and democratic audience agency, which I call dramaturgies of emergence. In emergent participatory performances, relationships manifest as networks of people – audience and artists – working together in a decentralized mode of iterative collaboration. With algorithmic dramaturgies to guide them, this autopoietic participant network generates the aesthetic and experiential aspects of the performance, and distinguishes emergent dramaturgies from other forms. By distributing the act of generating performance, it decentralizes agency over that creative process, distributing it throughout the networked participants to create outcomes no single member could generate alone. These dramaturgies of emergence embrace both relational modes of the established scientific process of emergence, and the political values of decentralization, playfulness, adaptability and collective leadership associated with the form by brown and others. By embracing these processes and values as their core mode of making meaning in a social setting, dramaturgies of emergence embrace the fundamental relationality of theatre, and ask us to playfully engage in those relationships. They allow audiences to authentically represent themselves in art while still creating something that is fundamentally collective, and provide a democratic mode of collaborative creation much needed in the often highly individualistic society we find ourselves in today. Works Cited Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997. Apter, Michael J. Danger: Our Quest for Excitement. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2007. Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Durham: Duke University Press, 2010. brown, adrienne maree. Emergent Strategy: Shaping Change, Changing Worlds. Chico: AK Press, 2017. Fischer-Lichte, Erika. The Transformative Power of Performance: A New Aesthetics. Translated by Saskya Iris Jain. Abingdon: Routledge, 2008. Kuling, Peter. “Tilted Dramaturgy: Combined Spectatorship, Playwriting and Role-Playing in Bully-Pulpit’s Fiasco.” Canadian Theatre Review 178 (Spring 2019): 44-47. DOI: 10.3138/ctr.178.008. Latour, Bruno. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor Network Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. “Lost Together.” Unspun Theatre. Updated 2021. http://www.unspuntheatre.com/index#/lost-together. “Necessary Dream.” Up In the Air Theatre. Updated May 2021. https://www.upintheairtheatre.com/necessary-dream. Owen, David. “Performing the Game: Demystifying Live-Action Role-Play.” Canadian Theatre Review 178 (Spring 2019): 32-37. DOI: 10.3138/ctr.178.006. “Roll Models.” Play/PLAY: Dramaturgies of Participation. Updated September 2021. https://www.dramaturgiesofparticipation.com/roll-models.html. Salen, Katie and Eric Zimmerman. Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004. Sicart, Miguel. Play Matters. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014. “Worktable.” SPIN. Updated July 2021. https://spinspin.be/kate-mcintosh/worktable/.

This essay delves into Nietzsche’s understanding of the jester in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. I argue here that its existence explains the shifting ethos from tragedy to comedy. The jester in the societal context exhibits the figure of fictionalism that redirects reality into a detour of comic interplays. As such, he embodies fictional overcoming from the modern backdrop. I then employ On the Genealogy of Morals to explain further four principles that aid in taking into effect the birth of the jester. Nietzsche’s critique of morality attacks such principles as ressentiment, guilt and bad conscience taken together, free will, and ascetic ideal. Later, I present a way of going into the shadows as a manner of confronting the jester and overcoming it. References Alfano, Mark, Character as Moral Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Allison, David, Reading the New Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy, The Gay Science, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and On the Genealogy of Morals. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Arthur Schopenhauer, World as Will and Representation, vol. II, trans. E.F.J. Payne, (New York: Dover Publications. 1969. Bordo, Susan, The Flight to Objectivity: Essays on Cartesianism and Culture. Albany, State University of New York Press: 1987. Burnham, Douglas, and Martin Jesinghausen, Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Ltd., 2010. Catherine Carlstroem, “Conclusion,” in The Jester and the Sages: Mark Twain in Conversation with Nietzsche, Freud, and Marx. Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2011, 135-136. Chaput, Charles, “Religion and the Common Good,” Communio vol. 34 no. 1 (Spring 2007). Deleuze, Gilles (1983): Nietzsche and Philosophy (H. Tomlinson, Trans.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. Dienstag, Joshua Foa, Nietzsche's Dionysian Pessimism, the American Political Science Review, Vol. 95, No. 4 (Dec., 2001). Foucault, Michel, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Vintage, 1989. Hannah Petkin, Fortune is a Woman: Gender and Politics in the Thought of Niccolo Machiavelli. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984. Hemming, Laurence Paul, Heidegger’s Atheism. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press: 2002. Jung, Carl, Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1934-1939, vol. 1. Routledge, 2014. Koyré, Alexander, From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. Lampert, Laurence, Nietzsche’s Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986. Landa, Ishay, “Aroma and Shadow: Marx vs Nietzsche on Religion,” in Nature, Society, and Thought, vol. 18, no. 4 (2005). 461-499. May, Simon, Nietzsche’s Ethics and his War on ‘Morality’, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. Niemeyer, Christian, “Nietzsche – Only a Jester? The language of Zarathustra and pedagogy. An Interim Assessment of 125 years of reception history,” in Zeitschrift für Pädagogik vol. 57, no. 1 (2011), pp. 55-69. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to the Philosophy of the Future (H. Zimmern, Trans.). New York: Dover Publications, 1997. (Original work published 1886). ____________. Nietzsche Contra Wagner (J. Norman, Trans.) (A. Ridley, Ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005. ____________. On the Genealogy of Morals: A Polemic (D. Smith, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. (Original work published 1887). ____________. The Anti-Christ: A Curse on Christianity (W. Kaufmann, Trans.). In the Portable Nietzsche. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 565–656, 1976. ____________. The Birth of Tragedy (C. P. Fadiman, Trans.). New York: Modern Library, 1927. (Original work published 1872). ____________. The Gay Science (W. Kaufmann, Trans.). New York: Vintage Books, 1974. (Original work published 1882). ____________. The Will to Power (W. Kaufmann, & R. J. Hollingdale, Trans.). New York: Vintage Books, 1968. (Original work published 1901). ____________. Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One (R. J. Hollingdale, Trans.). New York: Penguin Books, 1969. (Original work published 1883–1891). Reginster, Bernard, The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. Rusten, Jeffery (ed.), The Birth of Comedy. Texts, Documents, and Art from Athenian Comic Competitions, 486-280, trans. Jeffery Henderson, David Konstan, Ralph Rosen, Jeffery Rusten, and Niall W. Slater, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. Seung, T.K., Nietzsche’s Epic of the Soul, Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Oxford: Lexington Books, 2005. Strong, Tracy, Nietzsche and Politics, in Nietzsche: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Robert Solomon. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973. Tassi, Aldo, “Modernity as the Transformation of Truth into Meaning”, Readings in Philosophy of Man, Ateneo de Manila University, 1986. Turi, Zita, “’Border Liners’”. The Ship of Fools Tradition in Sixteenth-Century England,” in TRANS – Revue de litterature generale et comparee, (2010): https://doi.org/10.4000/trans.421 Velkley, Richard (Ed.). Leo Strauss on Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2017.

The private higher education system has been facing many challenges in the history of its development, which was harshly handled by the different points of view of political regimes. The system in the general higher education system in all over the world has slowly and weakly improved. Until the 80s of the 20th century, the system revived and obviously developed thanks to the increasing educating demand although many countries were facing financial difficulties to support it. In Vietnam, the private higher education system appeared by 1975 in the south, but this model and the its regulations had been forgotten until the beginning of the 90s of 20th century. This research is evaluating the present higher education system in different aspects that are the international definition of private higher education, brief history and the development of the system in Republic of France as an example, privatization forms and finance for the system, and suggestions to define policies for the system in Vietnam. Keywords Model, Private Higher Education, Privatization References [1] Altbach, Philip et T. Umakoshi (éd.) (2004), Asian Universities – Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenge s; John Hopkins Press. [2] Ball, J.S et Youdell,D. (2007), Higher privatisation in public education, Education International 5th World Congress July 2007. [3] Banque Mondiale (2009), Statistiques de la Banque Mondiale, consulté le 15 juillet 2009, http:// go.worldbank.org/RQBDCTUXW0. [4] Blöndal S., S. Field et N. Girouard (2002), Investment In Human Capital Through Post-Compulsory Education and Training: Selected Efficiency And Equity Aspects, Département des affaires économiques de l’OCDE, document de travail No 333. [5] Cave, M., M. Kogan et R. Smith (1990), Output and Performance Measurement in Government. The State of the Art (Jessica Kinsgley, Londres). [6] Geiger, R. (1986), Private Sectors in Higher Education, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press. [7] OECD (2011), L’enseignement supérieur à l’horizon 2030- Volume 2: Mondalisation, La recherché et l’innovation dans l’enseignement, Éditon OCDE. [8] Hofstadter, R. (1996), Academic Freedom in the Age of College, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick. [9] L. Benedetto (2008), Options et tandances dans le financement des uni versités en Europe, Critique internationale, 2008/2 (n039)- CAIRN.INFO. [10] Levy, D.C. (1986), Higher Education and the State in Latin America: Private Challenges to Public Dominance, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. [11] Levy, D.C. (2002), « Unanticipated Development: Perspectives on Private Higher Education’s Emerging Roles », PROPHE (Program for Research on Private Higher Education) Working Paper #1. [12] Levy, D.C. (1986), Higher Education and the State in Latin America: Private Challenges to Public Dominance, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. [13] Levy, D.C. (2006), « An Introductory Global Overview : The Private Fit to Salient Higher Education Tendencies », PROPHE Working Paper #7. [14] Middleton, Roger (1997), Government Versus the Market: The Growth of the Public Sector, Economic Management and British Economic Performance, Edward Elgar, Aldershot. [15] Neave, G. (2000), « Universities’ Responsibilities to Society: An Historical Exploration of an Enduring Issue », in Neave (éd.), The Universities’ Responsibilities to Society – International Perspectives, Pergamon/Elsevier, Londres, pp. 1-28. [16] Neave, G. (2000), « Universities’ Responsibilities to Society: An Historical Exploration of an Enduring Issue », in Neave (éd.), The Universities’ Responsibilities to Society – International Perspectives, Pergamon/Elsevier, Londres, pp. 1-28. [17] Neave, G. (2001), « The European Dimension in Higher Education: An Excursion into the Modern Use of Historical Analogues », in J. Huisman, P. Maassen et G. Neave (éd.) Higher Education and the Nation State; Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 13-73. [18] Neave, G. (2001), « The European Dimension in Higher Education: An Excursion into the Modern Use of Historical Analogues », in J. Huisman, P. Maassen et G. Neave (éd.) Higher Education and the Nation State; Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 13-73. [19] R. Fazal (2016), Privatisation de l’éducation: tendances et conséquences, UNESCO/Paris, octobre2016. [20] ROUSSEL Isabelle (2015), L’enseignement supérieur privé: propositions pour un nouveau mode de relations avec l’État, Rapport N05 2015-047, Juin 2015 - Ministère de l’Éducation nationale, de l’Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche. [21] Savas (2000), Privatisation and Public – Private Partnerships, academia.edu [22] Shils, E. et Roberts, J. (2004), « The Diffusion of European Models Outside Europe », in W. Rüegg (éd.), A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [23] Thelin, J.R. (2004), A History of American Higher Education, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press. [24] Teixeira, P., D. Dill, B. Jongbloed et A. Amaral (éd.) (2004), The Rising Strength of Markets in Higher Education, Kluwer, Dordrecht. [25] Teichler, U. (1988), Changing Patterns of the Higher Education System: The Experience of Three Decades, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, Londres. [26] Tilak, J.B.G.(2009), Higher education: a public good or a commodity for trade?, Springer International Publishing AG. Part of Springer Nature. [27] Van Vught, F. (éd) (1989), Governmental Strategies and Innovations in Higher Education, Jessica Kingsley, Londres. [28] UNESCO/OCDE (2006), Education Trends in Perspective – Analysis of the World Education Indicators, Institut de Statistique de l’UNESCO, OCDE, World Education Indicators Programme. [29] Wells, P.J., J. Sadlak et L. Vlăsceanu (éd) (2007), The Rising Role and Relevance of Private Higher Education in Europe; UNESCO – CEPES, Bucarest. [30] Wittrock, B. et W. Peter (1996), « Social Science and the Building of the Early Welfare State: Toward a Comparison of Statist and Non-Statist Western Societies », in Dietrich Rueschemeyer et Theda Skocpol (éd.) States, Social Knowledge and the Origins of Modern Social Policies, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. [32] Wittrock, B. (1993), « The Modern University: the Three Transformations », in Rothblatt and Wittrock (éd.), The European and American University since 1800 – Historical and Sociological Essays, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 303-62.

I was born illegitimate. Born on an existential precipice. My unwed mother was 36 years old when she relinquished me. I was the fourth baby she was required to give away. After I emerged blood stained and blue tinged – abject, liminal – not only did the nurses refuse me my mother’s touch, I also lost the sound of her voice. Her smell. Her heart beat. Her taste. Her gaze. The silence was multi-sensory. When they told her I was dead, I also lost, within her memory and imagination, my life. I was adopted soon after but not told for over four decades. It was too shameful for even me to know. Imprinted at birth with a psychological ‘death’, I fell, as a Late Discovery Adoptee (LDA), into a socio-cultural and psychological abyss, frozen at birth at the bottom of a parturitive void from where, invisible within family, society, and self I was unable to form an undamaged sense of being.Throughout the 20th century (and for centuries before) this kind of ‘social abortion’ was the dominant script. An adoptee was regarded as a bastard, born of sin, the mother blamed, the father exonerated, and silence demanded (Lynch 28-74). My adoptive mother also sinned. She was infertile. But, in taking me on, she assumed the role of a womb worthy woman, good wife, and, in her case, reluctant mother (she secretly didn’t want children and was privately overwhelmed by the task). In this way, my mother, my adoptive mother, and myself are all the daughters of bereavement, all of us sacrificed on the altar of prejudice and fear that infertility, sex outside of marriage, and illegitimacy were unspeakable crimes for which a price must be paid and against which redemptive protection must be arranged. If, as Thomas Keneally (5) writes, “original sin is the mother fluid of history” then perhaps all three of us all lie in its abject waters. Grotevant, Dunbar, Kohler and Lash Esau (379) point out that adoption was used to ‘shield’ children from their illegitimacy, women from their ‘sexual indiscretions’, and adoptive parents from their infertility in the belief that “severing ties with birth family members would promote attachment between adopted children and parents”. For the adoptee in the closed record system, the socio/political/economic vortex that orchestrated their illegitimacy is born out of a deeply, self incriminating primal fear that reaches right back into the recesses of survival – the act of procreation is infested with easily transgressed life and death taboos within the ‘troop’ that require silence and the burial of many bodies (see Amanda Gardiner’s “Sex, Death and Desperation: Infanticide, Neonaticide, and Concealment of Birth in Colonial Western Australia” for a palpable, moving, and comprehensive exposition on the links between 'illegitimacy', the unmarried mother and child murder). As Nancy Verrier (24) states in Coming Home to Self, “what has to be understood is that separation trauma is an insidious experience, because, as a society, we fail to see this experience as a trauma”. Indeed, relinquishment/adoption for the baby and subsequent adult can be acutely and chronically painful. While I was never told the truth of my origins, of course, my body knew. It had been there. Sentient, aware, sane, sensually, organically articulate, it messaged me (and anyone who may have been interested) over the decades via the language of trauma, its lexicon and grammar cellular, hormonal, muscular (Howard & Crandall, 1-17; Pert, 72), the truth of my birth, of who I was an “unthought known” (Bollas 4). I have lived out my secret fatality in a miasmic nebula of what I know now to be the sequelae of adoption psychopathology: nausea, physical and psychological pain, agoraphobia, panic attacks, shame, internalised anger, depression, self-harm, genetic bewilderment, and generalised anxiety (Brodzinsky 25-47; Brodzinsky, Smith, & Brodzinsky 74; Kenny, Higgins, Soloff, & Sweid xiv; Levy-Shiff 97-98; Lifton 210-212; Verrier The Primal Wound 42-44; Wierzbicki 447-451) – including an all pervading sense of unreality experienced as dissociation (the experience of depersonalisation – where the self feels unreal – and derealisation – where the world feels unreal), disembodiment, and existential elision – all characteristics of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In these ways, my body intervened, acted out, groaned in answer to the social overlay, and from beyond “the dermal veil” tried to procure access, as Vicky Kirby (77) writes, to “the body’s opaque ocean depths” through its illnesses, its eloquent, and incessantly aching and silent verbosities deepened and made impossibly fraught because I was not told. The aim of this paper is to discuss one aspect of how my body tried to channel the trauma of my secret fatality and liminality: my pre-disclosure art work (the cellular memory of my trauma also expressed itself, pre-disclosure, through my writings – poetry, journal entries – and also through post-coital glossolalia, all discussed at length in my Honours research “Womb Tongues” and my Doctoral Dissertation “The Womb Artist – A Novel: Translating Pre-verbal Late Discovery Adoption Trauma into Narrative”). From the age of thirty onwards I spent twelve years in therapy where the cause of my childhood and adult psychopathology remained a mystery. During this time, my embodied grief and memories found their way into my art work, a series of 5’ x 3’ acrylic paintings, some of which I offer now for discussion (figures 1-4). These paintings map and express what my body knew but could not verbalise (without language to express my grief, my body found other ways to vent). They are symptom and sign of my pre-verbal adoption trauma, evidence that my body ‘knew’ and laboured ceaselessly and silently to find creative ways to express the incarcerated trauma. Post disclosure, I have used my paintings as artefacts to inform, underpin, and nourish the writing of a collection of poetry “Womb Tongues” and a literary novel/memoir “The Womb Artist” (TWA) in an ongoing autoethnographical, performative, and critical inquiry. My practice-led research as a now conscious and creative witness, fashions the recontextualisation of my ‘self’ into my ‘self’ and society, this time with cognisant and reparative knowledge and facilitates the translation of my body’s psychopathology and memory (explicit and implicit) into a healing testimony that explores the traumatised body as text and politicizes the issues surrounding LDAs (Riley 205). If I use these paintings as a memoirist, I use them second hand, after the fact, after they have served their initial purpose, as the tangible art works of a baby buried beneath a culture’s prejudice, shame, and judgement and the personal cries from the illegitimate body/self. I use them now to explore and explain my subclinical and subterranean life as a LDA.My pre-disclosure paintings (Figures 1-4) – filled with vaginal, fetal, uterine, and umbilical references – provide some kind of ‘evidence’ that my body knew what had happened to me as if, with the tenacity of a poltergeist, my ‘spectral self’ found ways to communicate. Not simply clues, but the body’s translation of the intra-psychic landscape, a pictorial and artistic séance into the world, as if my amygdala – as quasar and signal, homing device and history lesson (a measure, container, and memoir) – knew how to paint a snap shot or an x-ray of the psyche, of my cellular marrow memories (a term formulated from fellow LDA Sandy McCutcheon’s (76) memoir, The Magician’s Son when he says, “What I really wanted was the history of my marrow”). If, as Salveet Talwar suggests, “trauma is processed from the body up”, then for the LDA pre-discovery, non-verbal somatic signage is one’s ‘mother tongue’(25). Talwar writes, “non-verbal expressive therapies such as art, dance, music, poetry and drama all activate the sub-cortical regions of the brain and access pre-verbal memories” (26). In these paintings, eerily divinatory and pointed traumatic, memories are made visible and access, as Gussie Klorer (213) explains in regard to brain function and art therapy, the limbic (emotional) system and the prefrontal cortex in sensorimotor integration. In this way, as Marie Angel and Anna Gibbs (168) suggest, “the visual image may serve as a kind of transitional mode in thought”. Ruth Skilbeck in her paper First Things: Reflections on Single-lens Reflex Digital Photography with a Wide-angled Lens, also discusses (with reference to her photographic record and artistic expression of her mother’s death) what she calls the “dark matter” – what has been overlooked, “left out”, and/or is inexplicable (55) – and the idea of art work as the “transitional object” as “a means that some artists use, conceptually and yet also viscerally, in response to the extreme ‘separation anxiety’ of losing a loved one, to the void of the Unknown” (57). In my case, non-disclosure prevented my literacy and the evolution of the image into language, prevented me from fully understanding the coded messages left for me in my art work. However, each of my paintings is now, with the benefit of full disclosure, a powerful, penetrating, and comprehensible intra and extra sensory cry from the body in kinaesthetic translation (Lusebrink, 125; Klorer, 217). In Figure 1, ‘Embrace’, the reference to the umbilical is palpable, described in my novel “The Womb Artist” (184) this way; “two ropes tightly entwine as one, like a dark and dirty umbilical cord snaking its way across a nether world of smudged umbers”. There is an ‘abject’ void surrounding it. The cord sapped of its colour, its blood, nutrients – the baby starved of oxygen, breath; the LDA starved of words and conscious understanding. It has two parts entwined that may be seen in many ways (without wanting to reduce these to static binaries): mother/baby; conscious/unconscious; first person/third person; child/adult; semiotic/symbolic – numerous dualities could be spun from this embrace – but in terms of my novel and of the adoptive experience, it reeks of need, life and death, a text choking on the poetic while at the same time nourished by it; a text made ‘available’ to the reader while at the same narrowing, limiting, and obscuring the indefinable nature of pre-verbal trauma. Figure 1. Embrace. 1993. Acrylic on canvas.The painting ‘Womb Tongues’ (Figure 2) is perhaps the last (and, obviously, lasting) memory of the infinite inchoate universe within the womb, the umbilical this time wrapped around in a phallic/clitorial embrace as the baby-self emerges into the constrictions of a Foucauldian world, where the adoptive script smothers the ‘body’ encased beneath the ‘coils’ of Judeo-Christian prejudice and centuries old taboo. In this way, the reassigned adoptee is an acute example of power (authority) controlling and defining the self and what knowledge of the self may be allowed. The baby in this painting is now a suffocated clitoris, a bound subject, a phallic representation, a gagged ‘tongue’ in the shape of the personally absent (but socially imposing) omni-present and punitive patriarchy. Figure 2. Womb Tongues. 1997. Acrylic on canvas.‘Germination’ (Figure 3) depicts an umbilical again, but this time as emerging from a seething underworld and is present in TWA (174) this way, “a colony of night crawlers that writhe and slither on the canvas, moving as one, dozens of them as thin as a finger, as long as a dream”. The rhizomic nature of this painting (and Figure 4), becomes a heaving horde of psychosomatic and psychopathological influences and experiences, a multitude of closely packed, intense, and dendridic compulsions and symptoms, a mass of interconnected (and by nature of the silence and lie) subterranean knowledges that force the germination of a ‘ghost baby/child/adult’ indicated by the pale and ashen seedling that emerges above ground. The umbilical is ghosted, pale and devoid of life. It is in the air now, reaching up, as if in germination to a psychological photosynthesis. There is the knot and swarm within the unconscious; something has, in true alien fashion, been incubated and is now emerging. In some ways, these paintings are hardly cryptic.Figure 3. Germination.1993. Acrylic on canvas.In Figure 4 ‘The Birthing Tree’, the overt symbolism reaches ‘clairvoyant status’. This could be read as the family ‘tree’ with its four faces screaming out of the ‘branches’. Do these represent the four babies relinquished by our mother (the larger of these ‘beings’ as myself, giving birth to the illegitimate, silenced, and abject self)? Are we all depicted in anguish and as wraithlike, grotesquely simplified into pure affect? This illegitimate self is painted as gestating a ‘blue’ baby, near full-term in a meld of tree and ‘self’, a blue umbilical cord, again, devoid of blood, ghosted, lifeless and yet still living, once again suffocated by the representation of the umbilical in the ‘bowels’ of the self, the abject part of the body, where refuse is stored and eliminated: The duodenum of the damned. The Devil may be seen as Christopher Bollas’s “shadow of the object”, or the Jungian archetypal shadow, not simply a Judeo-Christian fear-based spectre and curmudgeon, but a site of unprocessed and, therefore, feared psychological material, material that must be brought to consciousness and integrated. Perhaps the Devil also is the antithesis to ‘God’ as mother. The hell of ‘not mother’, no mother, not the right mother, the reluctant adoptive mother – the Devil as icon for the rich underbelly of the psyche and apophatic to the adopted/artificial/socially scripted self.Figure 4. The Birthing Tree. 1995. Acrylic on canvas.These paintings ache with the trauma of my relinquishment and LDA experience. They ache with my body’s truth, where the cellular and psychological, flesh and blood and feeling, leak from my wounds in unspeakable confluence (the two genital lips as the site of relinquishment, my speaking lips that have been sealed through non-disclosure and shame, the psychological trauma as Verrier’s ‘primal wound’) just as I leaked from my mother (and society) at birth, as blood and muck, and ooze and pus and death (Grosz 195) only to be quickly and silently mopped up and cleansed through adoption and life-long secrecy. Where I, as translator, fluent in both silence and signs, disclose the baby’s trauma, asking for legitimacy. My experience as a LDA sets up an interesting experiment, one that allows an examination of the pre-verbal/pre-disclosure body as a fleshed and breathing Rosetta Stone, as an interface between the language of the body and of the verbalised, painted, and written text. As a constructed body, written upon and invented legally, socially, and psychologically, I am, in Hélène Cixous’s (“To Live the Orange” 83) words, “un-forgetting”, “un-silencing” and “unearthing” my ‘self’ – I am re-writing, re-inventing and, under public scrutiny, legitimising my ‘self’. I am a site of inquiry, discovery, extrapolation, and becoming (Metta 492; Poulus 475) and, as Grosz (vii) suggests, a body with “all the explanatory power” of the mind. I am, as I embroider myself and my LDA experience into literary and critical texts, authoring myself into existence, referencing with particular relevance Peter Carnochan’s (361) suggestion that “analysis...acts as midwife to the birth of being”. I am, as I swim forever amorphous, invisible, and unspoken in my mother’s womb, fashioning a shore, landscaping my mind against the constant wet, my chronic liminality (Rambo 629) providing social landfall for other LDAs and silenced minorities. As Catherine Lynch (3) writes regarding LDAs, “Through the creation of text and theory I can formulate an intimate space for a family of adoptive subjects I might never know via our participation in a new discourse in Australian academia.” I participate through my creative, self-reflexive, process fuelled (Durey 22), practice-led enquiry. I use the intimacy (and also universality and multiplicity) and illegitimacy of my body as an alterative text, as a site of academic and creative augmentation in the understanding of LDA issues. The relinquished and silenced baby and LDA adult needs a voice, a ‘body’, and a ‘tender’ place in the consciousness of society, as Helen Riley (“Confronting the Conspiracy of Silence” 11) suggests, “voice, validation, and vindication”. Judith Herman (3) argues that, “Survivors challenge us to reconnect fragments, to reconstruct history, to make meaning of their present symptoms in the light of past events”. I seek to use the example of my experience – as Judith Durey (31) suggests, in “support of evocative, creative modes of representation as valid forms of research in their own right” – to unfurl the whole, to give impetus and precedence for other researchers into adoption and advocate for future babies who may be bought, sold, arranged, and/or created by various means. The recent controversy over Gammy, the baby boy born with Down Syndrome in Thailand, highlights the urgent and moral need for legislation with regard to surrogacy (see Kajsa Ekis Ekman’s Being and Being Bought: Prostitution, Surrogacy and the Split Self for a comprehensive examination of surrogacy issues). Indeed, Catherine Lynch in her paper Doubting Adoption Legislation links the experiences of LDAs and the children of born of surrogacy, most effectively arguing that, “if the fate that closed record adoptees suffered was a misplaced solution to the question of what to do with children already conceived how can you justify the deliberate conception of a child with the intention even before its creation of cruelly removing that child from their mother?” (6). Cixous (xxii) confesses, “All I want is to illustrate, depict fragments, events of human life and death...each unique and yet at the same time exchangeable. Not the law, the exception”. I, too, am a fragment, an illustration (a painting), and, as every individual always is – paradoxically – a communal and, therefore, deeply recognisable and generally applicable minority and exception. In my illegitimacy, I am some kind of evidence. Evidence of cellular memory. Evidence of embodiment. Evidence that silenced illegitimacies will manifest in symptom and non-verbal narratives, that they will ooze out and await translation, verification, and witness. This paper is offered with reverence and with feminist intention, as a revenant mouthpiece for other LDAs, babies born of surrogacy, and donor assisted offspring (and, indeed, any) who are marginalised, silenced, and obscured. It is also intended to promote discussion in the psychological and psychoanalytic fields and, as Helen Riley (202-207) advocates regarding late discovery offspring, more research within the social sciences and the bio-medical field that may encourage legislators to better understand what the ‘best interests of the child’ are in terms of late discovery of origins and the complexity of adoption/conception practices available today. As I write now (and always) the umbilical from my paintings curve and writhe across my soul, twist and morph into the swollen and throbbing organ of tongues, my throat aching to utter, my hands ready to craft latent affect into language in translation of, and in obedience to, my body’s knowledges. It is the art of mute witness that reverses genesis, that keeps the umbilical fat and supple and full of blood, and allows my conscious conception and creation. Indeed, in the intersection of my theoretical, creative, psychological, and somatic praxis, the heat (read hot and messy, insightful and insistent signage) of my body’s knowledges perhaps intensifies – with a ripe bouquet – the inevitably ongoing odour/aroma of the reproductive world. ReferencesAngel, Maria, and Anna Gibbs. “On Moving and Being Moved: The Corporeality of Writing in Literary Fiction and New Media Art.” Literature and Sensation, eds. Anthony Uhlmann, Helen Groth, Paul Sheehan, and Stephan McLaren. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009: 162-172. Bollas, Christopher. The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanalysis of the Unthought Known. New York: Columbia UP, 1987. Brodzinsky, David. “Adjustment to Adoption: A Psychosocial Perspective.” Clinical Psychology Review 7 (1987): 25-47. doi: 10.1016/0272-7358(87)90003-1.Brodzinsky, David, Daniel Smith, and Anne Brodzinsky. Children’s Adjustment to Adoption: Developmental and Clinical Issues. California: Sage Publications, 1998.Carnochan, Peter. “Containers without Lids”. Psychoanalytic Dialogues 16.3 (2006): 341-362.Cixous, Hélène. “To Live the Orange”. The Hélène Cixous Reader: With a Preface by Hélène Cixous and Foreword by Jacques Derrida, ed. Susan Sellers. Oxford, UK: Routledge, 1979/1994. 81-92. ---. “Preface.” The Hélène Cixous Reader: With a Preface by Hélène Cixous and Foreword by Jacques Derrida, ed. Susan Sellers. Oxford, UK: Routledge, 1994. xv-xxii.Coull, Kim. “Womb Tongues: A Collection of Poetry.” Honours Thesis. Perth, WA: Edith Cowan University, 2007. ---. “The Womb Artist – A Novel: Translating Late Discovery Adoptee Pre-Verbal Trauma into Narrative”. Dissertation. Perth, WA: Edith Cowan University, 2014. Durey, Judith. Translating Hiraeth, Performing Adoption: Art as Mediation and Form of Cultural Production. Dissertation. Perth, WA: Murdoch University, 2010. 22 Sep. 2011 .Ekis Ekman, Kajsa. Being and Being Bought: Prostitution, Surrogacy and the Split Self. Trans. S. Martin Cheadle. North Melbourne: Spinifex Press, 2013. Gardiner, Amanda. “Sex, Death and Desperation: Infanticide, Neonaticide, and Concealment of Birth in Colonial Western Australia”. Dissertation. Perth, WA: Edith Cowan University, 2014. Grosz, Elizabeth. Volatile Bodies. NSW: Allen &. Unwin, 1994. Grotevant, Harold D., Nora Dunbar, Julie K. Kohler, and Amy. M. Lash Esau. “Adoptive Identity: How Contexts within and beyond the Family Shape Developmental Pathways.” Family Relations 49.3 (2000): 79-87.Herman, Judith L. Trauma and Recovery: From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. London: Harper Collins, 1992. Howard, Sethane, and Mark W. Crandall. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: What Happens in the Brain. Washington Academy of Sciences 93.3 (2007): 1-18.Keneally, Thomas. Schindler’s List. London: Serpentine Publishing Company, 1982. Kenny, Pauline, Daryl Higgins, Carol Soloff, and Reem Sweid. Past Adoption Experiences: National Research Study on the Service Response to Past Adoption Practices. Research Report 21. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2012.Kirby, Vicky. Telling Flesh: The Substance of the Corporeal. New York and London: Routledge, 1997. Klorer, P. Gussie. “Expressive Therapy with Severely Maltreated Children: Neuroscience Contributions.” Journal of the American Art Therapy Association 22.4 (2005): 213-220. doi:10.1080/07421656.2005.10129523.Levy-Shiff, Rachel. “Psychological Adjustment of Adoptees in Adulthood: Family Environment and Adoption-Related Correlates. International Journal of Behavioural Development 25 (2001): 97-104. doi: 1080/01650250042000131.Lifton, Betty J. “The Adoptee’s Journey.” Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 11.2 (2002): 207-213. doi: 10.1023/A:1014320119546.Lusebrink, Vija B. “Art Therapy and the Brain: An Attempt to Understand the Underlying Processes of Art Expression in Therapy.” Journal of the American Art Therapy Association 21.3 (2004): 125-135. doi:10.1080/07421656. 2004.10129496.Lynch, Catherine. “An Ado/aptive Reading and Writing of Australia and Its Contemporary Literature.” Australian Journal of Adoption 1.1 (2009): 1-401.---. Doubting Adoption Legislation. n.d.McCutcheon, Sandy. The Magician’s Son: A Search for Identity. Sydney, NSW: Penguin, 2006. Metta, Marilyn. “Putting the Body on the Line: Embodied Writing and Recovery through Domestic Violence.” Handbook of Autoethnography, eds. Stacy Holman Jones, Tony Adams, and Carolyn Ellis. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2013: 486-509.Pert, Candace. Molecules of Emotion: The Science behind Mind-body Medicine. New York: Touchstone, 2007. Rambo, Carol. “Twitch: A Performance of Chronic Liminality.” Handbook of Autoethnography, eds. Stacy Holman Jones, Tony Adams, and Carolyn Ellis. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2013: 627-638.Riley, Helen J. Identity and Genetic Origins: An Ethical Exploration of the Late Discovery of Adoptive and Donor-insemination Offspring Status. Dissertation. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology, 2012.---. “Confronting the Conspiracy of Silence and Denial of Difference for Late Discovery Persons and Donor Conceived People.” Australian Journal of Adoption 7.2 (2013): 1-13.Skilbeck, Ruth. “First Things: Reflection on Single-Lens Reflex Digital Photography with a Wide-Angle Lens.” International Journal of the Image 3 (2013): 55-66. Talwar, Savneet. “Accessing Traumatic Memory through Art Making: An Art Therapy Trauma Protocol (ATTP)." The Arts in Psychotherapy 34 (2007): 22-25. doi:10.1016/ j.aip.2006.09.001.Verrier, Nancy. The Primal Wound: Understanding the Adopted Child. Baltimore, MD: Gateway Press, 1993.---. The Adopted Child Grows Up: Coming Home to Self. Baltimore, MD: Gateway Press, 2003. Wierzbicki, Michael. “Psychological Adjustment of Adoptees: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 22.4 (1993): 447-454. doi:10.1080/ 01650250042000131.

“We may no longer be able to trust technology. A computer program could, without warning, become an uncontrollable force, triggered by a date, an event or a timer.” (Clough and Mungo 223) Introduction In 1991 the Information Security Handbook noted how “society is becoming increasingly dependent on the accurate and timely distribution of information” (Shain 4). This dependence, however, exposed the society to new kinds of dangers, accidents that have to do with information disorders – viruses, worms, bugs, malicious hackers etc. In this essay, I focus on digital viruses as disorderly elements within the digital culture. It is due to certain key principles in computing and computer security that viruses and worms have acquired their contemporary status as malicious software, that is, malware – elements of chaos, accident and disorder. According to my claim, the fear of viruses does not stem just from the contemporary culture of digital technology. It is part of a longer genealogy of modern computing, which has emphasized issues of control, reliability and order. Viruses and worms threaten the conceptual ontology of digital culture in a similar fashion as epidemic diseases have been figures for social disorder throughout Western history. Unlike AIDS or other deadly biological viruses, computer viruses have not been known to cause casualties to humans, yet they have been treated the last years as the “killer viruses of digital culture”, connotating the seriousness of the threat. A “viral perspective” to digital culture reveals how underlying articulations of order are used to construct an all-too-harmonious picture of computers in modern society. Reliability Anti-virus manuals, guidebooks and other such publications have especially contributed to our understanding of viruses as threats to the orderly digital society. The editorial of the first issue of Virus Bulletin (July 1989) sees viruses as a cunning form of vandalism and an indication of ”sabotage mentality”. Viruses destroy information and produce uncontrollability: Rather like Hitler’s V1 ‘flying bomb’, no-one knows when or where a computer virus will strike. They attack indiscriminately. Virus writers, whether or not they have targeted specific companies or individuals, must know that their programs, once unleashed, soon become uncontrollable. (Virus Bulletin 2) Computer viruses mean unreliable and unexpected danger: they are a chaotic element within a system based on security and order. According to a widely embraced view computer security means 1) confidentiality (the privacy of sensitive information), 2) integrity (authorized information and program exchange) and 3) availability (systems work promptly and allow access to authorized users). (E.g. Shain 5). Viruses and other forms of malicious code are, consequently, a direct threat to these values, part of the modern episteme in general. This is what I will here define as “a computational way of thinking”. The concept refers not only to the epistemological and ontological presuppositions in actual computer science discussions, but also to the larger cultural historical contexts surrounding the design, implementation and use of computers. Of course, one has to note that computers have never been those reliable and rational dream-machines they have been taken to be, as they are exposed to various potentials for breaking down of which viruses and worms form only a minor part. Yet, interestingly, reading professional and popular depictions of digital viruses reveals that these sources do consider computers as otherwise integrated, coherent and pristine machines of rationality, which are only temporarily disturbed by the evil occurrences of external malicious software. Control The virus researcher Vesselin Bontchev acknowledges how issues of trust and control are at the heart of computing and the virus threat: “a computer virus steals the control of the computer from the user. The virus activity ruins the trust that the user has in his/her machine, because it causes the user to lose his or her belief that she or he can control this machine” (31). This definition resonates with broader cultural trends of modernization. Zygmunt Bauman has expressed the essence of modern science as an ”ambition to conquer Nature and subordinate it to human needs” (39). Bauman understands this as ”control management”: the moulding of things to suit human needs. The essence of modern technology proceeds along the same lines, defined through values of progress, controllability, subordination of chaos and reification of the world. From the 19th-century on, technology became closely associated with advances in science. The values of order and control were embedded in the machines and technological systems, and with time, these values became the characteristics of modern technological culture. In this vein modernity can be defined as a new attitude towards controlling information. Capitalism and digital culture as historical phenomena share the valuation of abstraction, standardization and mechanization, which were already part of the technological culture of the 19th-century. Similarly, Turing’s universal machine was above all a machine of ordering and translation, with which heterogenous phenomena could be equated. This idea, concretised in typewriters, conveyer belts, assembly lines, calculators and computers served the basis for both digital machines and capitalism. The concrete connection was the capitalist need to control the increasingly complex amount of production, circulation and signs. Rationalism – as exemplified in Babbage’s differential calculators, Taylor’s ideas of work-management and cybernetics – was the image of thought incorporated in these machines (Gere 19–40). Rationalism In general, first order cybernetics fulfilled the project of modern abstract rationalism. In other words, notions of control and order play a significant role in the archaeology of information technological security, and these themes are especially visible in the thinking of Norbert Wiener, the pioneer of cybernetics. Wiener’s cybernetics touches, most of all, upon the question of understanding the world as communication circuits and controlling them via successful feedback loops that maintain the stasis of a system. This theory relates closely the problem of entropy, a classical notion in statistical mechanics from the 19th-century: “Just as the amount of information in a system is a measure of its degree of organization, so the entropy of a system is a measure of its degree of disorganization; and the one is simply the negative of the other” (Wiener 11). Wiener and the modern era share a respect for control and security. As products of modernity, cybernetics, systems theory and information theory are all in a way theories of order and cleanliness. This is the main theme of Stephen Pfohl’s essay “The Cybernetic Delirium of Norbert Wiener”, in which he describes the cultural historical background of modern cybernetic culture. To Pfohl, cybernetics does not mean a purely academic discipline but “a term connoting the most far-reaching of ultramodern forms of social control.” Pfohl delineates the genealogy of cybernetics from the early projects on anti-aircraft artillery to the functioning of the contemporary capitalist media culture. For Pfohl, Wiener’s theories connect directly to the power structures of modern society, sacrificing other ways of being, restricting other possible worlds from emerging. Paraphrasing Pfohl, cybernetics regulates and modifies the dynamic flows of the world into fixed, stabilized and controlled boundaries. Noise The engineering problem of logical calculation and communication of signals without noise expands towards the more general cultural fields of power and articulation. I would especially like to pick up the notion of noise, which, as understood by Bauman, means undefinability, incoherence, incongruity, incompatibility, illogicality, irrationality, ambiguity, confusion, undecidability, ambivalence, all tropes of “the other of order” (7). For cybernetics and early computer pioneers, noise meant a managing problem, objects in the way of transmitting signals. Noise as the most important problem for the rise of modern discourse networks was not solved once and for all in any historical phase, but remained part of the communication acts ever since, and the only resolution to the problem of non-communication was to incorporate it within the system (Kittler 242). Computer viruses can be understood as contemporary instances of this notion of noise. They are software that short-circuit the “normal” operations of a computer and connect themselves to the basic functioning of the machine. Viruses mean short-term wiring of noise to the components of a computer. By definition, viruses have been conceived as a threat to any computer system for a) virus activity is always uncontrollable, because the actions of the virus program are autonomous and b) viruses behave indeterminately and unpredictably (Lamacka 195). In a much more positive vein, this coupling of computing order and viral disorder has been noted by recent net art projects. According to the net artist Jaromil the digital domain produces a form of chaos – which is inconvenient because it is unusual and fertile – on which people can surf. In that chaos, viruses are spontaneous compositions which are like lyrical poems in causing imperfections in machines ”made to work” and in representing the rebellion of our digital serfs. Jaromil takes noise as the starting point and articulates how viruses function also as forms of resistance to the contemporary informational capitalist ideology of the digital. Charlie Gere’s analysis of the connections between modern technology and capitalism is apt in this regard as well: the abstract, standardizing and mechanizing machines of modernization serve the basis for both the cult of the digital and contemporary capitalism in a way that makes these two almost siblings. Thus, also accidents of this techno-capitalist culture are not solely technical, but social in that they are articulated on a plane of society and cultural interaction. Viruses can thus be understood as those “unwanted bads” that are a by-product of post-industrial culture of production of goods (Van Loon), as well as they can be viewed alongside other mass mediated apocalyptic monsters threatening the order of contemporary Western culture, as Luca Lampo from the net art group _[epidemiC]_ suggests: We feel that “The Virus” is the “stranger”, the “other”, in our machine, a sort of digital sans papier—uncontrollable diversity. Once Hollywood, like Empire, finished killing “Indians” and the “Soviet Russians”, the Hollywood propaganda machine had to build other anti-Empire monsters to keep alive the social imaginary of 2001: aliens, meteors, epidemic… so many monsters. In this light, while being technical bits of code that from time to time cause trouble for users, viruses act also as social signs which can be activated in various contexts. For representatives of the official computer culture viruses and worms are signs of disorder, chaos and crime that undermine the presumed reliability of digital culture, which would otherwise function “normally.” Yet, according to some commentators, viral disorder should not mean solely anarchy but a space for variation and experimentation that resist the one-way ideology of computer rationalism. (See Sampson; Cohen; Deleuze.) For some, that ideology has been crystallized in the figure of Microsoft, a popular target for virus attacks. This view accentuates that the genealogy of computers and rationalism analysed above is but one potential history. There is always the possibility to write the counter-memory of the disorderly, accidental, probabilistic and contingent nature of technological culture. Hence, viruses might prove out to be also intellectual tools, with which to create new concepts and viewpoints to digital culture and the cultural history of computing and technology in general. Already Martin Heidegger (§ 16) proposed that modern technology reveals itself at the moment of its breaking. In this sense, viruses reveal the functioning of a certain ideological or micro-political constitution of digital order. The challenge is not to take any notion of a “healthy” cultural network without disturbances as the starting point, but to see elements of break-up as part and parcel of those systems. Even if we are used to thinking of systems as orderly and harmonious, “[i]n the beginning there was noise”, as Serres (13) notes. This emphasizes the conceptual space we should give to the parasites who reveal the networks of power that otherwise are left unnoticed. References Bauman, Zygmunt. Modernity and Ambivalence. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995 Bontchev, Vesselin. “Are ‘Good’ Computer Viruses Still a Bad Idea?” EICAR Conference Proceedings 1994, 25–47. Clough, Bryan and Mungo, Paul. Approaching Zero: Data Crime and the Computer Underworld. London & Boston: Faber & Faber, 1992. Cohen, Fred. It’s Alive! The New Breed of Living Computer Programs. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994. Deleuze, Gilles. “Post-scriptum sur les sociétés de contrôle” In: Pourparlers 1972–1990. Paris: Les éditions de minuit, 1990, 240–7. Gere, Charlie. Digital Culture. London: Reaktion Books, 2002. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Albany: New York University Press, 1996. Jaromil. “:(){ :|:& };:” ‘I love You’ – exhibition catalogue, 2002, http://www.digitalcraft.org/index.php?artikel_id=292> Kittler, Friedrich. Draculas Vermächtnis: Technische Schriften. Leipzig: Reclam Verlag Leipzig, 1993. Lamacka, Pavel. “Harmless and useful viruses can hardly exist.” Virus Bulletin Conference Proceedings 1995, 193–8. Lampo, Luca. “When The Virus Becomes Epidemic.” An Interview with Luca Lampo by Snafu and Vanni Brusadin, 18.4.2002, http://www.epidemic.ws/downJones_press/THE_THING_ Interview_files/index_files/display.forum> Pfohl, Stephen. “The Cybernetic Delirium of Norbert Wiener.” C-Theory 30.1.1997 http://www.ctheory.net/text_file.asp?pick=86>. Sampson, Tony. ”A Virus in Info-Space.” M/C Journal http://www.media-culture.org.au/0406/07_Sampson.html>. Serres, Michel. The Parasite. Baltimore & London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. Shain, Michael. ”An Overview of Security”. Information Security Handbook. Eds. Michael Caelli, Dennis Longley & Michael Shain. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994 (1991). Van Loon, Joost. Risk and Technological Culture: Towards a Sociology of Virulence. London & New York: Routledge, 2002. Virus Bulletin, “Editorial”, July 1989. Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 2nd edition. (1st edition 1948). New York & London: The M.I.T. Press and John Wiley & Sons, 1961. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Parikka, Jussi. "Viral Noise and the (Dis)Order of the Digital Culture." M/C Journal 7.6 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0501/05-parikka.php>. APA Style Parikka, J. (Jan. 2005) "Viral Noise and the (Dis)Order of the Digital Culture," M/C Journal, 7(6). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0501/05-parikka.php>.

Perhaps the supreme quality of print is one that is lost on us, since it has so casual and obvious an existence (McLuhan 160). Print Machine (Thad Donovan, 1995) In the introduction to his book on 9/11, Welcome to the Desert of the Real, Slavoj Zizek uses an analogy of letter writing to emphasize the contingency of post-9/11 reality. In the example, Zizek discusses the efforts of writers to escape the eyes of governmental censors and a system that used blue ink to indicate a message was true, red ink to indicate it was false. The story ends with an individual receiving a letter from the censored country stating that the writer could not find any red ink. The ambiguity and the duplicity of writing, suggested in Zizek’s tale of colored inks, is a condition of the contemporary world, even if we are unaware of it. We exist in an age in which print—the economization of writing—has an increasingly significant and precarious role in our lives. We turn to the Internet chat room for textual interventions in our sexual, political and aesthetic lives. We burn satanic Harry Potter books and issue fatwas against writers like Salman Rushdie. We narrate our lives using pictures, fonts of varying typeface and color, and sound on our personalized homepages. We throw out our printed books and buy audio ones so we can listen to our favorite authors in the car. We place trust of our life savings, personal numbers, and digital identity in the hands of unseen individuals behind computer screens. Decisively, we are a print people, but our very nature of being dependent on the technologies of print in our public and private lives leads to our inability to consider the epistemological, social and existential effects of print on us. In this article, I focus on the current manifestations of print—what I call “newprint”—including their relationships to consumerism, identity formation and the politics of the state. I will then consider the democratic possibilities of print, suggested by the personalization of print through the Internet and home publishing, and conclude with the implications of the end of print that include the possibility of a post-print language and the middle voice. In order to understand the significance of our current print culture, it is important to situate print in the context of the history of communication. In earlier times, writing had magical associations (Harris 10), and commonly these underpinnings led to the stratification of communities. Writing functioned as a type of black box, “the mysterious technology by which any message [could] be concealed from its illiterate bearer” (Harris 16). Plato and Socrates warned against the negative effects of writing on the mind, including the erosion of memory (Ong 81). Though it once supplemented the communicational bases of orality, the written word soon supplanted it and created a dramatic existential shift in people—a separation of “the knower from the known” (Ong 43-44). As writing moved from the inconvenience of illuminated manuscripts and hand-copied texts, it became systemized in Gutenberg print, and writing then took on the signature of the state—messages between people were codified in the technology of print. With the advent of computer technologies in the 1990s, including personal computers, word processing programs, printers, and the Internet, the age of newprint begins. Newprint includes the electronic language of the Internet and other examples of the public alphabet, including billboards, signage and the language of advertising. As much as members of consumer society are led to believe that newprint is the harbinger of positive identity construction and individualism, closer analysis of the mechanisms of newprint leads to a different conclusion. An important context of new print is found in the space of the home computer. The home computer is the workstation of the contemporary discursive culture—people send and receive emails, do their shopping on the Internet, meet friends and even spouses through dating services, conceal their identity on MUDs and MOOs, and produce state-of-the-art publishing projects, even books. The ubiquity of print in the space of the personal computer leads to the vital illusion that this newprint is emancipatory. Some theorists have argued that the Internet exhibits the spirit of communicative action addressed by Juergen Habermas, but such thinkers have neglected the fact that the foundations of newprint, just like those of Gutenberg print, are the state and the corporation. Recent advertising of Hewlett-Packard and other computer companies illustrates this point. One advertisement suggested that consumers could “invent themselves” through HP computer and printer technology: by using the varied media available to them, consumers can make everything from personalized greeting cards to full-fledged books. As Friedrich Kittler illustrates, we should resist the urge to separate the practices of writing from the technologies of their production, what Jay David Bolter (41) denotes as the “writing space”. For as much as we long for new means of democratic and individualistic expression, we should not succumb to the urge to accept newprint because of its immediacy, novelty or efficiency. Doing so will relegate us to a mechanistic existence, what is referenced metaphorically in Thad Donovan’s “print machine.” In multiple contexts, newprint extends the corporate state’s propaganda industry by turning the written word into artifice. Even before newprint, the individual was confronted with the hegemony of writing. Writing creates “context-free language” or “autonomous discourse,” which means an individual cannot directly confront the language or speaker as one could in oral cultures (Ong 78). This further division of the individual from the communicational world is emphasized in newprint’s focus on the aesthetics of the typeface. In word processing programs like Microsoft Word, and specialized ones like TwistType, the consumer can take a word or a sentence and transform it into an aesthetic formation. On the word processing program that is producing this text, I can choose from Blinking Background, Las Vegas Lights, Marching Red or Black Ants, Shimmer, and Sparkle Text. On my campus email system I am confronted with pictorial backgrounds, font selection and animation as an intimate aspect of the communicational system of my college. On my cell phone I can receive text messages, and I can choose to use emoticons (iconic characters and messages) on the Internet. As Walter Ong wrote, “print situates words in space more relentlessly than writing ever did … control of position is everything in print” (Ong 121). In the case of the new culture of print, the control over more functions of the printed page, specifically its presentation, leads some consumers to believe that choice and individuality are the outcomes. Newprint does not free the writer from the constraints imposed by the means of traditional print—the printing press—rather, it furthers them as the individual operates by the logos of a predetermined and programmed electronic print. The capacity to spell and write grammatically correct sentences is abated by the availability of spell- and grammar-checking functions in word processing software. In many ways, the aura of writing is lost in newprint in the same way in which art lost its organic nature as it moved into the age of reproducibility (Benjamin). Just as filters in imaging programs like Photoshop reduce the aesthetic functions of the user to the determinations of the software programmer, the use of automated print technologies—whether spell-checking or fanciful page layout software like QuarkXpress or Page Maker—will further dilute the voice of the writer. Additionally, the new forms of print can lead to a fracturing of community, the opposite intent of Habermas’ communicative action. An example is the recent growth of specialized languages on the Internet. Some of the newer forms of such languages use combinations of alphanumeric characters to create a language that can only be read by those with the code. As Internet print becomes more specialized, a tribal effect may be felt within our communities. Since email began a few years ago, I have noticed that the nature of the emails I receive has been dramatically altered. Today’s emails tend to be short and commonly include short hands (“LOL” = “laugh out loud”), including the elimination of capitalization and punctuation. In surveying students on the reasons behind such alterations of language in email, I am told that these short hands allow for more efficient forms of communication. In my mind, this is the key issue that is at stake in both print and newprint culture—for as long as we rely on print and other communicational systems as a form of efficiency, we are doomed to send and receive inaccurate and potentially dangerous messages. Benedict Anderson and Hannah Arendt addressed the connections of print to nationalistic and fascist urges (Anderson; Arendt), and such tendencies are seen in the post-9/11 discursive formations within the United States. Bumper stickers and Presidential addresses conveyed the same simplistic printed messages: “Either You are with Us or You are with the Terrorists.” Whether dropping leaflets from airplanes or in scrolling text messages on the bottom of the television news screen, the state is dependent on the efficiency of print to maintain control of the citizen. A feature of this efficiency is that newprint be rhetorically immediate in its results, widely available in different forms of technology, and dominated by the notion of individuality and democracy that is envisioned in HP’s “invent yourself” advertsiements. As Marshall McLuhan’s epigram suggests, we have an ambiguous relationship to print. We depend on printed language in our daily lives, for education and for the economic transactions that underpin our consumer world, yet we are unable to confront the rhetoric of the state and mass media that are consequences of the immediacy and magic of both print and new print. Print extends the domination of our consciousness by forms of discourse that privilege representation over experience and the subject over the object. As we look to new means of communicating with one another and of expressing our intimate lives, we must consider altering the discursive foundations of our communication, such as looking to the middle voice. The middle voice erases the distinctions between subjects and objects and instead emphasizes the writer being in the midst of things, as a part of the world as opposed to dominating it (Barthes; Tyler). A few months prior to writing this article, I spent the fall quarter teaching in London. One day I received an email that changed my life. My partner of nearly six years announced that she was leaving me. I was gripped with the fact of my being unable to discuss the situation with her as we were thousands of miles apart and I struggled to understand how such a significant and personal circumstance could be communicated with the printed word of email. Welcome to new print! References Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso, 1991. Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1976. Barthes, Roland. “To Write: An Intransitive Verb?” The Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Man: The Structuralist Controversy. Ed. Richard Macksey and Eugenio Donato. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1970. 134-56. Benjamin, Walter. “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility: Second Version.” Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, Volume 3: 1935-1938. Cambridge: Belknap/Harvard, 2002. Bolter, Jay David. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991. Habermas, Jürgen. The Theory of Communicative Action. Vol. I. Boston: Beacon Press, 1985. Harris, Roy. The Origin of Writing. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1986. Kittler, Friedrich A. Discourse Networks 1800/1900. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1990. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Cambridge: MIT P, 1994. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1991. Tyler, Stephen A. “The Middle Voice: The Influence of Post-Modernism on Empirical Research in Anthropology.” Post-modernism and Anthropology. Eds. K. Geuijen, D. Raven, and J. de Wolf. Assen, The Neatherlands: Van Gorcum, 1995. Zizek, Slavoj. Welcome to the Desert of the Real. London: Verso, 2002. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Lukas, Scott A. "Nevermoreprint." M/C Journal 8.2 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0506/04-lukas.php>. APA Style Lukas, S. (Jun. 2005) "Nevermoreprint," M/C Journal, 8(2). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0506/04-lukas.php>.

IntroductionThe European will to modify the natural world emerged through English landscape design during the eighteenth century. Released from the neo-classical aesthetic dichotomy of the beautiful and the ugly, new categories of the picturesque and the sublime gestured towards an affective relationship to nature. Europeans began to see the world as a picture, the elements of which were composed as though part of a theatrical scene. Quite literally, as I shall discuss below, gardens were “composed with ‘pantomimic’ elements – ruins of castles and towers, rough hewn bridges, Chinese pagodas and their like” (McGillivray 134–35) transforming natural vistas into theatrical scenes. Such a transformation was made possible by a habit of spectating that was informed by the theatrical metaphor or theatrum mundi, one version of which emphasised the relationship between spectator and the thing seen. The idea of the natural world as an aesthetic object first developed in poetry and painting and then through English landscape garden style was wrought in three dimensions on the land itself. From representations of place a theatrical transformation occurred so that gardens became a places of representation.“The Genius of the Place in All”The eighteenth century inherited theatrum mundi from the Renaissance, although the genealogy of its key features date back to ancient times. Broadly speaking, theatrum mundi was a metaphorical expression of the world and humanity in two ways: dramaturgically and formally. During the Renaissance the dramaturgical metaphor was a moral emblem concerned with the contingency of human life; as Shakespeare famously wrote, “men and women [were] merely players” whose lives consisted of “seven ages” or “acts” (2.7.139–65). In contrast to the dramaturgical metaphor with its emphasis on role-playing humanity, the formalist version highlighted a relationship between spectator, theatre-space and spectacle. Rooted in Renaissance neo-Platonism, the formalist metaphor configured the world as a spectacle and “Man” its spectator. If the dramaturgical metaphor was inflected with medieval moral pessimism, the formalist metaphor was more optimistic.The neo-Platonist spectator searched in the world for a divine plan or grand design and spectatorship became an epistemological challenge. As a seer and a knower on the world stage, the human being became the one who thought about the world not just as a theatre but also through theatre. This is apparent in the etymology of “theatre” from the Greek theatron, or “seeing place,” but the word also shares a stem with “theory”: theaomai or “to look at.” In a graceful compression of both roots, Martin Heidegger suggests a “theatre” might be any “seeing place” in which any thing being beheld offers itself to careful scrutiny by the beholder (163–65). By the eighteenth century, the ancient idea of a seeing-knowing place coalesced with the new empirical method and aesthetic sensibility: the world was out there, so to speak, to provide pleasure and instruction.Joseph Addison, among others, in the first half of the century reconsidered the utilitarian appeal of the natural world and proposed it as the model for artistic inspiration and appreciation. In “Pleasures of the Imagination,” a series of essays in The Spectator published in 1712, Addison claimed that “there is something more bold and masterly in the rough careless strokes of nature, than in the nice touches and embellishments of art,” and compared to the beauty of an ordered garden, “the sight wanders up and down without confinement” the “wide fields of nature” and is “fed with an infinite variety of images, without any certain stint or number” (67).Yet art still had a role because, Addison argues, although “wild scenes [. . .] are more delightful than any artificial shows” the pleasure of nature increases the more it begins to resemble art; the mind experiences the “double” pleasure of comparing nature’s original beauty with its copy (68). This is why “we take delight in a prospect which is well laid out, and diversified, with fields and meadows, woods and rivers” (68); a carefully designed estate can be both profitable and beautiful and “a man might make a pretty landskip of his own possessions” (69). Although nature should always be one’s guide, nonetheless, with some small “improvements” it was possible to transform an estate into a landscape picture. Nearly twenty years later in response to the neo-Palladian architectural ambitions of Richard Boyle, the third Earl of Burlington, and with a similarly pictorial eye to nature, Alexander Pope advised:To build, to plant, whatever you intend,To rear the Column, or the Arch to bend,To swell the Terras, or to sink the Grot;In all, let Nature never be forgot.But treat the Goddess like a modest fair,Nor over-dress, nor leave her wholly bare;Let not each beauty ev’ry where be spy’d,Where half the skill is decently to hide.He gains all points, who pleasingly confounds,Surprizes, varies, and conceals the Bounds.Consult the Genius of the Place in all;That tells the Waters or to rise, or fall,Or helps th’ ambitious Hill the heav’ns to scale,Or scoops in circling theatres the Vale,Calls in the Country, catches opening glades, Joins willing woods, and varies shades from shades,Now breaks or now directs, th’ intending Lines;Paints as you plant, and, as you work, designs. (Epistle IV, ll 47–64) Whereas Addison still gestured towards estate management, Pope explicitly advocated a painterly approach to garden design. His epistle articulated some key principles that he enacted in his own garden at Twickenham and which would inform later garden design. No matter what one added to a landscape, one needed to be guided by nature; one should be moderate in one’s designs and neither plant too much nor too little; one must be aware of the spectator’s journey through the garden and take care to provide variety by creating “surprises” that would be revealed at different points. Finally, one had to find the “spirit” of the place that gave it its distinct character and use this to create the cohesion in diversity that was aspired to in a garden. Nature’s aestheticisation had begun with poetry, developed into painting, and was now enacted on actual natural environments with the emergence of English landscape style. This painterly approach to gardening demanded an imaginative, emotional, and intellectual engagement with place and it stylistically rejected the neo-classical geometry and regularity of the baroque garden (exemplified by Le Nôtre’s gardens at Versailles). Experiencing landscape now took on a third dimension as wealthy landowners and their friends put themselves within the picture frame and into the scene. Although landscape style changed during the century, a number of principles remained more or less consistent: the garden should be modelled on nature but “improved,” any improvements should not be obvious, pictorial composition should be observed, the garden should be concerned with the spectator’s experience and should aim to provoke an imaginative or emotional engagement with it. During the seventeenth century, developments in theatrical technology, particularly the emergence of the proscenium arch theatre with moveable scenery, showed that poetry and painting could be spectacularly combined on the stage. Later in the eighteenth century the artist and stage designer Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg combined picturesque painting aesthetics with theatrical design in works such as The Wonders of Derbyshire in 1779 (McGillivray 136). It was a short step to shift the onstage scene outside. Theatricality was invoked when pictorial principles were applied three dimensionally; gardens became sites for pastoral genre scenes that ambiguously positioned their visitors both as spectators and actors. Theatrical SceneryGardens and theatres were explicitly connected. Like “theatre,” the word “garden” was sometimes used to describe a collection, in book form, which promised “a whole world of items” which was not always “redeemable” in “straightforward ways” (Hunt, Gardens 54–55). Theatrum mundi could be emblematically expressed in a garden through statues and architectural fabriques which drew spectators into complex chains of associations involving literature, art, and society, as they progressed through it.In the previous century, writes John Dixon Hunt, “the expectation of a fine garden [. . .] was that it work upon its visitor, involving him [sic] often insidiously as a participant in its dramas, which were presented to him as he explored its spaces by a variety of statues, inscriptions and [. . .] hydraulically controlled automata” (Gardens 54). Such devices, which featured heavily in the Italian baroque garden, were by the mid eighteenth century seen by English and French garden theorists to be overly contrived. Nonetheless, as David Marshall argues, “eighteenth-century garden design is famous for its excesses [. . .] the picturesque garden may have aimed to be less theatrical, but it aimed no less to be theater” (38). Such gardens still required their visitors’ participation and were designed to deliver an experience that stimulated the spectators’ imaginations and emotions as they moved through them. Theatrum mundi is implicit in eighteenth-century gardens through a common idea of the world reimagined into four geographical quadrants emblematically represented by fabriques in the garden. The model here is Alexander Pope’s influential poem, “The Temple of Fame” (1715), which depicted the eponymous temple with four different geographic faces: its western face was represented by western classical architecture, its east face by Chinese, Persian, and Assyrian, its north was Gothic and Celtic, and its south, Egyptian. These tropes make their appearance in eighteenth-century landscape gardens. In Désert de Retz, a garden created between 1774 and 1789 by François Racine de Monville, about twenty kilometres west of Paris, one can still see amongst its remaining fabriques: a ruined “gothic” church, a “Tartar” tent (it used to have a Chinese maison, now lost), a pyramid, and the classically inspired Temple of Pan. Similar principles underpin the design of Jardin (now Parc) Monceau that I discuss below. Retz: Figure 1. Tartar tent.Figure 2. Temple of PanStowe Gardens in Buckinghamshire has a similar array of structures (although the classical predominates) including its original Chinese pavillion. It, too, once featured a pyramid designed by the architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, and erected as a memorial to him after his death in 1726. On it was carved a quote from Horace that explicitly referenced the dramaturgical version of theatrum mundi: You have played, eaten enough and drunk enough,Now is time to leave the stage for younger men. (Garnett 19) Stowe’s Elysian Fields, designed by William Kent in the 1730s according to picturesque principles, offered its visitor two narrative choices, to take the Path of Virtue or the Path of Vice, just like a re-imagined morality play. As visitors progressed along their chosen paths they would encounter various fabriques and statues, some carved with inscriptions in either Latin or English, like the Vanbrugh pyramid, that would encourage associations between the ancient world and the contemporary world of the garden’s owner Richard Temple, Lord Cobham, and his circle. Stowe: Figure 3. Chinese Pavillion.Figure 4. Temple of VirtueKent’s background was as a painter and scene designer and he brought a theatrical sensibility to his designs; as Hunt writes, Kent particularly enjoyed designing “recessions into woodland space where ‘wings’ [were] created” (Picturesque 29). Importantly, Kent’s garden drawings reveal his awareness of gardens as “theatrical scenes for human action and interaction, where the premium is upon more personal experiences” and it this spatial dimension that was opened up at Stowe (Picturesque 30).Picturesque garden design emphasised pictorial composition that was similar to stage design and because a garden, like a stage, was a three-dimensional place for human action, it could also function as a set for that action. Unlike a painting, a garden was experiential and time-based and a visitor to it had an experience not unlike, to cautiously use an anachronism, a contemporary promenade performance. The habit of imaginatively wandering through a theatre in book-form, moving associatively from one item to the next, trying to discern the author’s pattern or structure, was one educated Europeans were used to, and a garden provided an embodied dimension to this activity. We can see how this might have been by visiting Parc Monceau in Paris which still contains remnants of the garden designed by Louis Carrogis (known as Carmontelle) for the Duc de Chartres in the 1770s. Carmontelle, like Kent, had a theatrical background and his primary role was as head of entertainments for the Orléans family; as such he was responsible for designing and writing plays for the family’s private theatricals (Hays 449). According to Hunt, Carmontelle intended visitors to Jardin de Monceau to take a specific itinerary through its “quantity of curious things”:Visitors entered by a Chinese gateway, next door to a gothic building that served as a chemical laboratory, and passed through greenhouses and coloured pavilions. Upon pressing a button, a mirrored wall opened into a winter garden painted with trompe-l’œil trees, floored with red sand, filled with exotic plants, and containing at its far end a grotto in which supper parties were held while music was played in the chamber above. Outside was a farm. Then there followed a series of exotic “locations”: a Temple of Mars, a winding river with an island of rocks and a Dutch mill, a dairy, two flower gardens, a Turkish tent poised, minaret-like, above an icehouse, a grove of tombs [. . .], and an Italian vineyard with a classical Bacchus at its center, regularly laid out to contrast with an irregular wood that succeeded it. The final stretches of the itinerary included a Naumachia or Roman water-theatre [. . .], more Turkish and Chinese effects, a ruined castle, yet another water-mill, and an island on which sheep grazed. (Picturesque 121) Monceau: Figure 5. Naumachia.Figure 6. PyramidIn its presentation of a multitude of different times and different places one can trace a line of descent from Jardin de Monceau to the great nineteenth-century World Expos and on to Disneyland. This lineage is not as trite as it seems once we realise that Carmontelle himself intended the garden to represent “all times and all places” and Pope’s four quadrants of the world were represented by fabriques at Monceau (Picturesque 121). As Jardin de Monceau reveals, gardens were also sites for smaller performative interventions such as the popular fêtes champêtres, garden parties in which the participants ate, drank, danced, played music, and acted in comedies. Role playing and masquerade were an important part of the fêtes as we see, for example, in Jean-Antoine Watteau’s Fêtes Vénitiennes (1718–19) where a “Moorishly” attired man addresses (or is dancing with) a young woman before an audience of young men and women, lolling around a fabrique (Watteau). Scenic design in the theatre inspired garden designs and gardens “featured prominently as dramatic locations in intermezzi, operas, and plays”, an exchange that encouraged visitors to gardens to see themselves as performers as much as spectators (Hunt, Gardens 64). A garden, particularly within the liminal aegis of a fête was a site for deceptions, tricks, ruses and revelations, assignations and seductions, all activities which were inherently theatrical; in such a garden visitors could find themselves acting in or watching a comedy or drama of their own devising. Marie-Antoinette built English gardens and a rural “hamlet” at Versailles. She and her intimate circle would retire to rustic cottages, which belied the opulence of their interiors, and dressed in white muslin dresses and straw hats, would play at being dairy maids, milking cows (pre-cleaned by the servants) into fine porcelain buckets (Martin 3). Just as the queen acted in pastoral operas in her theatre in the grounds of the Petit Trianon, her hamlet provided an opportunity for her to “live” a pastoral fantasy. Similarly, François Racine de Monville, who commissioned Désert de Retz, was a talented harpist and flautist and his Temple of Pan was, appropriately, a music room.Versailles: Figure 7. Hamlet ConclusionRichard Steele, Addison’s friend and co-founder of The Spectator, casually invoked theatrum mundi when he wrote in 1720: “the World and the Stage [. . .] have been ten thousand times observed to be the Pictures of one another” (51). Steele’s reiteration of a Renaissance commonplace revealed a different emphasis, an emphasis on the metaphor’s spatial and spectacular elements. Although Steele reasserts the idea that the world and stage resemble each other, he does so through a third level of abstraction: it is as pictures that they have an affinity. World and stage are both positioned for the observer within complementary picture frames and it is as pictures that he or she is invited to make sense of them. The formalist version of theatrum mundi invokes a spectator beholding the world for his (usually!) pleasure and in the process nature itself is transformed. No longer were natural landscapes wildernesses to be tamed and economically exploited, but could become gardens rendered into scenes for their aristocratic owners’ pleasure. Désert de Retz, as its name suggests, was an artfully composed wilderness, a version of the natural world sculpted into scenery. Theatrum mundi, through the aesthetic category of the picturesque, emerged in English landscape style and effected a theatricalised transformation of nature that was enacted in the aristocratic gardens of Europe.ReferencesAddison, Joseph. The Spectator. No. 414 (25 June 1712): 67–70. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.Garnett, Oliver. Stowe. Buckinghamshire. The National Trust, 2011.Hays, David. “Carmontelle's Design for the Jardin de Monceau: A Freemasonic Garden in Late-Eighteenth-Century France.” Eighteenth-Century Studies 32.4 (1999): 447–62.Heidegger, Martin. The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays. Trans. William Lovitt. New York: Harper and Row, 1977.Hunt, John Dixon. Gardens and the Picturesque: Studies in the History of Landscape Architecture. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1992.———. The Picturesque Garden in Europe. London: Thames and Hudson, 2002.Marshall, David. The Frame of Art. Fictions of Aesthetic Experience, 1750–1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2005.Martin, Meredith S. Dairy Queens: The Politics of Pastoral Architecture from Catherine de' Medici to Marie-Antoinette. Harvard: Harvard UP, 2011.McGillivray, Glen. "The Picturesque World Stage." Performance Research 13.4 (2008): 127–39.Pope, Alexander. “Epistle IV. To Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington.” Epistles to Several Persons. London, 1744. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.———. The Temple of Fame: A Vision. By Mr. Pope. 2nd ed. London, 1715. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Shakespeare, William. As You Like It. Ed. Agnes Latham. London: Routledge, 1991.Steele, Richard. The Theatre. No. 7 (23 January 1720).