Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Multiscale structural analysi'

In questa tesi si applica un’indagine multidisciplinare guidata dall’analisi strutturale per studiare l’evoluzione tettono-metamorfica di rocce ultrafemiche appartenenti a unità ofiolitiche affiorati nella parte occidentale delle Alpi o intrappolate nel basamento prealpino durante la collisione varisica. L’analisi si focalizza sulla Zona Zermatt-Saas (ZSZ) in alta Valtournanche (AO), al contatto di questa zona e la parte esterna del bordo meridionale della Zona Sesia Lanzo nella Valli del Tesso e del Tessuolo (TO) e nel Massiccio dell’Argentera, in alta Valle Gesso (CN). Le prime due aree si trovano nella Zona Piemontese che include unità derivanti da litosfera oceanica ristrutturate durante la convergenza alpina. L’ultima zona è situata nei Massicci Cristallini Esterni delle Alpi che includono in prevalenza rocce di origine continentale con scarsi relitti di rocce di probabile origine oceanica, ristrutturate e pervasivamente riequilibrate durante il ciclo Varisico. L’analisi meso- e micro-strutturale è stata integrata dall’analisi minero-chimica, dalle stime termo-barometriche e dalla modellazione petrologica delle associazioni di minerali metamorfici all’equilibrio, dalla datazione radiometrica dei fabric e dall’analisi geochimica di micro-domini selezionati. Le serpentinite di Créton in Valtournanche sono state interpretate come una scaglia di litosfera originariamente adiacente alla dorsale medio oceanica della Tetide Alpina, metasomatizzata e percolata da Fe- e Mg-gabbri, che ha raggiunto condizioni di ultra alta pressione (UHP) durante la convergenza Alpina, come registrato dalle associazioni a Ti-chondrodite e Ti-clinohumite, precedentemente allo sviluppo della foliazione di alta pressione, dominante a scala regionale, e datata a 60-70 Ma. Il paragone delle condizioni metamorfiche registrate con un modello numerico di subduzione Alpina ha convalidato l’evoluzione ricostruita e ha permesso di restaurarne la posizione nel sistema di subduzione in funzione dell’evoluzione termo-barica dedotta per queste rocce. La serpentinite di Gias Vej in Valle del Tesso ha registrato un’evoluzione strutturale comune alle rocce ofiolitiche e continentali ad essa adiacenti e ha raggiunto un picco metamorfico eclogitico, come testimoniato dalle paragenesi di alta pressione a Ti-clinohumite, durante la subduzione Alpina. Presso il Lago Brocan dell’alta valle Gesso in Argentera, boudins di serpentinite e diopsidite, associati a boudins di anfibolite e marmi, si trovano avvolti e allineati dalla foliazione migmatitica regionale di età tardo-Varisica. Essi verosimilmente rappresentano, analogamente alle rocce Alpine studiate, i relitti della sutura dell’oceano Reico, riequilibrati in condizioni di alta temperatura-bassa pressione e trasposti durante la collisione Varisica ed il successivo collasso tardo orogenico. In conclusione, i risultati ottenuti mostrano come l’utilizzo integrato di tecniche laboratoriali e modellistiche, basate su un solido lavoro di terreno, possano descrivere e individuare unità tettono-metamorfiche nei domini di affinità oceanica in catene montuose risultanti da uno o più cicli di Wilson e dare un contributo alla ricostruzione delle loro evoluzione geodinamica, anche quando scaglie di crosta oceanica sono frammentate e disperse nella cicatrice profonda di un’antica sutura continentale.
The tectono-metamorphic evolution of serpentinites and associated rocks has been investigated in the Alpine ophiolitic Piemontese Zone (PZ) – in the Zermatt-Saas Zone (ZSZ) and near the Sesia-Lanzo Zone (SLZ) rim – and in the Variscan migmatites of the Argentera External Crystalline Massif (ECM). Materials selected for laboratory work contain sequences of meso- and microstructural imprints containing parts of the tectonic evolution of both mono- and poly-orogenic environments (in our case the Piemontese Zone in the Penninic of the Western Alps and the Argentera EMC – Provençal domain of the Alpine collisional front at the Alpine belt termination within the Western Mediterranean). In the Zermatt-Saas Zone serpentinite of Valtournanche, meso- and microstructural analyses have been coupled with petrological investigation, geochemistry, and radiometric dating. In Valtournanche, Créton serpentinite has been interpreted as a slice of mid-ocean ridge lithosphere, affected by gabbroic percolation and hydrothermalism, deeply involved in the Alpine subduction complex, reaching UHP conditions (2.9-3.3 GPa and 600-630 °C) prior to be exhumed at HP conditions 60-70 Ma and incorporated in a mix of slices of oceanic material of heterogeneous origin and metamorphic evolution. Gias Vej serpentinite registered Eclogite facies conditions and was coupled with slices of continental material at the southern border of the Sesia Lanzo Zone before the record of Pmax conditions. At Lake Brocan in Valle Gesso, remnants of serpentinised spinel lherzolite and diopsidite are suggested to represent a most probable vestigial suture zone of the Rheic Ocean in the External Crystalline Massif of Argentera; this relict survived repeated transpositions and dismembering during migmatisation of the deep Variscan crust related to Variscan continental collision. The obtained results indicate that investigation of ultramafic rocks by a structure-driven multidisciplinary approach, can unravel the most complete memory of the divergent and convergent tectonic evolution of old oceans. Similar investigation strategies of laboratory procedures, based on solid structural fieldwork, may more diffusely support circumscription of tectonic units in ocean-derived sequences and contribute to redefine their translational tectonic trajectories during mountain-building processes.

Masonry is an ancient building material that has been used throughout the history, and it is still used nowadays. Masonry constitutes the main building technique adopted in historical constructions, and a deep understanding of its behavior is of primary importance for the preservation of our cultural heritage. Despite its extensive usage, masonry has always been used following a trial and error approach and rules-of-thumb, due to a poor understanding of the complex mechanical behavior of such a composite material. Advanced numerical methods are therefore attractive tools to understand and predict the behavior of masonry up to and including its complete failure, allowing to estimate the residual strength and safety of structures. Several numerical methods have been proposed in recent years, either based on a full micro-modeling of masonry constituents, or on phenomenological macro models. In-between these two approaches, computational homogenization techniques have recently emerged as a promising tool joining their advantages. The problem is split into two scales: the structural scale is treated as an equivalent homogeneous medium, while the complex behavior of the heterogeneous micro-structure is taken into account solving a micro-scale problem on a representative sample of the micro-structure. The aim of this research is the development of a computational multiscale homogenization technique for the analysis of masonry structure, subjected to quasi-static in-plane and out-of-plane loadings. Classical Cauchy continuum theory is used at both scales, thus using the so-called first order computational homogenization. Due to the brittle nature of masonry constituents, particular attention is given to the problem of strain localization. In this context, the present research proposes an extension of the fracture-energy-based regularization to the two-scale homogenization problem, allowing the use of first order computational homogenization in problems involving strain localization. The method is first stated for the standard continuum case, and it is applied to the two-dimensional analysis of in-plane loaded shear walls made of periodic brick masonry. Then, the aforementioned method is extended to the case of shell structures for the analysis of out-of-plane loaded masonry walls. For this purpose, a novel homogenization technique based on thick shell theory is developed. Both in the in-plane and in the out-of-plane loading conditions, the accuracy of the proposed method is validated comparing it with experimental evidences and with micro-model analyses. The regularization properties are also assessed. The obtained results show how computational homogenization is an ideal tool for an accurate evaluation of the structural response of masonry structures, accounting for the complex behavior of its micro-structure.
La obra de fábrica es un material de construcción tradicional que ha sido utilizado a lo largo de la historia y que sigue siendo utilizado hoy en día. La obra de fábrica constituye la principal técnica de construcción adoptada en estructuras históricas, y una comprensión profunda de su comportamiento es de vital importancia para la conservación de nuestro patrimonio cultural. A pesar de su amplio uso, la obra de fábrica ha sido utilizada frecuentemente adoptando un enfoque empírico, debido a un escaso conocimiento del comportamiento mecánico complejo de este tipo de material compuesto. Los métodos numéricos avanzados son herramientas atractivas para entender y predecir el comportamiento de la obra de fábrica hasta su fallo, permitiendo estimar la resistencia residual y la seguridad de las estructuras. Durante los últimos años, han sido propuestos diferentes modelos computacionales, basados bien en una micro-modelización completa de los constituyentes del material (ladrillos y juntas de mortero), o bien en macro-modelos fenomenológicos. A partir de estos dos enfoques, los métodos de homogenización computacional han emergido recientemente como una herramienta prometedora que puede combinar las ventajas de la micro- y macro-modelización. El problema se divide en dos pasos: la escala estructural se trata como un medio homogéneo equivalente, mientras el comportamiento complejo de la microestructura heterogénea se tiene en cuenta mediante la resolución de un problema micro-mecánico reconducible a una muestra representativa de la microestructura. El objetivo de esta investigación es el desarrollo de una técnica de homogenización computacional multi-escala para el análisis de estructuras de obra de fábrica sometidas a cargas horizontales cuasi-estáticas que actúan en el plano y fuera del plano. Se adopta la teoría clásica del medio continuo de Cauchy en ambas las escalas, utilizando así la homogeneización computacional del primer orden. Debido a la naturaleza frágil de los componentes de la obra de fábrica, el estudio contempla también el problema de la localización de la deformación en el marco del enfoque numérico de fisura distribuida. En este contexto, la presente investigación propone una extensión de la regularización basada en la energía de fractura para el problema de homogenización en dos escalas, permitiendo el uso de la homogenización computacional del primer orden en problemas que implican la localización de la deformación. El método se plantea en primer lugar para el caso continuo general, y a continuación se aplica al análisis de muros de corte cargados en su plano y hechos de fábrica de ladrillos con aparejo periódico. Posteriormente, el método se extiende al caso de estructuras tipo placa para el análisis de muros de obra de fábrica cargados fuera de su plano. Para este propósito, se desarrolla una nueva técnica de homogenización basada en la teoría de placas gruesas. En ambos los casos de carga en el plano y fuera del plano, la precisión del método propuesto se valida mediante la comparación con ensayos experimentales y análisis de micro-modelización. También se validan las propiedades de regularización. Los resultados obtenidos muestran cómo la homogeneización computacional pueda resultar una herramienta válida para una evaluación precisa de la respuesta estructural de las estructuras de obra de fábrica, teniendo en cuenta el comportamiento complejo de la micro-estructura.
La muratura è un antico materiale da costruzione che è stato utilizzato in special modo nel corso della storia, ma che è ancora oggi piuttosto diffuso. La muratura è la tecnica principale di costruzione adottata in edifici storici, e una profonda comprensione del suo comportamento è di vitale importanza per la conservazione del nostro patrimonio culturale. Nonostante il suo ampio utilizzo, la muratura è sempre stata utilizzata seguendo un approccio empirico, a causa di una scarsa comprensione del complesso comportamento meccanico di tale materiale composito. I metodi numerici avanzati sono, quindi, strumenti attraenti per studiare e comprendere il comportamento della muratura fino al suo collasso, permettendo di stimare la resistenza residua e la sicurezza delle strutture. Diversi metodi numerici sono stati proposti negli ultimi anni, basati o sulla completa micro-modellazione dei componenti della muratura (mattoni e giunti di malta), o su macro-modelli fenomenologici. A metà strada tra questi due approcci, le tecniche di omogeneizzazione computazionale sono emerse recentemente come uno strumento promettente che unisce i vantaggi della micro- e macromodellazione. Il problema viene diviso in due scale: la scala strutturale viene trattata come un mezzo omogeneo equivalente, mentre il complesso comportamento della microstruttura eterogenea viene preso in considerazione risolvendo un problema di micro-scala su un volume rappresentativo della microstruttura. Lo scopo di questa ricerca è lo sviluppo di una tecnica di omogeneizzazione computazionale multiscala per l’analisi di strutture in muratura, sottoposte a carichi orizzontali quasi-statici agenti nel piano e fuori dal piano. La teoria classica del continuo di Cauchy è adottata in entrambe le scale, utilizzando quindi la cosiddetta omogeneizzazione computazionale del primo ordine. A causa della natura fragile dei costituenti della muratura, particolare attenzione viene dedicata al problema della local-izzazione delle deformazioni nel modello numerico a danneggiamento distribuito. In questo contesto, la presente ricerca propone un’estensione della regolarizzazione basata sull’energia di frattura al problema di omogeneizzazione a due scale, permettendo l’uso dell’omogeneizzazione computazionale di primo ordine in problemi che coinvolgono localizzazione delle deformazioni. Il metodo viene prima impostato per il caso continuo generale, e viene in seguito applicato all’analisi bidimensionale di pareti a taglio, caricate nel piano, fatte di muratura di mattoni a disposizione periodica. Poi, il suddetto metodo viene esteso al caso di strutture tipo piastra per l’analisi di pareti in muratura caricate fuori dal piano. A questo scopo, si sviluppa una nuova tecnica di omogeneizzazione basata sulla teoria delle piastre spesse. In entrambi i casi di carico nel piano e fuori dal piano, l’accuratezza del metodo proposto è validata mediante il confronto con evidenze sperimentali e con analisi di micro-modellazione. Allo stesso modo, le proprietà di regolarizzazione vengono validate. I risultati ottenuti evidenziano come l’omogeneizzazione computazionale sia uno strumento valido per una valutazione accurata della risposta strutturale delle strutture in muratura, tenendo conto del comportamento complesso della sua microstruttura.

Cette thèse est dédiée à l’analyse systématique de l’espace chimique, et des relations structure-activité (SAR) en particulier. L’ouvrage présente des nouveaux protocoles d’analyse combinant des méthodes classiques et originales, dans le but d’analyser les SAR à l’échelle globale ainsi que locale. L’analyse globale des espaces chimiques repose sur la recherche des motifs structuraux privilégiés par cartographie topographique générative (GTM), ainsi que par analyse classique des « châssis » moléculaires. La cartographie a été ensuite couplée avec l’analyse de réseaux chimiques (CSN), permettant une transition de la vue globale vers l’analyse locale de SAR. L’optimisation mutiobjectif des propriétés de potentiels médicaments a été adressé par la méthode « star coordinates ». L’analyse locale des SAR inclut des nouvelles stratégies pour prédire les discontinuités dans le paysage structure-activité biologique, et une étude de l’impact de la structure sur l’ionisation des molécules. Des matrices SAR ont servi pour monitorer le progrès dans l’optimisation de nouveaux principes actifs
This thesis presents studies devoted to aid in systematic analysis of chemical spaces, focusing on mining and visualization of structure-activity relationships (SARs). It reports some new analysis protocols, combining both existing and on-purpose developed novel methodology to address both large-scale and local SAR analysis. Large-scale analysis featured both generative topographic mapping (GTM)-based extraction of privileged structural motifs and scaffold analysis. GTM was combined with chemical space network (CSN) to develop a visualization tool providing global-local views of SAR in large data sets. We also introduce star coordinates (STC) to visualize multi-property space and prioritize drug-like subspaces. Local SAR monitoring includes new strategies to predict activity cliffs using support vector machine models and a study of structural modifications on ionization state of compounds. The SAR matrix methodology was applied to objectively evaluate SAR progression during lead optimization

The analysis of wave propagation in solids with complex microstructures, and local heterogeneities finds extensive applications in areas such as material characterization, structural health monitoring (SHM), and metamaterial design. Within continuum mechanics, sources of heterogeneities are typically associated to localized defects in structural components, or to periodic microstructures in phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials. Numerical analysis often requires computational meshes which are refined enough to resolve the wavelengths of deformation and to properly capture the fine geometrical features of the heterogeneities. It is common for the size of the microstructure to be small compared to the dimensions of the structural component under investigation, which suggests multiscale analysis as an effective approach to minimize computational costs while retaining predictive accuracy. This research proposes a multiscale framework for the efficient analysis of the dynamic behavior of heterogeneous solids. The developed methodology, called Geometric Multiscale Finite Element Method (GMsFEM), is based on the formulation of multi-node elements with numerically computed shape functions. Such shape functions are capable to explicitly model the geometry of heterogeneities at sub-elemental length scales, and are computed to automatically satisfy compatibility of the solution across the boundaries of adjacent elements. Numerical examples illustrate the approach and validate it through comparison with available analytical and numerical solutions. The developed methodology is then applied to the analysis of periodic media, structural lattices, and phononic crystal structures. Finally, GMsFEM is exploited to study the interaction of guided elastic waves and defects in plate structures.

Composite sandwich structures are widely regarded as a cost/weight-effective alternative to conventional composite stiffened panels and are extensively utilized for lightweight applications in various sectors, including the aeronautical, marine and transport industries. Nevertheless, their damage tolerance remains a critical issue. This work aims to develop reliable analytical and numerical tools for the design of damage-tolerant advanced foam-cored composite sandwich structures for aerospace applications. It comprises of original experimental observations together with novel numerical and analytical developments, as detailed below. A novel analytical model for predicting the post-crushing response of crushable sandwich foam cores is presented. The calibration of the model is performed using experimental data obtained exclusively from standard monotonic compressive tests. Hence, the need for performing time-consuming compressive tests including multiple unloading-reloading cycles is avoided. Subsequently, the translaminar initiation fracture toughness of a carbon-epoxy Non-Crimp Fabric (NCF) composite laminate is measured. The translaminar fracture toughness of the UD fibre tows is related to that of the NCF laminate and the concept of an homogenised blanket-level translaminar fracture toughness was introduced. A multiple length/time-scale framework for the virtual testing of large composite structures is presented. Such framework hinges upon a novel Mesh Superposition Technique (MST) and a novel set of Periodic Boundary Conditions named Multiscale Periodic Boundary Conditions (MPBCs). The MST is used for coupling different areas of the composite structure modelled at different length-scales and whose discretizations consist of different element types. Unlike using a sudden discretization-transition approach, the use of the MST eliminates the undesirable stress disturbances at the interface between differently-discretized subdomains and, as a result, it for instance correctly captures impact-induced damage pattern at a lower computational cost. The MPBCs apply to reduced Unit Cells (rUCs) and enable the two-scale (solid-to- shell) numerical homogenization of periodic structures, including their bending and twisting response. The MPBCs allow to correctly simulate the mechanical response of periodic structures using rUCs (same results as if conventional UCs were used), thus enabling a significant reduction of both modelling/meshing and analysis CPU times. The developments detailed above are finally brought together in a realistic engineering application.

Le deformazioni lente di versante in roccia (DGPV e grandi frane) sono fenomeni diffusi che interessano interi versanti e mobilizzano volumi di roccia anche di miliardi di metri cubi. La loro evoluzione è legata a processi di rottura progressiva sotto forzanti esterne e di accoppiamento idromeccanico, rispecchiate da un complesso processo di creep. Sebbene caratterizzate da bassi tassi di spostamento (fino a pochi cm / anno), queste instabilità di versante danneggiano infrastrutture e ospitano settori potenzialmente soggetti a differenziazione e collasso catastrofico. È quindi necessaria una robusta caratterizzazione del loro stile di attività per determinare il potenziale impatto sugli elementi a rischio e anticipare un eventuale collasso. Tuttavia una metodologia di analisi finalizzata a questo scopo è ancora mancante. In questa prospettiva, abbiamo sviluppato un approccio multiscala che integra dati morfostrutturali, di terreno e tecniche DInSAR, applicandoli allo studio di un inventario di 208 deformazioni lente di versanti mappate in Lombardia. Su questo dataset abbiamo eseguito una mappatura geomorfologica e morfostrutturale di semi dettaglio tramite immagini aeree e DEM. Abbiamo quindi sviluppato un pacchetto di procedure oggettive per lo screening su scala di inventario delle deformazioni lente di versante integrando dati di velocità di spostamento, cinematica e di danneggiamento dell’ammasso roccioso per ogni frana. Utilizzando dataset PS-InSAR e SqueeSAR, abbiamo sviluppato una procedura mirata a identificare in maniera semiautomatica la velocità InSAR rappresentativa, il grado di segmentazione e l'eterogeneità interna di ogni frana mappata identificando la presenza di possibili fenomeni secondari. Utilizzando la tecnica 2DInSAR e tecniche di machine learning, abbiamo inoltre sviluppato un approccio automatico caratterizzare la cinematica di ciascuna frana. I dati così ottenuti sono stati integrati tramite analisi di PCA e K-medoid per identificare gruppi di frane caratterizzati da stili di attività simili. Partendo dai risultati della classificazione su scala regionale, ci siamo poi concentrati su 3 casi di studio emblematici, le DGPV di Corna Rossa, Mt. Mater e Saline, rappresentativi di problematiche tipiche delle grandi frane (segmentazione spaziale, attività eterogenea, sensibilità alle forzanti idrologiche). Applicando un approccio DInSAR mirato abbiamo indagato la risposta del versante a diverse baseline temporali per evidenziare le eterogeneità spaziali e, tramite un nuovo approccio di stacking su basline temporali lunghe abbiamo estrattoi segnali di spostamento permanenti ed evidenziato i settori e le strutture con evoluzione differenziale. Lo stesso approccio DInSAR è stato utilizzato per studiare la sensibilità delle deformazioni lente di versante alle forzanti idrologiche. Il confronto tra i tassi di spostamento stagionale e le serie temporali di precipitazioni e scioglimento neve per il monte. Mater e Saline hanno delineato complessi trend di spostamento stagionale. Queste tendenze, più evidenti per i settori più superficiali, evidenziano una risposta maggiore a periodi prolungati di precipitazione modulati dagli effetti dello scioglimento della neve. Ciò suggerisce che le DGPV, spesso considerate non influenzate dalla forzante climatica a breve termine (pluriennale), sono sensibili a input idrologici, con implicazioni chiave nell'interpretazione del loro fallimento progressivo. I nostri risultati hanno dimostrato l'efficacia della metodologia multi-scala proposta, che sfrutta i prodotti DInSAR e l'analisi mirata per identificare, classificare e caratterizzare l'attività delle deformazioni lente di versante includendo dati geologici in tutte le fasi dell'analisi. Il nostro approccio, è applicabile a diversi contesti e dataset e fornisce gli strumenti per indagare processi chiave in uno studio finalizzato alla definizione del rischio connesso alle deformazioni lente di versante.
Slow rock slope deformations (DSGSDs and large landslides) are widespread, affect entire hillslopes and displace volumes up to billions of cubic meters. They evolve over long time by progressive failure processes, under variable climatic and hydro-mechanical coupling conditions mirrored by a complex creep behaviour. Although characterized by low displacement rates (up to few cm/yr), these slope instabilities damage sensitive structures and host nested sectors potentially undergoing rockslide differentiation and collapse. A robust characterization of the style of activity of slow rock slope deformations is required to predict their interaction with elements at risk and anticipate possible failure, yet a comprehensive methodology to this aim is still lacking. In this perspective, we developed a multi-scale methodology integrating geomorphological mapping, field data and different DInSAR techniques, using an inventory of 208 slow rock slope deformations in Lombardia (Italian Central Alps), for which we performed a geomorphological and morpho-structural mapping on aerial images and DEMs. On the regional scale, we developed an objective workflow for the inventory-scale screening of slow-moving landslides. The approach is based on a refined definition of activity that integrates the displacement rate, kinematics and degree of internal damage for each landslide. Using PS-InSAR and SqueeSAR datasets, we developed an original peak analysis of InSAR displacement rates to characterize the degree of segmentation and heterogeneity of mapped phenomena, highlight the occurrence of sectors with differential activity and derive their characteristic displacement rates. Using 2DInSAR velocity decomposition and machine learning classification, we set up an original automatic approach to characterize the kinematics of each landslides. Then, we sequentially combine PCA and K-medoid cluster analysis to identify groups of landslides characterized by consistent styles of activity, accounting for all the relevant aspects including velocity, kinematics, segmentation, and internal damage. Starting from the results of regional-scale classification, we focused on the Corna Rossa, Mt. Mater and Saline DSGSDs, that are emblematic case studies on which apply DInSAR analysis to investigate typical issues in large landslide studies (spatial segmentation, heterogenous activity, sensitivity to hydrological triggers). We applied a targeted DInSAR technique on multiple temporal baselines to unravel the spatial heterogeneities of complex DSGSDs and through a novel stacking approach on raw long temporal baseline interferograms, we outlined the permanent displacement signals and sectors with differential evolution as well as individual active structures. We then used DInSAR to investigate the possible sensitivity of slow rock slope deformations to hydrological triggers. Comparison between seasonal displacement rates, derived by interferograms with targeted temporal baselines, and time series of precipitation and snowmelt at the Mt. Mater and Saline ridge outlined complex temporally shifted seasonal displacement trends. These trends, more evident for shallower nested sectors, outline dominant controls by prolonged precipitation periods modulated by the effects of snowmelt. This suggests that DSGSDs, often considered insensitive to short-term (pluri-annual) climatic forcing, may respond to hydrological triggering, with key implication in the interpretation of their progressive failure. Our results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed multi-scale methodology that exploits DInSAR products and targeted processing to identify, classify and characterize the activity of slow rock slope deformation at different levels of details by including geological data in all the analysis stages. Our approach, readily applicable to different settings and datasets, provides the tools to solve key scientific issues in a geohazard-oriented study of slow rock slope deformations.

La prédiction précise du comportement à long et court terme des structures en béton dans le domaine nucléaire est essentielle pour assurer des performances optimales (intégrité, capacité de confinement) pendant leur durée de vie. Dans le cas particulier des structures massives en béton, la chaleur produite au jeune âge par les processus d'hydratation ne peut pas s’évacuer rapidement, si bien que des températures élevées peuvent être atteintes et les gradients de température qui en résultent peuvent conduire à la fissuration, en fonction des conditions aux limites et contraintes internes auxquelles ces structures sont soumises. Les objectifs de cette étude sont (1) d'effectuer des simulations numériques afin de décrire et prédire le comportement thermo-chimio-mécanique au jeune âge d'une structure massive en béton dédiée au stockage de déchets en surface, et (2) de développer et appliquer des outils de changement d'échelle pour estimer rigoureusement, à partir de la composition du matériau, les propriétés physiques du béton nécessaires à une analyse au jeune âge. Une étude chimio-thermique visant à déterminer l'influence de la convection, du rayonnement solaire, du re-rayonnement et de la chaleur d'hydratation sur la réponse thermique de la structure est tout d’abord menée. Des recommandations pratiques concernant les températures de bétonnage sont fournies afin de limiter la température maximale atteinte au sein de la structure. Ensuite, au moyen d'une analyse mécanique, des stratégies de modélisation simplifiées et plus complexes (prenant en compte l’endommagement couplé au fluage) sont mises en œuvre pour évaluer des scénarios intégrant différentes conditions aux limites issues de l'analyse chimio-thermique précédente. Dans un second temps, une étude prenant en compte le caractère multi-échelle du béton est réalisée. Un modèle simplifié de cinétique d'hydratation du ciment est proposé. Les évolutions des fractions volumiques des différentes phases au niveau de la pâte de ciment peuvent être alors estimées. Par la suite des outils d’homogénéisation analytiques et numériques développés dans un cadre vieillissant sont présentés et appliqués pour estimer les propriétés mécaniques et thermiques des matériaux cimentaires. Les données d’entrée utilisées dans l'analyse structurelle sont finalement comparées avec les estimations obtenues dans l'analyse multiéchelle. Pour conclure, la stratégie proposée dans cette thèse vise à prédire le comportement des structures massives en béton à partir de la composition du béton au moyen d'une approche séquentielle: le comportement du béton est estimé via les outils de changement d’échelle, fournissant ainsi les données d'entrée pour l'analyse phénoménologique à l’échelle de la structure
The accurate prediction of the long and short-term behaviour of concrete structures in the nuclear domain is essential to ensure optimal performances (integrity, containment roperties) during their service life. In the particular case of massive concrete structures, at early age the heat produced by hydration reactions cannot be evacuated fast enough so that high temperatures may be reached and the resulting gradients of temperature might lead to cracking according to the external and internal restraints to which the structures are subjected. The goals of this study are (1) to perform numerical simulations in order to describe and predict the thermo-chemo-mechanical behaviour at early-age of a massive concrete structure devoted to nuclear waste disposal on surface, and (2) to develop and apply upscaling tools to estimate rigorously the key properties of concrete needed in an early-age analysis from the composition of the material. Firstly, a chemo-thermal analysis aims at determining the influence of convection, solar radiation, reradiation and hydration heat on the thermal response of the structure. Practical recommendations regarding concreting temperatures are provided in order to limit the maximum temperature reached within the structure. Then, by means of a mechanical analysis, simplified and more complex (i.e. accounting for coupled creep and damage) modelling strategies are used to assess scenarios involving different boundary conditions defined from the previous chemo-thermal analysis. Secondly, a study accounting for the multiscale character of concrete is performed. A simplified model of cement hydration kinetics is proposed. The evolution of the different phases at the cement paste level can be estimated. Then, analytical and numerical tools to upscale the ageing properties are presented and applied to estimate the mechanical and thermal properties of cementbased materials. Finally, the input data used in the structural analysis are compared with the estimations obtained in the multiscale analysis. To conclude, the entire strategy proposed in this thesis aims at predicting the behaviour of massive concrete structures from the composition of the concrete by means of a sequenced approach: concrete behaviour is estimated using the upscaling tools, providing then the input data to the phenomenological analysis at the structure level

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A anÃlise de imagens à uma tarefa fundamental em visÃo computacional. Ela influencia o desenvolvimento de algoritmos de processamento digital de imagens e as abordagens de avaliaÃÃo dos resultados produzidos por estes algoritmos. Esta tese introduz uma metodologia para a anÃlise estrutural de imagens baseada no uso combinado de uma transformaÃÃo estrutural multiescala e da extraÃÃo de caracterÃsticas estruturais por meio da matriz de interdependÃncia espacial. A transformaÃÃo estrutural multiescala à um algoritmo baseado no arcabouÃo da morfologia matemÃtica que mapeia os nÃveis de cinza da imagem de entrada para um espaÃo no qual esses nÃveis de cinza estÃo reagrupados em diferentes escalas de estruturas que formam os objetos. A transformaÃÃo pode ser aplicada no realce de imagens em nÃveis de cinza e na decomposiÃÃo de imagens binÃrias em estruturas elementares. A matriz de interdependÃncia espacial à um algoritmo baseado na estatÃstica de coocorrÃncia que produz uma representaÃÃo global das coincidÃncias das estruturas de duas imagens de entrada. Essa matriz provà quatro atributos, a saber, correlaÃÃo, momento de diferenÃa inverso, coeficiente chi-quadrado e entropia, os quais podem ser utilizados como descritores globais das estruturas da imagem. A metodologia proposta à validada com os resultados obtidos para diferentes aplicaÃÃes: a deteÃÃo de corrosÃo atmosfÃrica em fotografias de superfÃcies metÃlicas, a deteÃÃo de doenÃas pulmonares em imagens de tomografia computadorizada, a avaliaÃÃo referenciada da qualidade da imagens, a segmentaÃÃo dos vasos da retina em retinografias e a avaliaÃÃo da qualidade de algoritmos de segmentaÃÃo de vasos de retina.
Image analysis is a fundamental task in computer vision. It influences the development of algorithms for digital image processing and approaches for evaluating the results produced by these algorithms. This thesis introduces a methodology for the structural analysis of images based on the combined use of a multiscale structural transformation and extraction of structural features through spatial interdependence matrix. The multiscale structural transformation is an algorithm based on mathematical morphology framework that maps the gray levels of the input image into a space in which these gray levels are grouped into different scales of structures that form objects. The transformation can be applied in enhancement of gray level images and decomposition of binary images into elementary structures. The spatial interdependence matrix is an algorithm based on cooccurrence statistics that produces a global representation of the structural coincidences of two images. This matrix provides four attributes, namely, correlation, inverse difference moment, chi-square coefficient and entropy, which can be used as global descriptors of the image structures. The proposed methodology is validated with the results obtained for different applications: the detection of atmospheric corrosion of metal surfaces in photographs, the detection of lung disease in computerized tomography images, the referenced evaluation of image quality, the segmentation of retinal vessels in retinography and the quality assessment of retinal vessels segmentation algorithms.

This research develops and validates computational tools for the design and analysis of structural components and systems constructed with Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC). The modeling strategy utilizes the Lattice Discrete Particle Model (LDPM) to represent UHPC material and structural member response, and extends a structural-level triaxial continuum constitutive law to account for the addition of discrete fibers. The approach is robust, general, and could be utilized by other researchers to expand the computational capability and simulate the behavior of different composite materials. The work described herein identifies the model material parameters by conducting a complete material characterization for UHPC, with and without fiber reinforcement, describing its behavior in unconfined compression, uniaxial tension, and fracture toughness. It characterizes the effect of fiber orientations, fiber-matrix interaction, and resolves the issue of multi-axial stress states on fiber pullout. The capabilities of the computational models are demonstrated by comparing the material test data that were not used in the parameter identification phase to numerical simulations to validate the models' predictive capabilities. These models offer a mechanics-based shortcut to UHPC analysis that can strategically support ongoing development of material and structural design codes and standards.
Ph. D.

A multi-domain homogenization method is proposed and developed in this thesis based on a two-scale technique. The method is capable of analyzing composite structures with several periodic distributions by partitioning the entire domain of the composite into substructures making use of the classical homogenization theory following a first-order standard continuum mechanics formulation. The need to develop the multi-domain homogenization method arose because current homogenization methods are based on the assumption that the entire domain of the composite is represented by one periodic or quasi-periodic distribution. However, in some cases the structure or composite may be formed by more than one type of periodic domain distribution, making the existing homogenization techniques not suitable to analyze this type of cases in which more than one recurrent configuration appears. The theoretical principles used in the multi-domain homogenization method were applied to assemble a computational tool based on two nested boundary value problems represented by a finite element code in two scales: a) one global scale, which treats the composite as an homogeneous material and deals with the boundary conditions, the loads applied and the different periodic (or quasi-periodic) subdomains that may exist in the composite; and b) one local scale, which obtains the homogenized response of the representative volume element or unit cell, that deals with the geometry distribution and with the material properties of the constituents. The method is based on the local periodicity hypothesis arising from the periodicity of the internal structure of the composite. The numerical implementation of the restrictions on the displacements and forces corresponding to the degrees of freedom of the domain's boundary derived from the periodicity was performed by means of the Lagrange multipliers method. The formulation included a method to compute the homogenized non-linear tangent constitutive tensor once the threshold of nonlinearity of any of the unit cells has been surpassed. The procedure is based in performing a numerical derivation applying a perturbation technique. The tangent constitutive tensor is computed for each load increment and for each iteration of the analysis once the structure has entered in the non-linear range. The perturbation method was applied at the global and local scales in order to analyze the performance of the method at both scales. A simple average method of the constitutive tensors of the elements of the cell was also explored for comparison purposes. A parallelization process was implemented on the multi-domain homogenization method in order to speed-up the computational process due to the huge computational cost that the nested incremental-iterative solution embraces. The effect of softening in two-scale homogenization was investigated following a smeared cracked approach. Mesh objectivity was discussed first within the classical one-scale FE formulation and then the concepts exposed were extrapolated into the two-scale homogenization framework. The importance of the element characteristic length in a multi-scale analysis was highlighted in the computation of the specific dissipated energy when strain-softening occurs. Various examples were presented to evaluate and explore the capabilities of the computational approach developed in this research. Several aspects were studied, such as analyzing different composite arrangements that include different types of materials, composites that present softening after the yield point is reached (e.g. damage and plasticity) and composites with zones that present high strain gradients. The examples were carried out in composites with one and with several periodic domains using different unit cell configurations. The examples are compared to benchmark solutions obtained with the classical one-scale FE method.
En esta tesis se propone y desarrolla un método de homogeneización multi-dominio basado en una técnica en dos escalas. El método es capaz de analizar estructuras de materiales compuestos con varias distribuciones periódicas dentro de un mismo continuo mediante la partición de todo el dominio del material compuesto en subestructuras utilizando la teoría clásica de homogeneización a través de una formulación estándar de mecánica de medios continuos de primer orden. La necesidad de desarrollar este método multi-dominio surgió porque los métodos actuales de homogeneización se basan en el supuesto de que todo el dominio del material está representado por solo una distribución periódica o cuasi-periódica. Sin embargo, en algunos casos, la estructura puede estar formada por más de un tipo de distribución de dominio periódico. Los principios teóricos desarrollados en el método de homogeneización multi-dominio se aplicaron para ensamblar una herramienta computacional basada en dos problemas de valores de contorno anidados, los cuales son representados por un código de elementos finitos (FE) en dos escalas: a) una escala global, que trata el material compuesto como un material homogéneo. Esta escala se ocupa de las condiciones de contorno, las cargas aplicadas y los diferentes subdominios periódicos (o cuasi-periódicos) que puedan existir en el material compuesto; y b) una escala local, que obtiene la respuesta homogenizada de un volumen representativo o celda unitaria. Esta escala se ocupa de la geometría, y de la distribución espacial de los constituyentes del compuesto así como de sus propiedades constitutivas. El método se basa en la hipótesis de periodicidad local derivada de la periodicidad de la estructura interna del material. La implementación numérica de las restricciones de los desplazamientos y las fuerzas derivadas de la periodicidad se realizaron por medio del método de multiplicadores de Lagrange. La formulación incluye un método para calcular el tensor constitutivo tangente no-lineal homogeneizado una vez que el umbral de la no-linealidad de cualquiera de las celdas unitarias ha sido superado. El procedimiento se basa en llevar a cabo una derivación numérica aplicando una técnica de perturbación. El tensor constitutivo tangente se calcula para cada incremento de carga y para cada iteración del análisis una vez que la estructura ha entrado en el rango no-lineal. El método de perturbación se aplicó tanto en la escala global como en la local con el fin de analizar la efectividad del método en ambas escalas. Se lleva a cabo un proceso de paralelización en el método con el fin de acelerar el proceso de cómputo debido al enorme coste computacional que requiere la solución iterativa incremental anidada. Se investiga el efecto de ablandamiento por deformación en el material usando el método de homogeneización en dos escalas a través de un enfoque de fractura discreta. Se estudió la objetividad en el mallado dentro de la formulación clásica de FE en una escala y luego los conceptos expuestos se extrapolaron en el marco de la homogeneización de dos escalas. Se enfatiza la importancia de la longitud característica del elemento en un análisis multi-escala en el cálculo de la energía específica disipada cuando se produce el efecto de ablandamiento. Se presentan varios ejemplos para evaluar la propuesta computacional desarrollada en esta investigación. Se estudiaron diferentes configuraciones de compuestos que incluyen diferentes tipos de materiales, así como compuestos que presentan ablandamiento después de que el punto de fluencia del material se alcanza (usando daño y plasticidad) y compuestos con zonas que presentan altos gradientes de deformación. Los ejemplos se llevaron a cabo en materiales compuestos con uno y con varios dominios periódicos utilizando diferentes configuraciones de células unitarias. Los ejemplos se comparan con soluciones de referencia obtenidas con el método clásico de elementos finitos en una escala.

A multi-domain homogenization method is proposed and developed in this thesis based on a two-scale technique. The method is capable of analyzing composite structures with several periodic distributions by partitioning the entire domain of the composite into substructures making use of the classical homogenization theory following a first-order standard continuum mechanics formulation. The need to develop the multi-domain homogenization method arose because current homogenization methods are based on the assumption that the entire domain of the composite is represented by one periodic or quasi-periodic distribution. However, in some cases the structure or composite may be formed by more than one type of periodic domain distribution, making the existing homogenization techniques not suitable to analyze this type of cases in which more than one recurrent configuration appears. The theoretical principles used in the multi-domain homogenization method were applied to assemble a computational tool based on two nested boundary value problems represented by a finite element code in two scales: a) one global scale, which treats the composite as an homogeneous material and deals with the boundary conditions, the loads applied and the different periodic (or quasi-periodic) subdomains that may exist in the composite; and b) one local scale, which obtains the homogenized response of the representative volume element or unit cell, that deals with the geometry distribution and with the material properties of the constituents. The method is based on the local periodicity hypothesis arising from the periodicity of the internal structure of the composite. The numerical implementation of the restrictions on the displacements and forces corresponding to the degrees of freedom of the domain's boundary derived from the periodicity was performed by means of the Lagrange multipliers method. The formulation included a method to compute the homogenized non-linear tangent constitutive tensor once the threshold of nonlinearity of any of the unit cells has been surpassed. The procedure is based in performing a numerical derivation applying a perturbation technique. The tangent constitutive tensor is computed for each load increment and for each iteration of the analysis once the structure has entered in the non-linear range. The perturbation method was applied at the global and local scales in order to analyze the performance of the method at both scales. A simple average method of the constitutive tensors of the elements of the cell was also explored for comparison purposes. A parallelization process was implemented on the multi-domain homogenization method in order to speed-up the computational process due to the huge computational cost that the nested incremental-iterative solution embraces. The effect of softening in two-scale homogenization was investigated following a smeared cracked approach. Mesh objectivity was discussed first within the classical one-scale FE formulation and then the concepts exposed were extrapolated into the two-scale homogenization framework. The importance of the element characteristic length in a multi-scale analysis was highlighted in the computation of the specific dissipated energy when strain-softening occurs. Various examples were presented to evaluate and explore the capabilities of the computational approach developed in this research. Several aspects were studied, such as analyzing different composite arrangements that include different types of materials, composites that present softening after the yield point is reached (e.g. damage and plasticity) and composites with zones that present high strain gradients. The examples were carried out in composites with one and with several periodic domains using different unit cell configurations. The examples are compared to benchmark solutions obtained with the classical one-scale FE method.
En esta tesis se propone y desarrolla un método de homogeneización multi-dominio basado en una técnica en dos escalas. El método es capaz de analizar estructuras de materiales compuestos con varias distribuciones periódicas dentro de un mismo continuo mediante la partición de todo el dominio del material compuesto en subestructuras utilizando la teoría clásica de homogeneización a través de una formulación estándar de mecánica de medios continuos de primer orden. La necesidad de desarrollar este método multi-dominio surgió porque los métodos actuales de homogeneización se basan en el supuesto de que todo el dominio del material está representado por solo una distribución periódica o cuasi-periódica. Sin embargo, en algunos casos, la estructura puede estar formada por más de un tipo de distribución de dominio periódico. Los principios teóricos desarrollados en el método de homogeneización multi-dominio se aplicaron para ensamblar una herramienta computacional basada en dos problemas de valores de contorno anidados, los cuales son representados por un código de elementos finitos (FE) en dos escalas: a) una escala global, que trata el material compuesto como un material homogéneo. Esta escala se ocupa de las condiciones de contorno, las cargas aplicadas y los diferentes subdominios periódicos (o cuasi-periódicos) que puedan existir en el material compuesto; y b) una escala local, que obtiene la respuesta homogenizada de un volumen representativo o celda unitaria. Esta escala se ocupa de la geometría, y de la distribución espacial de los constituyentes del compuesto así como de sus propiedades constitutivas. El método se basa en la hipótesis de periodicidad local derivada de la periodicidad de la estructura interna del material. La implementación numérica de las restricciones de los desplazamientos y las fuerzas derivadas de la periodicidad se realizaron por medio del método de multiplicadores de Lagrange. La formulación incluye un método para calcular el tensor constitutivo tangente no-lineal homogeneizado una vez que el umbral de la no-linealidad de cualquiera de las celdas unitarias ha sido superado. El procedimiento se basa en llevar a cabo una derivación numérica aplicando una técnica de perturbación. El tensor constitutivo tangente se calcula para cada incremento de carga y para cada iteración del análisis una vez que la estructura ha entrado en el rango no-lineal. El método de perturbación se aplicó tanto en la escala global como en la local con el fin de analizar la efectividad del método en ambas escalas. Se lleva a cabo un proceso de paralelización en el método con el fin de acelerar el proceso de cómputo debido al enorme coste computacional que requiere la solución iterativa incremental anidada. Se investiga el efecto de ablandamiento por deformación en el material usando el método de homogeneización en dos escalas a través de un enfoque de fractura discreta. Se estudió la objetividad en el mallado dentro de la formulación clásica de FE en una escala y luego los conceptos expuestos se extrapolaron en el marco de la homogeneización de dos escalas. Se enfatiza la importancia de la longitud característica del elemento en un análisis multi-escala en el cálculo de la energía específica disipada cuando se produce el efecto de ablandamiento. Se presentan varios ejemplos para evaluar la propuesta computacional desarrollada en esta investigación. Se estudiaron diferentes configuraciones de compuestos que incluyen diferentes tipos de materiales, así como compuestos que presentan ablandamiento después de que el punto de fluencia del material se alcanza (usando daño y plasticidad) y compuestos con zonas que presentan altos gradientes de deformación. Los ejemplos se llevaron a cabo en materiales compuestos con uno y con varios dominios periódicos utilizando diferentes configuraciones de células unitarias. Los ejemplos se comparan con soluciones de referencia obtenidas con el método clásico de elementos finitos en una escala.

Le bassin de Valence, un fossé d’effondrement appartenant au système ECRIS localisé le long du couloir Rhodanien, est l’objet d’études approfondies quant à son potentiel géothermique. Dû à l’histoire évolutive polyphasée du bassin, les réseaux de fractures du socle et de la base de la couverture sédimentaire ciblés pour l’exploitation géothermique présentent une organisation complexe. Cette étude vise donc à caractériser l’organisation du bassin de Valence et de ces réseaux de fractures. Elle s’appuie sur les données sismiques et de forages du bassin, ainsi que les cartes géologiques, le modèle numérique du terrain et des affleurements de la marge ardéchoise. Deux méthodes de caractérisation des orientations et des longueurs des fractures sont développées dans ce travail. Leur application a permis de déterminer les paramètres des modèles de réseaux de fractures, et a mis en évidence un fort héritage structural mais aussi un découplage du socle et de la couverture
The Valence basin is a graben located in the Rhodanian corridor which belongs to the ECRIS system, and is the subject of many studies due to its geothermal potential. In response to its a multiphase history, fracture networks of the basement and sedimentary cover which are targeted for geothermal exploitation show a complex organization. This study aims to characterize facture networks organization in the Valence basin. It is based on seismic and borehole data in the basin, as well as geological maps, digital elevation model (DEM) and outcrops on the Ardèche margin. Two methodological studies were developed to characterize the orientation and length distributions. These methods allowed to determine fracture network modelling parameters, and highlighted a structural heritage but also a detachment between the basement and the cover

L'objectif principal est de faire premiers pas vers la conception topologique de structures hétérogènes à comportement non-linéaires. Le deuxième objectif est d’optimiser simultanément la topologie de la structure et du matériau. Il requiert la combinaison des méthodes de conception optimale et des approches de modélisation multi-échelle. En raison des lourdes exigences de calcul, nous avons introduit des techniques de réduction de modèle et de calcul parallèle. Nous avons développé tout d’abord un cadre de conception multi-échelle constitué de l’optimisation topologique et la modélisation multi-échelle. Ce cadre fournit un outil automatique pour des structures dont le modèle de matériau sous-jacent est directement régi par la géométrie de la microstructure réaliste et des lois de comportement microscopiques. Nous avons ensuite étendu le cadre en introduisant des variables supplémentaires à l’échelle microscopique pour effectuer la conception simultanée de la structure et de la microstructure. En ce qui concerne les exigences de calcul et de stockage de données en raison de multiples réalisations de calcul multi-échelle sur les configurations similaires, nous avons introduit: les approches de réduction de modèle. Nous avons développé un substitut d'apprentissage adaptatif pour le cas de l’élasticité non-linéaire. Pour viscoplasticité, nous avons collaboré avec le Professeur Felix Fritzen de l’Université de Stuttgart en utilisant son modèle de réduction avec la programmation parallèle sur GPU. Nous avons également adopté une autre approche basée sur le potentiel de réduction issue de la littérature pour améliorer l’efficacité de la conception simultanée
High-performance heterogeneous materials have been increasingly used nowadays for their advantageous overall characteristics resulting in superior structural mechanical performance. The pronounced heterogeneities of materials have significant impact on the structural behavior that one needs to account for both material microscopic heterogeneities and constituent behaviors to achieve reliable structural designs. Meanwhile, the fast progress of material science and the latest development of 3D printing techniques make it possible to generate more innovative, lightweight, and structurally efficient designs through controlling the composition and the microstructure of material at the microscopic scale. In this thesis, we have made first attempts towards topology optimization design of multiscale nonlinear structures, including design of highly heterogeneous structures, material microstructural design, and simultaneous design of structure and materials. We have primarily developed a multiscale design framework, constituted of two key ingredients : multiscale modeling for structural performance simulation and topology optimization forstructural design. With regard to the first ingredient, we employ the first-order computational homogenization method FE2 to bridge structural and material scales. With regard to the second ingredient, we apply the method Bi-directional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) to perform topology optimization. In contrast to the conventional nonlinear design of homogeneous structures, this design framework provides an automatic design tool for nonlinear highly heterogeneous structures of which the underlying material model is governed directly by the realistic microstructural geometry and the microscopic constitutive laws. Note that the FE2 method is extremely expensive in terms of computing time and storage requirement. The dilemma of heavy computational burden is even more pronounced when it comes to topology optimization : not only is it required to solve the time-consuming multiscale problem once, but for many different realizations of the structural topology. Meanwhile we note that the optimization process requires multiple design loops involving similar or even repeated computations at the microscopic scale. For these reasons, we introduce to the design framework a third ingredient : reduced-order modeling (ROM). We develop an adaptive surrogate model using snapshot Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) and Diffuse Approximation to substitute the microscopic solutions. The surrogate model is initially built by the first design iteration and updated adaptively in the subsequent design iterations. This surrogate model has shown promising performance in terms of reducing computing cost and modeling accuracy when applied to the design framework for nonlinear elastic cases. As for more severe material nonlinearity, we employ directly an established method potential based Reduced Basis Model Order Reduction (pRBMOR). The key idea of pRBMOR is to approximate the internal variables of the dissipative material by a precomputed reduced basis computed from snapshot POD. To drastically accelerate the computing procedure, pRBMOR has been implemented by parallelization on modern Graphics Processing Units (GPUs). The implementation of pRBMOR with GPU acceleration enables us to realize the design of multiscale elastoviscoplastic structures using the previously developed design framework inrealistic computing time and with affordable memory requirement. We have so far assumed a fixed material microstructure at the microscopic scale. The remaining part of the thesis is dedicated to simultaneous design of both macroscopic structure and microscopic materials. By the previously established multiscale design framework, we have topology variables and volume constraints defined at both scales

Genomic and proteomic analyses have attracted a great deal of interests in biological research in recent years. Many methods have been applied to discover useful information contained in the enormous databases of genomic sequences and amino acid sequences. The results of these investigations inspire further research in biological fields in return. These biological sequences, which may be considered as multiscale sequences, have some specific features which need further efforts to characterise using more refined methods. This project aims to study some of these biological challenges with multiscale analysis methods and stochastic modelling approach. The first part of the thesis aims to cluster some unknown proteins, and classify their families as well as their structural classes. A development in proteomic analysis is concerned with the determination of protein functions. The first step in this development is to classify proteins and predict their families. This motives us to study some unknown proteins from specific families, and to cluster them into families and structural classes. We select a large number of proteins from the same families or superfamilies, and link them to simulate some unknown large proteins from these families. We use multifractal analysis and the wavelet method to capture the characteristics of these linked proteins. The simulation results show that the method is valid for the classification of large proteins. The second part of the thesis aims to explore the relationship of proteins based on a layered comparison with their components. Many methods are based on homology of proteins because the resemblance at the protein sequence level normally indicates the similarity of functions and structures. However, some proteins may have similar functions with low sequential identity. We consider protein sequences at detail level to investigate the problem of comparison of proteins. The comparison is based on the empirical mode decomposition (EMD), and protein sequences are detected with the intrinsic mode functions. A measure of similarity is introduced with a new cross-correlation formula. The similarity results show that the EMD is useful for detection of functional relationships of proteins. The third part of the thesis aims to investigate the transcriptional regulatory network of yeast cell cycle via stochastic differential equations. As the investigation of genome-wide gene expressions has become a focus in genomic analysis, researchers have tried to understand the mechanisms of the yeast genome for many years. How cells control gene expressions still needs further investigation. We use a stochastic differential equation to model the expression profile of a target gene. We modify the model with a Gaussian membership function. For each target gene, a transcriptional rate is obtained, and the estimated transcriptional rate is also calculated with the information from five possible transcriptional regulators. Some regulators of these target genes are verified with the related references. With these results, we construct a transcriptional regulatory network for the genes from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The construction of transcriptional regulatory network is useful for detecting more mechanisms of the yeast cell cycle.

Variabilité spatiale multiéchelle du zooplancton dans un lagoon récifal côtier - L'identification des changements dans les patrons écologiques selon l'échelle spatiale et la compréhension des processus qui génèrent ces changements sont d'une importance considérable en océanographie. Dans ce contexte, comprendre comment une communauté biologique répond à l'hétérogénéité environnementale requiert la connaissance des processus impliqués et l'échelle spatiale à laquelle ils opèrent. Les relations spatiales entre la variabilité du zooplancton et l'hétérogénéité environnementale sont encore imprécises dans les écosystèmes tropicaux côtiers. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse a donc été de déterminer les échelles de dépendance spatiale des patrons du zooplancton associé à un lagon récifal côtier et des processus environnementaux sous-jacents. Dans ce contexte, les intérêts de cette recherche ont été de quantifier les patrons de la variabilité du zooplancton dans l'espace, de comprendre comment ces patrons changent avec l'échelle spatiale et de déterminer les processus physiques et biologiques responsables de ces patrons spatiaux. L'échantillonnage, effectué le long d'un transect de la côte vers le large dans le lagon du Grand-Cul-de-Sac Marin (Guadeloupe), a concerné deux classes de taille du zooplancton (190–600 µm et > 600 µm) pour lesquelles la biomasse et l'abondance ont été estimées. L'analyse multiéchelle a été utilisée pour caractériser les patrons du zooplancton aux différentes échelles spatiales (de l'échelle de l'habitat à celle du lagon tout entier) et pour identifier les processus responsables de ces structures spatiales. Cette étude a montré que la variabilité du zooplancton est un phénomène multiéchelle dont l'amplitude et la dépendance spatiale dépendent de la taille des organismes, de leur motilité et de la variable-réponse considérée (biomasse ou abondance). La biomasse et l'abondance du zooplancton varient en réponse à la distribution spatiale du phytoplancton, au comportement du zooplancton, à l'hétérogénéité de l'habitat, à l'hydrodynamique et aux évènements météorologiques. La nature et les effets de ces processus sont dépendants de l'échelle spatiale. Ce travail a montré comment le changement d'échelle spatiale met en évidence différents niveaux d'organisation de la communauté zooplanctonique en réponse à l'hétérogénéité environnementale.

Les composites tissés 3D, à l'aide de leurs grandes libertés de conception, peuvent fournir des propriétés mécaniques adaptées aux besoins spécifiques d'une structure. La complexité architecturale de ces matériaux induit néanmoins des propriétés, des comportements ainsi que des endommagements très difficiles à prédire. Les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit s'inscrivent directement dans cette problématique et cherchent à développer des outils permettant, par simulation numérique, de prévoir les caractéristiques mécaniques de ce type de matériaux. Afin de répondre à cet objectif, une approche multiéchelle, alliant essais expérimentaux et simulations numériques, a été adoptée. Cette démarche permet, en appliquant des sollicitations réelles, de considérer la géométrie des renforts et les hétérogénéités du matériau, observables à l'échelle mésoscopique, qui sont responsables du comportement macroscopique du composite tissé. Le travail d'investigation expérimentale s'est attaché à caractériser le comportement d'un composite interlock 2,5D et des ses constituants ainsi que les mécanismes et cinétiques de rupture, pour des sollicitations de traction/flexion, grâce à des observations tomographiques aux rayons X et au concept d'interzone. En ce qui concerne la modélisation numérique, un critère de rupture permettant de simuler la dégradation ultime du composite, en coupant les fils de renforts, a été présenté et testé sur une cellule représentative du composite expérimentale. Les résultats en termes de localisations, d'orientations et de cinétiques de l'endommagement sont en accord avec les observations expérimentales. Ensuite, après avoir estimé l'influence des différents paramètres architecturaux sur le critère de rupture avec une campagne de calcul éléments finis, des architectures optimisées, pour les sollicitations considérées, ont pu être proposées et comparées à l'interlock 2,5D. Toujours dans l'optique d'une meilleure prédiction du comportement des composites tissés, les travaux se sont également intéressés à une modélisation plus fine des mécanismes d'endommagement. Une approche fiabiliste a donc été introduite sur le critère de rupture à l'aide d'une distribution statistique de Weibull. De plus, un autre mécanisme d'endommagement a aussi pu être pris en compte dans la modélisation en simulant, avec le modèle GTN (Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman), la cavitation de la matrice. Enfin, des techniques de réduction de modèle ont été employées pour diminuer le coût calcul de la modélisation multiéchelle afin d'identifier, par exemple, des propriétés matériaux par méthode inverse ou de simuler des essais de fatigue
With their large flexibility of design , 3D woven composites can provide mechanical properties tailored specificially to structural needs. However, the architectural complexity of woven reinforcements presents serious challenges when predicting properties, behaviours and damage processes. The present work deals with these challenges and seeks to develop numerical tools which are able to foresee the mechanical characteristics of this kind of materials. For this purpose, a multiscale approach, which combines experimental tests and numerical simulations, has been adopted. This approach allows, simultaneously, to take into account the loads and composite behavior, at the macroscopic scale, also the reinforcement geometry and the material heterogeneities which are only visible at the mesoscopic scale. The experimental investigation has been carried out to characterize the behaviour of an 2.5D interlock composite and its constituents. Examinations of the damage mechanisms have also been performed, using tomography and the interzone concept, for this woven composite under loadings in tension and combined tension and bending. With regards to the numerical modeling part, the ultimate degradation of the composite was simulated by cutting the reinforcement yarns with a failure criterion, previously reported, on a 3D representative cell of the experimental composite. For the two kinds of macroscopic loadings, the locations, orientations and kinetics of the damage were found to be fully in agreement with the experimental results. The influence of the architectural parameters on the failure criterion was then evaluated by finite element calculation. Consequently, it has been possible to proposed optimized architectures and make a camparison, for the two macroscopic loadings, with the 2.5D interlock woven composite. Still motivated to improve the prediction of the behaviour of woven composites, this work has also been on developing a finer modeling approach to the understanding of damage mechanisms. A stochastic approach was therefore introduced to the failure criterion using a Weibull statistical distribution. In addition, matrix cavitation has also been taken into account in the modelling. This damage mechanism was simulated using the GTN (Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman) model. Finally, model reduction techniques have been applied to lower the cost of computing multiscale modeling in order to identify, for example, material properties by an inverse method or to simulate fatigue tests

Tremendous advances in nanoscience during the past decades have drawn a new horizon for the future of science. Many biological and structural elements such as DNA, bio-membranes, nanotubes, nanowires and thin films have been studied carefully in the past decades. In this work we target to speed up the computational methods by incorporating the structural symmetries that nanostructures have. In particular, we use the Objective Structures (OS) framework to speed up molecular dynamics (MD), lattice dynamics (phonon analysis) and multiscale methods. OS framework is a generalization of the standard idea for crystal lattices of assuming periodicity of atomic positions with a large supercell. OS not only considers the translational periodicity of the structure, but also other symmetries such as rotational and screw symmetries. In addition to the computational efficiency afforded by Objective Structures, OS provides us with more flexibility in the shape of the unit cell and the form of the external deformation and loading, comparing to using the translational periodicity. This is because the deformation and loading should be consistent in all cells and not all deformations keep the periodicity of the structures. For instance, bending and twisting cannot be modeled with methods using the structure's periodicity. Using OS framework we then carefully studied carbon nanotubes under non-equilibrium deformations. We also studied the failure mechanism of pristine and twisted nanotubes under tensile loading. We found a range of failure mechanisms, including the formation of Stone-Wales defects, the opening of voids, and the motion of atoms out of the cross-section. We also used the OS framework to make concrete analogies between crystalline phonons and normal modes of vibration in non-crystalline but highly symmetric nanostructures.

Les parties tournantes des turbomachines aéronautiques sont composées d'une succession de roues aubagées qui permettent le transfert de l'énergie entre l'air et le rotor. Ces roues aubagées constituent des pièces particulièrement sensibles car elles doivent répondre en termes de dimensionnement à des impératifs de performances aérodynamiques, d'aéroacoustique et de tenue mécanique à la rotation,à la température et à la charge aérodynamique. Le contact avec frottement existant au niveau des attaches aube-disque joue un rôle important sur les niveaux vibratoires.Ce travail porte sur l'étude de l'usure par fretting sous chargements dynamiques dans les interfaces frottantes. En effet, les vibrations de l'aube peuvent produire des micro-glissements en pied d'aubequi peuvent entraîner un phénomène d'usure par fretting. Les connaissances sur le comportement de l'usure sous sollicitations dynamiques sont faibles. Seuls existent des outils numériques pour modéliser l'usure dans le cas de sollicitations quasi-statiques. Nous proposons dans cette thèse des méthodes pour calculer l'évolution de l'usure au cours des cycles de chargement dynamique basées sur une approche multi-échelle en temps. La réponse vibratoire de la structure est liée à une échelle de temps rapide qui est calculée par une méthode d'équilibrage harmonique, dans laquelle les déplacements et les efforts sont projetés sur la base de Fourier. Différentes approches temps-fréquence de calcul des coefficients de Fourier des forces de contact sont présentées. La cinétique d'usure est liée à une échelle lente et différentes méthodes sont proposées pour l'intégrer. La prise en compte des géométries usées dans le modèle éléments finis se fait par l'ajout d'un vecteur des profondeurs d'usure dans le terme de pénalité des lagrangiens dynamiques. Des exemples académiques valident et illustrent les méthodes proposées. Ces méthodes sont ensuite appliquées à l'étude de l'usure par fretting en pied d'aube de soufflante. L'étude numérique met en lumière le couplage entre vibration et usure par fretting aux interfaces de contact. La modification du comportement dynamique global de la roue aubagée est aussi observée.

L'industrie se tourne de plus en plus vers les matériaux composites. A l'échelle de la microstructure leur comportement est fortement hétérogène mais à l'échelle de la structure ceux-ci peuvent être considérés homogène. Les méthodes multi-échelles ont été développées pour résoudre les problèmes de structure avec un temps de calcul raisonnable. Ces méthodes sont validées par comparaison avec un calcul numérique où les hétérogénéités sont entièrement maillées. Dans ce travail de thèse, une structure architecturée modèle a été créée au centre d'une plaque (homogène) mince en acier inoxydable (304L). La cellule unitaire du matériau architecturé est constitué d'un carré avec un trou au centre. L'utilisation d'une caméra à très haute résolution (270 millions de pixels) permet de suivre simultanément l'évolution des déformations aux échelles microscopique et macroscopique. La variation de l'orientation de la structure architecturée modifie les sollicitations appliquées aux cellules unitaires. Les expériences réalisées ont pour but d'analyser les cinématiques de déformation des cellules unitaires sous un chargement multi-axial. La recherche des cellules ayant une cinématique périodique est réalisée. Il est ainsi montré que les cellules avec une cinématique non périodique correspondent à la zone de transition entre le matériau architecturé et le matériau homogène. La connaissance des cinématiques des cellules permet d'investiguer les changements d'échelles dans le domaine linéaire et non-linéaire. Le passage de l'échelle macroscopique à l'échelle microscopique est particulièrement étudié avec le choix des conditions aux limites. Le remplacement des cellules ayant une cinématique périodique par un milieu homogène équivalent (MHE) est traité. La géométrie de la cellule unitaire introduit des symétries dans le comportement du MHE, celui-ci devient cubique. Les caractéristiques élastiques du MHE sont obtenus par homogénéisation à partir des résultats expérimentaux. Un critère de Tsaï-Hill est identifié dans le domaine non-linéaire. Le dernier chapitre s'intéresse à la fissuration de la zone architecturée et à l'initiation de la localisation des déformations dans les cellules. Le support de la localisation est calculé à partir du champ des déformations mesuré par CIN. La cinématique de la cellule est enrichie avec une discontinuité et le saut de déplacement normal à la localisation est identifié. Une comparaison avec le saut de déplacement calculé par corrélation d'images étendue à l'échelle macroscopique est menée afin de valider la stratégie d'identification à l'échelle microscopique
Industry employ more and more composite materials in structures todecrease the weight. At the microstructure scale behavior is strongly heterogeneous but at the structure scale behaviour may be considered homogeneous. Multiscale methods have been developed to solve the structural problems with a reasonable calculation time. These methods are validated by comparison with a numerical calculation where heterogeneities are fully meshed. In this thesis work, an ideal architectural material was created in the center of a (homogeneous) stainless steel (304L) thin plate. The unit cell architecture material consists of a square with a hole in the center. The use of a high resolution camera (270 million pixels) allows to follow simultaneously the evolution of deformation at microscopic and macroscopic scales. The orientation of the heterogeneous structure modifies the sollicitations applied to the unit cells. The experiments are designed to analyze the kinematics of deformation of the unit cells in a multi-axial loading. Unit cells with periodic kinematics are searched. It is thus shown that the cells with a non-periodic kinematic correspond to the transition zone between the homogeneous material and the architectured material. Knowledge of the kinematic cells allows to investigate the scale changings in the linear and nonlinear range. The downscaling from the macroscopic to the microscopic scale is particularly studied with the choice of boundary conditions. An equivalent homogeneous medium (MHE) is determined as a remplacement for the cells having a periodic kinematic. The geometry of the unit cell introduced symmetries in the behavior of MHE, it becomes cubic (orthotropic with material parameters). The elastic characteristics of the MHE are obtained by homogenization from the experimental results. A criterion of Tsai-Hill is identified in the non-linear domain. The last chapter is interested in cracking of the architected zone and the initiation of strain localization in cells. The support of location is calculated from the strain field measured by correlation. The kinematics of the cell is enriched with a discontinuity and the displacement jump normal to the localization is identified. A comparison with the displacement jump calculated by extended digital image correlation at the macroscopic scale is conducted to validate the identification strategy at the microscopic level

Patented by Joseph Monier in 1867, reinforced concrete became a highly successful material during the 20th century, capable of satisfying the most challenging demands of designers and engineers. However, even though its introduction in construction paved the way for a century of continuous technological innovation in the building industry, the mechanical behaviour of structures made with this material has not been fully understood for a long time, giving rise to a variety of structural problems of the buildings built in the first decades of the 20th century. At the roots of the problem there was not only the empirical conception of the structural calculations, but also the lack of development of standard concrete production technology and the poor attention paid to the choice of raw materials and their mixing methodology. Furthermore, the problem of reinforced concrete behavior to external chemical-physical degrading agents was not considered during most of the 20th century, due to the wrong assumption of “infinite durability” of this material. One and a half century after its invention, reinforced concrete is considered a cultural heritage material, being the structural core of the 20th century contemporary architecture. The characterization of this heterogeneous artifact has been for decades exclusive competence of structural engineers, but, over the last fifteen years, it has become one of the main fields of study of material scientists, due to its mineralogical, textural and chemical complexity and high susceptibility to the action of external chemical-physical degrading agents. Given the complexity of the material, a combined multidisciplinary approach, covering the engineering and material science fields, is necessary to obtain a full mechanical and microstructural characterization of reinforced concrete structures and, consequently, to plan and perform proper interventions with adequate restoration materials for the rehabilitation and structural improvement of this modern heritage. This research project is aimed at the multi-analytical characterization of cement conglomerates from five historical structures located in north-eastern Italy and built between the end of the 19th and the middle of the 20th century, paying attention to the determination of the original mix designs, to the study of their conservation state and to the development of novel medium invasive analytical techniques. The materials were first of all characterized according to a multi-analytical approach; in this part of the study, the classic petrographic characterization of the conglomerates following the guidelines of the American standard ASTM C856 was deeply integrated with the results obtained from mineralogical analyses by X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) and from microstructural-microchemical analyses by Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy-dispersive X-ray Microfluorescence (SEM-EDS). This integrated methodology of analysis allowed to broaden the spectrum of the analytical results obtained, fully characterizing the materials and their constituents in a broad dimensional, compositional and textural range. The data obtained, even though highly accurate, are still strictly qualitative, in particular as regards the determination of several parameters, fundamental for the reconstruction of the original mix designs (e.g. water/cement ratio, cement/aggregate ratio, granulometric distribution curve of the inert fraction). In this respect, several recent studies tested 2D digital image analysis procedures for the study of several concrete components, obtaining reliable and unbiased results. Nevertheless, despite the promising data obtained, the analytical procedures were never applied to the whole concrete constituents, mainly due to intrinsic limitations of the technique related both to the high polydispersity of the constituents and to the absence of clear colorimetric tracers to allow rapid and clear digital discriminations. Despite these problems, at the state of the art 2D digital image analysis is the only analytical technique theoretically capable of giving reliable, rapid and unbiased results on a such polydisperse material. Consequently, one of the main objectives of this research project consisted in the development of a valid and multiscale protocol of sample preparation, image acquisition, and analysis, in order to fully and quantitatively reconstruct mix designs of the studied historical concretes. The novel approach proved to be extremely reliable to fully characterize these heterogeneous and poorly standardized materials, and the analytical results obtained were successfully crosschecked with the ones obtained with the multi-analytical study. Finally, an accurate study of the conservation state and degradation phenomena acting on the materials was performed. The materials were studied according to a multi-analytical approach articulated in a preliminary petrographic study, integrated by profile XRPD analyses on the finer fractions of the materials and SEM-EDS analyses both on massive and thin section samples. The results highlighted the incidence of several alteration phenomena on the materials, strictly related to their compositional and textural characteristics and to the environmental conditions of exposure. Besides the identification of the occurrence of common forms of concrete alteration - namely carbonation, sulfate attack, chloride attack, alkali-aggregate reactions and soluble salts crystallization phenomena ˗ a novel type of degradation was observed and described for the first time in the concrete samples of the Ex-Agrimont Area, the synergic sulfate-phosphate attack. This form of alteration was thoroughly investigated through an extended profile multi-analytical approach consisting of a combination of optical microscopy, synchrotron-based micro-XRPD, SEM-EDS microanalyses, in situ thermal XRPD, simultaneous thermogravimetric and differential thermal analyses (TGA-DTA), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and thermodynamic modeling. This form of alteration resulted to be strongly related to the interaction between sulfate-rich atmospheric multipollutants and phosphate-ammonia-rich solutions leached from the fertilizers production plant, and caused severe decalcification of the cement matrices and formation of secondary sulfates and phosphates according to a marked mineralogical and textural zoning, with stabilization of metastable phases thanks to the peculiar pH and concentration gradients developed in the materials. Furthermore, rare solid solution phases formed, undergoing partial dehydration phenomena related to the conditions of exposure.
Brevettato da Joseph Monier nel 1867, il conglomerato cementizio armato (comunemente definito calcestruzzo armato, o cemento armato) è diventato un materiale da costruzione di grandissimo successo nel corso del XX secolo, capace di soddisfare le richieste più impegnative di progettisti e ingegneri. Tuttavia, nonostante la sua introduzione e diffusione abbia spianato la strada a un secolo di continue innovazioni tecnologiche nell'ambito dell'industria delle costruzioni, il comportamento meccanico degli edifici costruiti con tale materiale non è stato compreso a pieno per lungo tempo, con conseguente incidenza di una serie di problemi strutturali interessanti gli edifici costruiti nei primi decenni del XX secolo. Alle radici del problema non vi era soltanto la concezione empirica dei calcoli strutturali, ma anche la mancanza di una tecnologia standardizzata di produzione del calcestruzzo e la scarsa attenzione posta nella scelta delle materie prime e delle strategie di miscelazione. Inoltre, le problematiche relative alla resistenza del conglomerato cementizio armato all'azione degradante di agenti chimico-fisici esterni non sono state considerate per gran parte del XX secolo, a causa dell'errata assunzione di "durabilità infinita" del materiale. Un secolo e mezzo dopo la sua invenzione, il cemento armato è al giorno d'oggi considerato un materiale di interesse culturale, costituendo il nucleo strutturale dell'architettura contemporanea. La caratterizzazione di questo materiale eterogeneo è stata per decenni di competenza esclusiva degli ingegneri strutturali, ma, nel corso degli ultimi quindici anni, è diventata una delle principali tematiche di studio degli scienziati dei materiali, a causa della complessità mineralogica, tessiturale e chimica del calcestruzzo e della sua suscettibilità all'azione di agenti alterativi esterni di natura chimico-fisica. Considerata la complessità del materiale, un approccio analitico combinato e multidisciplinare, comprendente campi sia ingegneristici sia della scienza dei materiali, risulta necessario al fine di ottenere una completa caratterizzazione meccanica e microstrutturale delle strutture in cemento armato e, conseguentemente, di progettare ed eseguire interventi di restauro con materiali adeguati per la riabilitazione e il miglioramento strutturale di questi moderni beni culturali. Tale progetto di ricerca è stato volto alla caratterizzazione multi-analitica di conglomerati cementizi appartenenti a cinque edifici storici in cemento armato, tutti localizzati nell’Italia nordorientale e costruiti tra la fine del XIX secolo e la metà del XX secolo, prestando particolare attenzione alla determinazione dei mix design originari, allo studio del loro stato di conservazione e allo sviluppo di tecniche analitiche innovative di natura mediamente distruttiva. I materiali sono stati anzitutto caratterizzati tramite un approccio multi-analitico; in questa parte dello studio, la classica caratterizzazione petrografica dei conglomerati secondo le linee guida dello standard americano ASTM C856 è stata integrata con i risultati ottenuti tramite analisi mineralogiche in diffrazione ai raggi X delle polveri (XRPD) e analisi microstrutturali e microchimiche in microscopia elettronica a scansione e microfluorescenza ai raggi X a dispersione di energia (SEM-EDS). La metodologia analitica integrata ha permesso un notevole allargamento dello spettro dei risultati ottenuti, consentendo una caratterizzazione completa dei materiali e dei loro costituenti in un ampio intervallo dimensionale, composizionale e tessiturale. I risultati ottenuti, sebbene altamente accurati, sono strettamente qualitativi, in particolare per quanto concerne la determinazione di una serie di parametri fondamentali per la ricostruzione dei mix design originari (quali i rapporti acqua/cemento e cemento/aggregato e la curva di distribuzione granulometrica degli inerti). A tal riguardo, diversi studi hanno recentemente testato procedure di analisi di immagine 2D per lo studio di componenti del calcestruzzo indurito, ottenendo risultati affidabili e oggettivi. Ciononostante, tali procedure analitiche non sono mai state applicate al sistema calcestruzzo nel suo insieme, a causa di limitazioni intrinseche delle tecniche di studio legate sia all'alto grado di polidispersione delle componenti del conglomerato cementizio, sia all'assenza di chiari traccianti colorimetrici in grado di consentire una rapida e chiara discriminazione digitale delle stesse. Al di là di tali problematiche, allo stato dell'arte l'analisi di immagine 2D risulta essere l'unica tecnica analitica in grado, almeno in via teorica, di fornire risultati rapidi, attendibili e oggettivi su un materiale caratterizzato da un grado di polidispersione così elevato. Conseguentemente, uno degli obbiettivi principali di questo progetto di ricerca è consistito nello sviluppo di un valido protocollo multiscala di preparazione dei campioni e acquisizione e analisi delle immagini per ricostruire completamente e quantitativamente i mix design dei calcestruzzi storici studiati. Tale approccio analitico innovativo si è dimostrato estremamente affidabile per l'ottenimento di una caratterizzazione completa di questi materiali eterogenei e poco standardizzati, e i risultati ottenuti sono stati confrontati con successo con quelli ottenuti tramite lo studio multi-analitico. Infine, è stato effettuato uno studio dettagliato dello stato di conservazione e dei fenomeni di degrado agenti sui materiali. I calcestruzzi sono stati studiati con un approccio multi-analitico articolato in uno studio petrografico preliminare, integrato da analisi XRPD di profilo della frazione fine dei materiali e da analisi SEM-EDS sia su campioni massivi che in sezione sottile. I risultati hanno evidenziato l'incidenza nei materiali di molteplici fenomeni di alterazione, strettamente correlati alle loro caratteristiche composizionali e tessiturali e alle condizioni ambientali di esposizione. Oltre all'individuazione di forme comuni di alterazione del calcestruzzo, quali la carbonatazione, l'attacco solfatico, l'attacco da cloruri, le reazioni alcali-aggregato e di ricristallizzazione di sali solubili, una nuova tipologia di degrado è stata per la prima volta osservata e studiata nei campioni di calcestruzzo dell'Area Ex-Agrimont, l'attacco sinergico solfatico-fosfatico. Questa forma di alterazione è stata investigata approfonditamente attraverso un approccio multi-analitico di profilo, consistente in una combinazione di microscopia ottica, micro-XRPD in luce di sincrotrone, microanalisi SEM-EDS, XRPD termica in situ, analisi termogravimetriche e termiche differenziali simultanee (TGA-DTA), spettroscopia di emissione atomica a plasma accoppiato induttivamente (ICP-OES) e modeling termodinamico. Tale forma di alterazione è risultata essere strettamente legata all'interazione tra inquinanti atmosferici ricchi in solfati e soluzioni ricche in fosfati e ioni ammonio rilasciati dall'impianto di produzione di fertilizzanti, e ha causato una grave decalcificazione delle matrici cementizie e la formazione di fosfati e solfati secondari secondo una marcata zonazione mineralogica e tessiturale, con associata stabilizzazione di fasi metastabili a causa dei particolari gradienti di pH e concentrazione degli inquinanti venutisi a stabilire all'interno dei materiali. Inoltre, si sono formate rare fasi in soluzione solida, le quali hanno successivamente subito fenomeni di parziale disidratazione correlati alle condizioni di esposizione.

L'objet de ce travail est de proposer une approche multi-échelle de la fatigue fondée sur l'énergie, et susceptible d'estimer les durées de vie associées à des chargements multidimensionnels variables. Le fondement de la démarche consiste à supposer que l'énergie dissipée à petite échelle régit le comportement à la fatigue. À chaque point matériel, est associée une distribution stochastique de points faibles qui sont susceptibles de plastifier et de contribuer à la dissipation d'énergie sans affecter des contraintes macroscopiques globales. Ceci revient à adopter le paradigme de Dang Van en fatigue polycyclique. La structure est supposée élastique (ou adaptée) à l'échelle macroscopique. De plus, on adopte à l'échelle mésoscopique un comportement élastoplastique avec une dépendance de la fonction de charge plastique non seulement de la partie déviatorique des contraintes, mais aussi de la partie hydrostatique. On considère également un écrouissage cinématique linéaire sous l'hypothèse d'une plasticité associée. Au lieu d'utiliser le nombre de cycles comme variable incrémentale, le concept d'évolution temporelle du chargement est adopté pour un suivi précis de l'historique du chargement réel. L'effet de la contrainte moyenne est pris en compte dans la fonction de charge mésoscopique ; une loi de cumul non linéaire de dommage est également considérée dans le modèle. La durée de vie à la fatigue est ensuite déterminée à l'aide d'une loi de phénoménologique fondée sur la dissipation d'énergie mésoscopique issue du cycle d'accommodation plastique. La première partie du travail a porté sur une proposition d'un modèle de fatigie à gradient de mise en oeuvre plus simple que les précédents modèles
The aim of this work is to propose a multi-scale approach to energy-based fatigue, which can estimate lifetimes associated with variable multidimensional loading. The foundation of the approach is to assume that the energy dissipated on a small scale governs the fatigue behavior. Each material point is associated to a stochastic distribution of weak points that are likely to plasticize and contribute to the dissipation of energy without affecting global macroscopic stresses. This amounts to adopting Dang Van's paradigm of high cycle fatigue. The structure is supposed to be elastic (or adapted) on a macroscopic scale. In addition, we adopt on the mesoscopic scale an elastoplastic behavior with a dependence of the plastic load function not only of the deviatoric part of the stresses, but also of the hydrostatic part. Linear kinematic hardening is also considered under the assumption of an associated plasticity. Instead of using the number of cycles as an incremental variable, the concept of temporal evolution of the load is adopted for a precise follow-up of the history of the actual loading. The effect of mean stress is taken into account in the mesoscopic yield function; a law of nonlinear accumulation of damage is also considered in the model. Fatigue life is then determined using a phenomenological law based on mesoscopic energy dissipation from the plastic accommodative cycle. The first part of the work focused on a proposal for a fatigue model with a simpler implementation gradient than the previous models

L’endommagement dans les tissus souples de l'annulus fibrosus est un phénomène multi-échelle complexe dû à un arrangement structural complexe du réseau de collagène à différentes échelles d'organisation hiérarchique. Une représentation constitutive entièrement tridimensionnelle, considérant la variation régionale de la complexité structurale, n'a pas encore été développée, pour estimer la mécanique multiaxiale de l'annulus jusqu'à la rupture. Dans la présente thèse de doctorat, un modèle, formulé dans le cadre de la mécanique non linéaire des milieux continues, est développé pour prédire l’endommagement et la rupture de l'annulus induits par la déformation sous des histoires de chargements multiaxiaux en considérant comme processus physique dépendant du temps à la fois les effets volumétriques induits chimiquement et l'accumulation de l’endommagement.Dans une première partie, un modèle basé sur la microstructure est proposé pour relier les caractéristiques structurales aux propriétés mécaniques intrinsèques et électrochimiques des tissus souples de l'annulus. Le modèle lamellaire/interlamellaire multicouche est construit en considérant les interactions effectives entre les couches adjacentes et la contrainte volumétrique induite chimiquement. La comparaison modèle/expériences démontre que l'évaluation de la réponse globale dépendante du temps implique de considérer simultanément la contrainte, le changement volumétrique et la caractéristique auxétique en relation avec les caractéristiques structurales.Dans une deuxième partie, le modèle est enrichi en considérant la structure hiérarchique des tissus souples depuis les fibrilles de collagène de taille nanométrique jusqu'aux fibres de collagène orientées de taille microscopique. Le processus stochastique d'événements progressifs d’endommagement, opérant à différentes échelles de la phase solide, est introduit pour la matrice extracellulaire, les fibres microscopiques et le réseau de fibrilles nanométriques. Les effets directionnels sur la réponse mécanique et la rupture de l’annulus sont mis en évidence en relation avec le mode de chargement externe, les caractéristiques de la structure, les événements d'endommagement et l'hydratation.Dans une troisième partie, le modèle est développé en considérant la variation régionale de l'organisation structurale complexe du réseau de collagène à différentes échelles pour prédire l’endommagement multiaxial anisotrope régional du disque intervertébral. Après identification du modèle à l'aide de lamelles simples extraites de différentes régions du disque, le caractère prédictif du modèle est vérifié pour divers modes de chargement élémentaires multiaxiaux représentatifs du mouvement de la colonne vertébrale. Les étirements dans les directions circonférentielle et radiale jusqu'à la rupture ont servi à vérifier les capacités prédictives du modèle pour les différentes régions. Les résultats du modèle sous cisaillement simple, étirement biaxial et compression en déformation plane sont également présentés et discutés.Dans une quatrième partie, un modèle de disque humain complet est construit afin d’examiner la mécanique hétérogène dans le cœur du disque. Les champs d'endommagement au sein du disque sont analysés, sous compression axiale, torsion axiale et chargements combinés, afin d’évaluer les zones où le risque de rupture est le plus élevé
The damage in annulus fibrosus soft tissues is a complex multiscale phenomenon due to a complex structural arrangement of collagen network at different scales of hierarchical organization. A fully three-dimensional constitutive representation that considers the regional variation of the structural complexity to estimate annulus multiaxial mechanics till failure has not yet been developed. In the present PhD dissertation, a model, formulated within the framework of nonlinear continuum mechanics, is developed to predict deformation-induced damage and failure of annulus under multiaxial loading histories considering as time-dependent physical process both chemical-induced volumetric effects and damage accumulation.In a first part, a microstructure-based model is proposed to connect structural features, intrinsic mechanics and electro-chemical properties of annulus soft tissues. The multi-layered lamellar/inter-lamellar annulus model is constructed by considering the effective interactions between adjacent layers and the chemical-induced volumetric strain. The model/experiments comparison demonstrates that the evaluation of the overall time-dependent response involves considering stress, volumetric change and auxetic feature simultaneously in relation to structural features.In a second part, the model is enriched by considering the hierarchical structure of the soft tissue from the nano-sized collagen fibrils to the micro-sized oriented collagen fibers. The stochastic process of progressive damage events operating at different scales of the solid phase is introduced for the extracellular matrix and the network of nano-sized fibrils/micro-sized fibers. The directional effects on annulus mechanics and failure are highlighted in relation to external loading mode, structure features, damage events and hydration.In a third part, the model is further developed by considering the regional variation of the complex structural organization of collagen network at different scales to predict the regional anisotropic multiaxial damage of the intervertebral disc. After model identification using single lamellae extracted from different disc regions, the model predictability is verified for various multiaxial elementary loading modes representative of the spine movement. The stretching along the circumferential and radial directions till failure serves to check the predictive capacities of the annulus model for the different regions. Model results under simple shear, biaxial stretching and plane-strain compression are further presented and discussed.In a fourth part, a full human disc model is constructed using the regional annulus model to examine the heterogeneous mechanics in the disc core. Damage fields in the disc are analyzed under axial compression, axial twist and combined loadings to assess the areas where the risk of failure is the highest

Dans cette thèse, des techniques d’homogénéisation multi-échelles sont proposées pour l’analyse des vibrations des matériaux composites viscoélastiques. Dans la première partie, la Méthode Asymptotique à Deux Echelles (MADE) est proposée pour la modélisation des vibrations des longues structures sandwichs viscoélastiques répétitives. Pour ce type de structures les pulsations amorties correspondant aux modes propres de vibration sont regroupées en paquets bien distincts. La MADE décompose le problème initial de grande taille en deux problèmes de petites tailles. Le premier est défini sur quelques cellules de base et le second est une équation différentielle d’amplitude à coefficients complexes. La résolution de ces problèmes permet de déterminer les propriétés amortissantes correspondant aux modes de début et de fin de paquet de la structure tout en évitant la discrétisation de toute la structure. Pour les structures dont les coeurs ont un module d’Young dépendant de la fréquence, le problème non linéaire formulé sur les cellules de bases est résolu par l’approche diamant. Les modèles ADF et à dérivées fractionnaires ont été considérés dans les tests numériques. En utilisant la MADE, on évite la discrétisation de toute la structure, ce qui permet donc de réduire considérablement le temps de calcul ainsi que l’espace mémoire CPU nécessaires. L’approche proposée a été validée en comparant les résultats à ceux de la simulation éléments finis basée sur la discrétisation de toute la structure, et utilisant l’approche diamant. Dans la seconde partie de cette thèse, la méthode des éléments finis multi-échelles (EF2) a été développée pour le calcul des propriétés modales des structures à matériaux hétérogènes viscoélastiques en terme de fréquences amorties et amortissements modaux. Dans le principe de l’approche EF2, le problème de vibration est formulé à deux échelles : l’échelle de la structure globale (échelle macroscopique) et l’échelle d’un VER minutieusement choisi (échelle microscopique). Le problème à résoudre à l’échelle microscopique est un problème non linéaire alors que le problème à résoudre à l’échelle macroscopique est un problème linéaire. La non linéarité à l’échelle microscopique est introduite par la dépendance en fréquence du module d’Young des matériaux des phases viscoélastiques. Le problème non linéaire ainsi généré à l’échelle microscopique est résolu grâce à la MAN et ses outils de différentiation automatique réalisés sous Matlab, Fortran et C++. Un outil numérique, générique, robuste, peu coûteux en temps de calcul et espace mémoire CPU, de résolution des problèmes de vibrations non amorties des structures composites viscoélastique est ainsi mis en place. Le modèle viscoélastique à module constant ainsi que des modèles à modules dépendant de la fréquence notamment le modèle ADF et le modèle à dérivées fractionnaires ont été considérés pour les tests numériques de validation. Les comparaisons avec les résultats ABAQUS ont confirmé l’efficacité du code propos é. Le modèle est ensuite utilisé pour le calcul des propriétés amortissantes des structures sandwichs viscoélastiques à coeur composite. Les capacités de la nouvelle approche à concevoir des structures sandwichs viscoélastiques à coeur composite et à haut pouvoir amortissant ont été testées avec succès à travers l’étude de l’influence des différents paramètres des inclusions sur les propriétés amortissantes d’une structure sandwich viscoélastique à coeur composite
In this thesis, multiscale homogenization techniques are proposed for vibration analysis of structures with viscoelastic composite materials. In the first part, the Double Scale Asymptotic Method is proposed for vibration modeling of large repetitive viscoelastic sandwich structures. For this kind of structures, la eigenfrequencies are closely located in well separated packets. The DSAM splits the initial problem of large size into two problems of relatively small sizes. The first problem is posed on few basic cells, and the second one is an amplitude equation with complex coefficients. The resolution of these equations permits to compute the damping properties that correspond to the beginning and the end of every packets of eigenmodes. In case of structure with frequency dependent Young modulus in the core, the diamant approach is used to solve the nonlinear problem posed on basic cells. The ADF and fractional derivative models are considered in numerical tests. By using the DSAM, one avoid the discretization of the whole structure, and the computation time and needed CPU memory are thus reduced. The proposed method is validated by comparing its results with those of the direct finite element method using the diamant approach. In the second part of this thesis, the multiscale finite element method (FE2) is proposed for computation of modal properties (resonant frequency and modal loss factors) of structures with composite materials. In the principle of the (FE2) method, the vibration problem is formulated at two scales: the scale of the whole structure (macroscopic scale) and the scale of a Representative Volume Element (RVE) considered as the microscopic scale. The microscopic problem is a nonlinear one and the macroscopic problem is linear. The nonlinearity at the microscopic scale is introduced by the frequency dependence of the Young modulus of the viscoelastic phases. This nonlinear problem is solved by the Asymptotic Numerical Method and its automatic differentiation tools realizable in Matlab, Fortran or C++. From this approach, numerical tool that is generic, flexible, robust and inexpensive in term of CPU time and memory is proposed for vibration analysis of viscoelastic structures. The constant Young modulus and frequency dependent Young modulus are considered in validation tests. The results of numerical simulation with ABAQUS are used are reference. The model is then used to compute the modal properties of sandwich structure with viscoelastic composite core. To test the capacities of the proposed approach to design sandwich viscoelastic structure with high damping properties, the influence of parameters of the inclusions are studied

Selon des études comportementales, les comportements complexes sont des processus multi-échelles, souvent composés de sous-éléments (unités fonctionnelles ou primitives). Cette thèse propose des architectures fonctionnelles afin de représenter la structure dynamique des unités fonctionnelles ainsi que celle des comportements multi-échelles résultants. Dans un premier temps, des unités fonctionnelles sont modélisées comme des flux structurés de faible dimension dans l'espace de phase (modes de fonctionnement). Des dynamiques supplémen-taires (signaux opérationnels) opèrent sur ces modes de fonctionnement faisant émerger des comportements complexes et sont classifiés selon la séparation entre leur échelle temporelle et celle des modes. Ensuite, des mesures de complexité, appliquées sur des architectures dis-tinctes composant un mouvement simple, révèlent un compromis entre la complexité des modes de fonctionnement et celle des signaux opérationnels. Celui-ci dépend de la séparation entre leurs échelles temporelles et soutient l'efficacité des architectures utilisant des modes non triviaux. Dans un deuxième temps, une architecture pour le comportement séquentiel (ici l'écriture) est construite via le couplage des modes de fonctionnement (réalisant des lettres) et des signaux opérationnels, ceux-ci beaucoup plus lents ou beaucoup plus rapides. Ainsi, l'importance des interactions entre les échelles temporelles pour l'organisation du comporte-ment est illustrée. Enfin, les contributions des modes et des signaux sur la sortie de l'architec-ture sont déterminées. Ceci semble être uniquement possible grâce à l'analyse du flux de phase (c'est-à-dire, non pas à partir des trajectoires dans l'espace de phase ni des séries temporelles)
Behavioural studies suggest that complex behaviours are multiscale processes, which may be composed of elementary ones (units or primitives). Traditional approaches to cognitive mod-elling generally employ reductionistic (mostly static) representations and computations of simplistic dynamics. The thesis proposes functional architectures to capture the dynamical structure of both functional units and the composite multiscale behaviours. First, a mathe-matical formalism of functional units as low dimensional, structured flows in phase space is introduced (functional modes). Second, additional dynamics (operational signals), which act upon functional modes for complex behaviours to emerge, are classified according to the separation between their characteristic time scale and the one of modes. Then, complexity measures are applied to distinct architectures for a simple composite movement and reveal a trade off between the complexities of functional modes and operational signals, depending on their time scale separation (in support of the control effectiveness of architectures employing non trivial modes). Subsequently, an architecture for serial behaviour (along the example of handwriting) is demonstrated, comprising of functional modes implementing characters, and operational signals much slower (establishing a mode competition and ‘binding’ modes into sequences) or much faster (as meaningful perturbations). All components being coupled, the importance of time scale interactions for behavioural organization is illustrated. Finally, the contributions of modes and signals to the output are recovered, appearing to be possible only through analysis of the output phase flow (i.e., not from trajectories in phase space or time)

Le procédé de coextrusion permet de combiner à l’état fondu plusieurs couches de polymères dans une même structure. La compatibilisation des différentes couches est généralement réalisée à l’aide de liants qui réagissent in-situ. Bien que la compatibilisation puisse permettre de réduire ou même supprimer les instabilités macroscopiques d’écoulement, un nouveau défaut qualifié de « granité » peut apparaitre. Très peu de travaux de la littérature traitent les mécanismes gouvernant ce type de défaut. Les phénomènes mis en jeu sont particulièrement complexes puisqu’ils impliquent de façon couplée des phénomènes hydrodynamiques via l’écoulement, la rhéologie des différentes couches et des phénomènes physico-chimiques via la diffusion et la réaction chimique aux interfaces polymère/polymère. Ce mémoire s’articule autour d’une étude multi-échelle du rôle des copolymères aux interfaces sur la stabilité des écoulements stratifiés. L’étude a été réalisée à la fois sur des systèmes non-réactifs et réactifs constitués d’une couche barrière, le polyamide 6 (PA6) ou le poly(éthylène-co-alcool vinylique) (EVOH), avec un polypropylène (PP) ou un polypropylène greffé anhydride maléique (PP-g-AM). Le défaut de « granité » a été mis en évidence en coextrusion. Les paramètres procédé et matériaux influençant son apparition ont été identifiés. Il a pu être différencié des défauts et des instabilités interfaciales généralement rencontrées en coextrusion. Le phénomène de compatibilisation a également été étudié via les caractérisations morphologiques (MET, MEB, AFM) et physico-chimiques (XPS) aux interfaces. Le comportement rhéologique en cisaillement et élongation en viscoélasticité linéaire et non linéaire s’est révélé très sensible à l’effet la présence de copolymères aux interfaces et à leur architecture moléculaire. Cette étude a permis de déterminer les propriétés intrinsèques de l’interface/interphase en fonction du copolymère formé entre le liant et le PA6 ou l’EVOH. Elles ont pu être corrélées aux défauts macroscopiques observés dans les films multicouches coextrudés. La stabilité de ces écoulements stratifiés résulte d’un couplage de phénomènes qui se produisent à différentes échelles : nano (réaction de copolymérisation), micro (interphase) et macro (écoulement dans le procédé)
Several polymers can be combined in one multilayer structure by reactive coextrusion. Tie-layers are often used to compatibilize the adjacent layers and may reduce or suppress the interfacial instabilities and the defects in the multilayer coextrusion flow. However, an additional defect defined as the “grainy” defect can be observed. In the best of our knowledge, no study in literature has been devoted to understand its origin. The phenomena are quite complex due to the coupling of the effects of flow and the physico-chemical mechanisms at the interface. The aim of this work is to understand the relations between the instabilities and the defects encountered in multilayer coextruded films and the role of the copolymer formed in-situ between tie and barrier layers. Polyamide 6 (PA6) and ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) were used as the barrier layers sandwiched in a polypropylene (PP) with or without a polypropylene grafted maleic anhydride (PP-g-MA) as a tie-layer. The effect of the process parameters and the structure of the polymers on the generation of the “grainy” defect was assessed in correlation with the rheological and the physicochemical properties of the layers. These experiments have shown that this defect appeared mainly in the compatibilized EVOH system and could be distinguished from the usual coextrusion instabilities. The interfacial properties between tie and barrier layers were investigated. The characterization of the interfacial morphology by TEM and AFM highlighted an irregular and rough interface between PP-g-MA and EVOH while a flat interface was observed with PA6 and PP-g-MA. Step shear and startup elongation rheology was shown to be sensitive to the copolymer at the polymer/polymer interface. The study of the interfacial properties highlighted that the copolymer architecture significantly impacts the interfacial roughness and the rheology of the multilayer stuctures. Hence, relations between the relaxation process, the interfacial morphology and the copolymer architecture were established in correlation with the generation of the macroscopic grainy defect in coextrusion

Lors de l’infection par un pathogène intracellulaire, l’organisme déclenche une réponse immunitaire spécifique dont les acteurs principaux sont les lymphocytes T-CD8. Ces cellules sont responsables de l’éradication de ce type d’infections et de la constitution du répertoire immunitaire de l’individu. Les processus qui composent la réponse immunitaire se répartissent sur plusieurs échelles physiques inter-connectées (échelle intracellulaire, échelle d’une cellule, échelle de la population de cellules). La réponse immunitaire est donc un processus complexe, pour lequel il est difficile d’observer ou de mesurer les liens entre les différents phénomènes mis en jeu. Nous proposons trois modèles mathématiques multi-échelles de la réponse immunitaire, construits avec des formalismes différents mais liés par une même idée : faire dépendre le comportement des cellules TCD8 de leur contenu intracellulaire. Pour chaque modèle, nous présentons, si possible, sa construction à partir des hypothèses biologiques sélectionnées, son étude mathématique et la capacité du modèle à reproduire la réponse immunitaire au travers de simulations numériques. Les modèles que nous proposons reproduisent qualitativement et quantitativement la réponse immunitaire T-CD8 et constituent ainsi de bons outils préliminaires pour la compréhension de ce phénomène biologique
Upon infection by an intracellular pathogen, the organism triggers a specific immune response,mainly driven by the CD8 T cells. These cells are responsible for the eradication of this type of infections and the constitution of the immune repertoire of the individual. The immune response is constituted by many processes which act over several interconnected physical scales (intracellular scale, single cell scale, cell population scale). This biological phenomenon is therefore a complex process, for which it is difficult to observe or measure the links between the different processes involved. We propose three multiscale mathematical models of the CD8 immune response, built with different formalisms but related by the same idea : to make the behavior of the CD8 T cells depend on their intracellular content. For each model, we present, if possible, its construction process based on selected biological hypothesis, its mathematical study and its ability to reproduce the immune response using numerical simulations. The models we propose succesfully reproduce qualitatively and quantitatively the CD8 immune response and thus constitute useful tools to further investigate this biological phenomenon

La comparación de imágenes es un ingrediente fundamental en muchos problemas de procesamiento de imagen y visión por computador. Esta tesis aborda el problema de la comparación de entornos locales en imágenes, o patches, por medio de medidas de similitud (o funciones distancia). En particular, estudiamos el problema de la comparación invariante afín de imágenes a partir de sus patches, lo cual abre la puerta a un análisis más profundo de la estructura de similitud y auto-similitud existente en imágenes naturales. Nuestro trabajo parte de una aproximación axiomática reciente a las medidas de similitud entre imágenes definidas en variedades de Riemann. Empezamos obteniendo y estudiando medidas de similitud afín invariantes para después construir con ellas dos nuevos métodos. El objetivo del primero de ellos es la reconstrucción o completación plausible de regiones de una imagen donde la información se ha perdido, dañado o está oculta. El modelo propuesto es capaz de reconstruir texturas con distorsión perspectiva o incluso más compleja. El segundo método extiende la aproximación denominada de Non-Local Means para el problema de eliminación de ruido en imágenes aprovechando la auto-similitud invariante afín de lasimágenes reales. Nuestra extensión es comparada con éxito con el método original, tanto cualitativa como cuantitativamente, y se obtienen resultados prometedores en comparación con los métodos del estado del arte.
Image comparison is a main ingredient in many image processing and computer vision problems and applications, and not surprisingly it is a very diverse topic. The subject of this thesis is the comparison of local patches of images by means of similarity measures (or distance functions). In particular, we are interested in affine invariant patch-wise image comparison which opens the door to a more thorough analysis of similarities and self-similarities present in natural images. Our work is based on a recently proposed axiomatic framework for similarity measures between images defined on Riemannian manifolds. At the beginning we derive and study some affine invariant similarity measures and then present two novel methods built around them. The first method for exemplar-based image inpainting is aimed at the recovery of occluded, missing or corrupted parts of an image, in such a way that the reconstructed image looks natural. It is capable of reconstructing textures under perspective or even more complex distortions. The second method extends the well-known Non-Local Means approach for image denoising by taking advantage of affine invariant self-similarities of real images. Our extension improves the original method in both quantitative and qualitative assessments, and the results are promising when compared with state-of-the-art methods.

Face aux défis environnementaux actuels, les industriels ont mis en œuvre de nouveaux matériaux recyclables et permettant une réduction significative de la masse. Le développement de la résine thermoplastique Elium par ARKEMA s’inscrit dans cette problématique. L’utilisation de cette résine pour la fabrication de pièces composites qui peuvent être sujettes à des dommages d’impact, nécessite au préalable des études, dans le but de comprendre leurs mécanismes de ruine sous ce type de sollicitation. Ainsi, la présente thèse propose une contribution à l’analyse multi-échelle de la tenue à l’impact des composites stratifiés à base de la résine Elium. Une étude expérimentale préliminaire a permis de confirmer la meilleure résistance à l’impact des composites à matrice Elium acrylique, comparativement à celles des composites thermodurcissables conventionnels. Ensuite, les performances à l’impact des composites stratifiés ont été améliorées par l’introduction de copolymères à blocs dans la matrice. Ces derniers sont capables de former des micelles de tailles nanométriques et ainsi d’améliorer la ténacité de la matrice acrylique. Les effets de l’énergie d’impact, de la température et de la composition en nanocharges sur la réponse du matériau composite ont été analysés. Afin de proposer un outil d’aide à la prédiction de la réponse à l’impact des matériaux fibres de verre/Acrylique, deux stratégies de modélisation ont été retenues. La première modélisation (macroscopique) considère le pli tissé du stratifié comme un matériau homogène tandis que la seconde (mésoscopique) utilise une description géométrique de l’ondulation et de l’entrecroisement des torons noyés dans la résine Elium. Ces deux modèles considèrent des zones cohésives à l’interface entre les plis adjacents pour simuler le délaminage interlaminaire. Des essais de délaminage (expérimentaux et numériques) ont permis d’alimenter le modèle d’endommagement de l’interface interplis. D’autre part, des essais de caractérisation du comportement mécanique et de l’endommagement du matériau couplés à l’homogénéisation multi-échelle des matériaux par la Mécanique du Génome de Structure ont permis d’identifier les paramètres du modèle macroscopique. A l’échelle mésoscopique, le modèle géométrique a été réalisé grâce au logiciel Texgen. Ce logiciel permet d’obtenir une description approchée mais réaliste de l’ondulation des torons de fibres. La même description a servi à l’homogénéisation numérique multi-échelle des stratifiés étudiés. La simulation numérique de l’impact basse vitesse a été effectuée au moyen du logiciel d’éléments finis ABAQUS/Explicit. Les modèles de comportement du matériau ont été implémentés via la routine utilisateur VUMAT. Les résultats obtenus offrent une bonne corrélation avec les données expérimentales
In the race for light materials able of meeting modern environmental challenges, an acrylic resin (Elium) has been developed. Elium is a thermoplastic resin able to replace thermosetting matrices, which are widespread nowadays in the industrial world. The present study aims to evaluate the impact resistance and to understand the failure mechanisms of composite laminates based on acrylic matrix under impact loading. We provide a contribution to the multiscale analysis of the impact resistance of laminated composite.First, the impact resistance and the damage tolerance of the acrylic resin based composites were compared with those of conventional composites. Then, the impact performance of the laminated composites has been enhanced by adding copolymer blocks to the liquid acrylic resin. These copolymers are able to form micelles of nanometer sizes, which lead to the improvement of both the acrylic matrix fracture toughness and the impact resistance. The effects of the impact energy, temperature, and composition in nano-copolymers have also been investigated.In order to provide a numerical tool for the prediction of the impact response of the glass fiber/Acrylic laminates, two strategies have been analyzed. The first one, performed at the macroscopic scale, considers the woven ply of the laminate as homogeneous material, and the second one (at the mesoscopic scale), deals with a realistic geometrical description of the yarns undulation. Both models use cohesive zones at the interface between the adjacent plies, to simulate the delamination. For this purpose, experimental and numerical delamination tests were performed to feed the inter-ply damage model. Mechanical tests for material characterization were also performed on specimens in order to identify the ply-damage model parameters. The Mechanics of Structure Genome (MSG) and a finite element based micromechanics approaches were then conducted to evaluate the effective thermomechanical properties of the yarns and the plain woven composite laminate. The realistic topological and morphological textures of the composite were accounted through Texgen software. These numerical impact simulations were performed using the finite element software ABAQUS/Explicit. Both models were implemented through a user material subroutine VUMAT. The obtained results appear in a good agreement with the experimental data and confirm the relevance of the proposed approach

La simulation numérique des systèmes multicorps en présence d'interactions complexes, dont le contact frottant, pose de nombreux défis, tant en terme de modélisation que de temps de calcul. Dans ce manuscrit de thèse, nous étudions deux familles de décomposition de domaine adaptées au formalisme de la dynamique non régulière des contacts (NSCD). Cette méthode d'intégration implicite en temps de l'évolution d'une collection de corps en interaction a pour caractéristique de prendre en compte le caractère discret et non régulier d'un tel milieu. Les techniques de décomposition de domaine classiques ne peuvent de ce fait être directement transposées. Deux méthodes de décomposition de domaine, proches des formalismes des méthodes de Schwarz et de complément de Schur sont présentées. Ces méthodes se révèlent être de puissants outils pour la parallélisation en mémoire distribuée des simulations granulaires 2D et 3D sur un centre de calcul haute performance. Le comportement de structure des milieux granulaires denses est de plus exploité afin de propager rapidement l'information sur l'ensemble des sous domaines via un schéma semi-implicite d'intégration en temps.

L'utilisation croissante des Alliages à Mémoire de Forme (AMF) dans des structures de plus en plus complexes, notamment en vue d'applications médicales, rend nécessaire la compréhension des phénomènes régissant leur comportement et plus précisément la pseudo-élasticité. Le fort couplage thermomécanique, résultant de la transformation de phase martensitique, est un point clé de ce comportement. Les travaux de thèse présentés sont consacrés à l'étude et la modélisation de ce couplage. Tout d'abord, la transformation de phase martensitique provoque une déformation et une émission de chaleur couplées qui peuvent se localiser en bandes de transformation sous sollicitation uniaxiale. Une partie de cette thèse a été consacrée au développement de la Corrélation d'Images InfraRouge, qui permet à partir d'un unique film IR de mesurer conjointement, en une seule analyse, les champs cinématiques et thermiques discrétisés sur un même maillage éléments finis. Une application à l'analyse d'un essai de traction sur AMF de type NiTi a été réalisée. Le comportement pseudo-élastique a aussi été abordé d'un point de vue modélisation. Une large part de ce travail de thèse a donc été consacrée à l'élaboration d'un modèle multiéchelle et multiaxial, décrivant le comportement d'un VER à partir de la physique de la transformation martensitique à l'échelle de la maille cristalline. L'approche est inspirée de modèles multiéchelles développés pour la modélisation d'autres couplages multiphysiques et notamment magnéto-élastique. La troisième partie de cette thèse a été consacrée à l'élaboration d'un modèle de structure 1D sous traction uniaxiale. Dans un premier temps un modèle de thermique 1D ainsi qu'un modèle mécanique phénoménologique à seuils ont été développés. Les simulations rendent compte des phénomènes de transformation diffuse accompagnant l'élasticité puis de la transformation localisée. L'algorithme est notamment capable de gérer les deux sens de transformation. Ce modèle met en compétition les deux phénomènes transitoires de génération et évacuation de la chaleur par la transformation de phase et les échanges thermiques avec l'environnement. Ainsi, il est capable de reproduire la relation liant le nombre de bandes de transformation générées à la vitesse de sollicitation et aux conditions aux limites thermiques. Un travail été initié pour coupler ce modèle de structure et de gestion de la thermique au modèle monocristallin multiaxial. Sans encore reproduire la localisation de la transformation en bande, les simulations de traction montrent un hystérésis, issu des pertes thermiques dans l'air ambiant, bien que le modèle de comportement multiéchelle élémentaire soit écrit dans un cadre réversible, l'irréversibilité et la localisation étant avant tout des effets de transferts. Le couplage thermomécanique à la source des comportements si spécifiques des AMF que sont la super élasticité et la mémoire de forme ont donc été étudiés sous divers points de vue : expérimentalement, par l'établissement de modèles de comportement, par la simulation de structures 1D et des échanges thermiques mis en jeu. Les outils et modèles ont été appliqués à l'étude du Ni49,75at%Ti, support de ce travail, mais sont facilement adaptables à tout autre AMF. L'approche utilisée pour la modélisation multi-échelle peut être étendue à d'autres couplages, par exemple en cumulant les couplages thermo- et magnéto- mécaniques en vu de l'étude des Alliages à Mémoire de Forme Magnétiques par exemple.

A multiscale approach, coined as the High Order Computational Continua (HC2), has been developed for efficient and accurate analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures. Unlike existing homogenization-like methods, the proposed multiscale approach is capable of handling large representative volume elements (RVE), i.e., the classical assumption of infinitesimally is no longer required, while possessing accuracy of direct numerical simulation (DNS) and the computational efficiency of classical homogenization methods. The multiscale beam and plate elements formulated using the proposed HC2 methodology can be easily incorporated into the existing reinforced concrete design practices. The salient features of the proposed formulation are: (i) the ability to consider large representative volume elements (RVE) characteristic to nonsolid beams,waffle and hollowcore slabs, (ii) versatility stemming from the ease of handling damage, prestressing, creep and shrinkage, and (iii) computational efficiency resulting from model reduction, combined with the damage law rescaling methods that yield simulation results nearly mesh-size independent. The multiscale formulation has been validated against experimental data for rectangular beams, I beams, pretensioned beams, continuous posttension beams, solid slabs, prestressed hollowcore slabs and waffle slabs.

We study the propagation of waves in spatially non-homogeneous media focusing on Schrodinger’s equation of quantum mechanics and Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. We assume that medium variation occurs over two distinct length scales: a short ‘fast’ scale with respect to which the variation is periodic, and a long ‘slow’ scale over which the variation is smooth. Let epsilon denote the ratio of these scales. We focus primarily on the time evolution of asymptotic solutions (as epsilon tends to zero) known as semiclassical wavepackets. Such solutions generalize exact time-dependent Gaussian solutions and ideas of Heller and Hagedorn to periodic media. Our results are as follows: 1) To leading order in epsilon and up to the ‘Ehrenfest’ time-scale t ~ log 1/epsilon, the center of mass and average (quasi-)momentum of the semiclassical wavepacket satisfy the equations of motion of the classical Hamiltonian given by the wavepacket’s Bloch band energy. Our first result is to derive all corrections to these dynamics proportional to epsilon. These corrections consist of terms proportional to the Bloch band’s Berry curvature and terms which describe coupling to the evolution of the wavepacket envelope. These results rely on the assumption that the wavepacket’s Bloch band energy is non-degenerate. 2) We then consider the case where, in one spatial dimension, a semiclassical wavepacket is incident on a Bloch band crossing, a point in phase space where the wavepacket’s Bloch band energy is degenerate. By a rigorous matched asymptotic analysis, we show that at the time the wavepacket meets the crossing point a second wavepacket, associated with the other Bloch band involved in the crossing, is excited. Our result can be seen as a rigorous justification of the Landau-Zener formula in this setting. 3) Our final result generalizes the recent work of Fefferman, Lee-Thorp, and Weinstein on one-dimensional ‘edge’ states. We characterize the bound states of a Schrodinger operator with a periodic potential perturbed by multiple well-separated domain wall ‘edge’ modulations, by proving a theorem on the near zero eigenstates of an emergent Dirac operator.

abstract: This research focuses on the benefits of using nanocomposites in aerospace structural components to prevent or delay the onset of unique composite failure modes, such as delamination. Analytical, numerical, and experimental analyses were conducted to provide a comprehensive understanding of how carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can provide additional structural integrity when they are used in specific hot spots within a structure. A multiscale approach was implemented to determine the mechanical and thermal properties of the nanocomposites, which were used in detailed finite element models (FEMs) to analyze interlaminar failures in T and Hat section stringers. The delamination that first occurs between the tow filler and the bondline between the stringer and skin was of particular interest. Both locations are considered to be hot spots in such structural components, and failures tend to initiate from these areas. In this research, nanocomposite use was investigated as an alternative to traditional methods of suppressing delamination. The stringer was analyzed under different loading conditions and assuming different structural defects. Initial damage, defined as the first drop in the load displacement curve was considered to be a useful variable to compare the different behaviors in this study and was detected via the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) implemented in the FE analysis. Experiments were conducted to test T section skin/stringer specimens under pull-off loading, replicating those used in composite panels as stiffeners. Two types of designs were considered: one using pure epoxy to fill the tow region and another that used nanocomposite with 5 wt. % CNTs. The response variable in the tests was the initial damage. Detailed analyses were conducted using FEMs to correlate with the experimental data. The correlation between both the experiment and model was satisfactory. Finally, the effects of thermal cure and temperature variation on nanocomposite structure behavior were studied, and both variables were determined to influence the nanocomposite structure performance.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Aerospace Engineering 2014

Plastic deformation in metals is a complex phenomenon and is result of competition between different complicated mechanisms, and among all, dislocation nucleation and motion are the most dominant ones. Dislocation evolution is known to be a multiscale phenomenon, and has been incorporated to crystal plasticity theories to analyze the size effect in metals for almost a decade ago. Although the theories suffice to predict the size effect in metals, they are largely phenomenological. Here a novel experimental method is developed to resolve the complexity in plastic deformation due to dislocations and to extract new material length scales that can be incorporated to numerical models. A continuum-based quantity: the geometrically necessary dislocation density (GND) that describes the signed part of the overall dislocations is measured on a nickel single crystal sample using recently developed high resolution electron backscatter diffraction (HR-EBSD) over different field of view, 90 μm^2 − 1mm^2 with various step sizes, 50 nm to 2, 500 nm . The net Burgers vector density, which includes the information of the direction of the overall dislocation motion and also quantifies the flux of atoms changing positions due to dislocations, is measured for the first time using continuum methods. A new parameter, β, that is extracted from the net Burger vector density to monitor dislocation activity on crystallographic slip planes is measured. Measurements reveals patterning in GND densities and a distribution of length scales rather than a single length scale as assumed. The length scales, such as dislocation spacing, and dislocation cell sizes are quantified. The linear relationship between dislocation spacing and dislocation cell size is obtained, where the slope of the linear fit varies with different crystallographic slip systems and the number of the active slip systems. The slope ranges between 23-29 for dominantly single slip regions, whereas it ranges between 13-16 for multislip regions, which agrees with the findings from TEM analysis in the literature showing how a continuum based method can be used to obtain same material parameters. The experimental measurements and the assumptions are elaborated in a detailed analysis. The effect of step size in EBSD results is presented, and the information loss with increasing the step size is shown. The uncertainty in GND density from the HR-EBSD measurements is found to be 10^13, which is two order of magnitude less than results from traditional diffraction methods. The effect of dislocation mobility on microstructure evolution has been also investigated, specifically tantalum single crystal specimens tested at 77 K and 293 K. The results unraveled occurrences of different deformation mechanisms: kink shear, and twinning at low temperatures. Interactions between dislocations and twin formations are observed and striking microstructure differences are examined. The dislocations density measurement results on tantalum are unique in the experimental sense and data can be used to extract length scale information. The experimental observations have been exploited to build the foundations of a numerical model. The effect of microstructure evolution on mechanical response has been investigated numerically based upon experimental observations. One of the main outcome of the experimental analysis -the variation of GND densities in cell walls- has been incorporated into a strain gradient plasticity framework. The proposed model is demonstrated with constrained shear and pure bending problems. The results presented show patterning in the GND density profile depending on the prescribed initial variation of the saturation value of GND densities and also change in overall mechanical response depending on the complexity of the prescribed profile.

This research work has contributed in various ways to help develop a better understanding of textile composites and materials with complex microstructures in general. An instrumental part of this work was the development of an object-oriented framework that made it convenient to perform multiscale/multiphysics analyses of advanced materials with complex microstructures such as textile composites. In addition to the studies conducted in this work, this framework lays the groundwork for continued research of these materials. This framework enabled a detailed multiscale stress analysis of a woven DCB specimen that revealed the effect of the complex microstructure on the stress and strain energy release rate distribution along the crack front. In addition to implementing an oxidation model, the framework was also used to implement strategies that expedited the simulation of oxidation in textile composites so that it would take only a few hours. The simulation showed that the tow architecture played a significant role in the oxidation behavior in textile composites. Finally, a coupled diffusion/oxidation and damage progression analysis was implemented that was used to study the mechanical behavior of textile composites under mechanical loading as well as oxidation. A parametric study was performed to determine the effect of material properties and the number of plies in the laminate on its mechanical behavior. The analyses indicated a significant effect of the tow architecture and other parameters on the damage progression in the laminates.

In this dissertation we study multiscale methods for slowly varying porous media, fluid and solid coupling, and application to geomechanics. The thesis consists of three closely connected results. We outline them and their relation. First, we derive a homogenization result for Stokes flow in slowly varying porous media. These results are important for homogenization in deformable porous media. Traditionally, these techniques are applied to periodic media, however, in the case of Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) slowly varying domains occur naturally. We then develop a computational methodology to compute effective quantities to construct homogenized equations for such media. Next, to extend traditional geomechanics models based primarily on the Biot equations, we use formal two-scale asymptotic techniques to homogenize the fully coupled FSI model. Prior models have assumed trivial pore scale deformation. Using the FSI model as a fine-scale model, we are able to incorporate non-trivial pore scale deformation into the macroscopic equations. The primary challenge here being the fluid and solid equations are represented in different coordinate frames. We reformulate the fluid equation in the fixed undeformed frame. This unified domain formulation is known as the Arbitrary Lagrange-Eulerian (ALE). Finally, we utilize the ALE formulation of the Stokes equations to develop an efficient multiscale finite element method. We use this method to compute the permeability tensor with much less computational cost. We build a dense hierarchy of macro-grids and a corresponding collection of nested approximation spaces. We solve local cell problems at dense macro-grids with low accuracy and use neighboring high accuracy solves to correct. With this method we obtain the same order of accuracy as we would if we computed all the local problems with highest accuracy.

While traditional management of the boreal forests results in even-aged forests with low landscape scale variability, recent work has suggested that much of the eastern boreal forest of North America is subject to long natural fire return-intervals. This has led to the development of new management strategies to maintain a mosaic of even and multi-aged stands. In this context I investigated the relationships between diameter-distributions, stand age, forest structure and bird communities. Results showed weak associations of the bird community with cohort classes, but that diameter-distributions can work to succinctly describe some of the variation in stand structure and bird communities. I also explored the utility of LiDAR to measure important structural features for bird communities. Results showed that LiDAR can outperform traditional measures of stand structure at explaining bird communities at differing scales.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Topology optimization allows designers to obtain lightweight structures considering the binary distribution of a solid material. The introduction of cellular material models in topology optimization allows designers to achieve significant weight reductions in structural applications. However, the traditional topology optimization method is challenged by the use of cellular materials. Furthermore, increased material savings and performance can be achieved if the material and the structure topologies are concurrently designed. Hence, multi-scale topology optimization methodologies are introduced to fulfill this goal. The objective of this investigation is to discuss and compare the design methodologies to obtaining optimal macro-scale structures and the corresponding optimal meso-scale material designs in continuum design domains. These approaches make use of homogenization theory to establish communication bridges between both material and structural scales. The periodicity constraint makes such cellular materials manufacturable while relaxing the periodicity constraint to achieve major improvements of structural performance. Penalization methods are used to obtain binary solutions in both scales. The proposed methodologies are demonstrated in the design of stiff structure and compliant mechanism synthesis. The multiscale results are compared with the traditional structural-level designs in the context of Pareto solutions, demonstrating benefits of ultra-lightweight configurations. Errors involved in the mult-scale topology optimization procedure are also discussed. Errors are mainly classified as mesh refinement errors and homogenization errors. Comparisons between the multi-level designs and uni-level designs of solid structures, structures using periodic cellular materials and non-periodic cellular materials are provided. Error quantifications also indicate the superiority of using non-periodic cellular materials rather than periodic cellular materials.

Scalar fields are used to represent physical quantities measured over a domain of interest. Study of symmetric or repeating patterns in scalar fields is important in scientific data analysis because it gives deep insights into the properties of the underlying phenomenon. This thesis proposes three methods to detect symmetry in scalar fields. The first method models symmetry detection as a subtree matching problem in the contour tree, which is a topological graph abstraction of the scalar field. The contour tree induces a hierarchical segmentation of features at different scales and hence this method can detect symmetry at different scales. The second method identifies symmetry by comparing distances between extrema from each symmetric region. The distance is computed robustly using a topological abstraction called the extremum graph. Hence, this method can detect symmetry even in the presence of significant noise. The above methods compare pairs of regions to identify symmetry instead of grouping the entire set of symmetric regions as a cluster. This motivates the third method which uses a clustering analysis for symmetry detection. In this method, the contours of a scalar field are mapped to points in a high-dimensional descriptor space such that points corresponding to similar contours lie in close proximity to each other. Symmetry is identified by clustering the points in the descriptor space. We show through experiments on real world data sets that these methods are robust in the presence of noise and can detect symmetry under different types of transformations. Extraction of symmetry information helps users in visualization and data analysis. We design novel applications that use symmetry information to enhance visualization of scalar field data and to facilitate their exploration.