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Becherif, Mohamed, Frederic Claude, Thomas Hervier, and Loïc Boulon. "Multi-stack Fuel Cells Powering a Vehicle." Energy Procedia 74 (August 2015): 308–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.613.
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Xiong, Shusheng, Zhankuan Wu, Wei Li, Daize Li, Teng Zhang, Yu Lan, Xiaoxuan Zhang, et al. "Improvement of Temperature and Humidity Control of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells." Sustainability 13, no. 19 (September 24, 2021): 10578. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su131910578.
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Temperature and humidity are two important interconnected factors in the performance of PEMFCs (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells). The fuel and oxidant humidity and stack temperature in a fuel cell were analyzed in this study. There are many factors that affect the temperature and humidity of the stack. We adopt the fuzzy control method of multi-input and multi-output to control the temperature and humidity of the stack. A model including a driver, vehicle, transmission motor, air feeding, electrical network, stack, hydrogen supply and cooling system was established to study the fuel cell performance. A fuzzy controller is proven to be better in improving the output power of fuel cells. The three control objectives are the fan speed control for regulating temperature, the solenoid valve on/off control of the bubble humidifier for humidity variation and the speed of the pump for regulating temperature difference. In addition, the results from the PID controller stack model and the fuzzy controller stack model are compared in this research. The fuel cell bench test has been built to validate the effectiveness of the proposed fuzzy control. The maximum temperature of the stack can be reduced by 5 °C with the fuzzy control in this paper, so the fuel cell output voltage (power) increases by an average of approximately 5.8%.
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Linderoth, Søren, Peter Halvor Larsen, M. Mogensen, Peter V. Hendriksen, N. Christiansen, and H. Holm-Larsen. "Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Development in Denmark." Materials Science Forum 539-543 (March 2007): 1309–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.539-543.1309.
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The SOFC technology under development at Risø National Laboratory (RISØ) and Topsoe Fuel Cell A/S (TOFC) is based on an integrated approach ranging from basic materials research on single component level over development of cell and stack manufacturing technology to system studies and modelling. The effort also comprises an extensive cell and stack testing program. Systems design, development and test is pursued by TOFC in collaboration with various partners. The standard cells are thin and robust with dimensions of 12 x 12 cm2 and cell stacks are based on internal manifolding. Production of cells is being up-scaled continuously. The durability of the standard stack design with standard cells has been tested for more than 13000 hours including nine full thermal cycles with an overall voltage degradation rate of about 1% per 1000 hours. Recently, the degradation rate has been significantly reduced by introduction of improved stack component materials. 75-cell stacks in the 1+ kW power range have been tested successfully. Stacks have been delivered in a pre-reduced state to partners and tested successfully in test systems with natural gas as fuel. The consortium of TOFC and RISØ has an extended program to develop the SOFC technology all the way to a marketable product. Stack and system modelling including cost optimisation analysis is used to develop multi kW stack modules for operation in the temperature range 700-850oC. To ensure the emergence of cost-competitive solutions, a special effort is focused on larger anode-supported cells as well as a new generation of SOFCs based on porous metal supports and new electrode and electrolyte materials. The SOFC program comprises development of next generation of cells and multi stack modules for operation at lower temperature with increased durability and mechanical robustness in order to ensure long-term competitiveness.
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Zhang, Zhiming, Zhihao Chen, Kunpeng Li, Xinfeng Zhang, Caizhi Zhang, and Tong Zhang. "A Multi-Field Coupled PEMFC Model with Force-Temperature-Humidity and Experimental Validation for High Electrochemical Performance Design." Sustainability 15, no. 16 (August 16, 2023): 12436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su151612436.
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PEMFCs (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells) are commonly used in fuel cell vehicles, which facilitates energy conversation and environmental protection. The fuel cell electrochemical performance is significantly affected by the contact resistance and the GDL (Gas Diffusion Layer) porosity due to ohmic and concentration losses. However, it is difficult to obtain the exact performance prediction of the electrochemical reaction for a fuel cell design, resulting from the complex operating conditions of fuel cells coupled with the assembly force, operating temperature, relative humidity, etc. Considering the compression behavior of porosity and the contact pressure in GDLs, a force-temperature-humidity multi-field coupled model is established based on FEA (Finite Element Analysis) and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) for the fuel cell electrochemical performance. Aside from that, the characteristics between the contact resistance and the contact pressure are measured and fitted through the experiments in this study. Finally, the numerical model is validated by the experiment of the fuel cell stack, and the error rate between the presented model and the experimentation of the full-dimensional stack being a maximum of 3.37%. This work provides important insight into the force-temperature-humidity coupled action as less empirical testing is required to identify the high fuel cell performance and optimize the fuel cell parameters in a full-dimensional fuel cell stack.
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Zeng, Yijin, Jian Huang, Zhiliang Wang, Junxiong Li, and Yahui Yi. "Optimization of Fuel Cell Stack Consistency Based on Multi-Model." Scientific Programming 2022 (June 14, 2022): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/9242940.
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With the proposal of cloud computing, fog computing, and edge computing, various simulation operations are greatly guaranteed, which benefits the multi-model operations of Matlab and CFD. This paper established the 1-D flow network model and 12 cm ∗ 8 cm 3-steady-state PEMFC model. Based on the experiment, the intake flow distribution of the cathode anode of 80 cells is simulated to obtain the maximum and minimum intake flow cell. The 3-D and steady-state single-cell model is used to calculate the cell’s performance, and the performance difference between the two cells is improved by optimizing the size structure of the single cell. The results show that the best version of the cell was obtained when the values of the width and depth were 1.1 mm and 0.8 mm, and the power density difference between the two cells decreased from 5.7% to 2.1%. The voltage difference at 1000 mA·cm−2 current density decreases from 0.065 to 0.035 V after optimization. The intake flow extreme difference of the reactor improved significantly, and C v was reduced by 48.7%.
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Xu, Ming, Hanlin Wang, Mingxian Liu, Jianning Zhao, Yuqiong Zhang, Pingping Li, Mingliang Shi, Siqi Gong, Zhaohuan Zhang, and Chufu Li. "Performance test of a 5 kW solid oxide fuel cell system under high fuel utilization with industrial fuel gas feeding." International Journal of Coal Science & Technology 8, no. 3 (May 13, 2021): 394–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40789-021-00428-2.
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AbstractAs the demand for green energy with high efficiency and low carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions has increased, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have been intensively developed in recent years. Integrated gasification fuel cells (IGFCs) in particular show potential for large-scale power generation to further increase system efficiency. Thus, for commercial application of IGFCs, it is important to design reliable multi-stacks for large systems that show long-term stability and practical fuel gas for application to industrial equipment. In this work, a test rig (of a 5 kW SOFC system, with syngas from industrial gasifiers as fuel) was fabricated and subjected to long-term tests under high fuel utilization to investigate its performance. The maximum steady output power of the system was 5700 W using hydrogen and 5660 W using syngas and the maximum steady electrical efficiency was 61.24% while the fuel utilization efficiency was 89.25%. The test lasted for more than 500 h as the fuel utilization efficiency was larger than 83%. The performances of each stack tower were almost identical at both the initial stage and after long-term operation. After 500 h operation, the performances of the stack towers decreased only slightly under lower current and showed almost no change under high current. These results demonstrate the reliability of the multi-stack design and the prospect of this SOFC power-generation system for further enlarging its application in a MWth demonstration.
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Liang, YiFan, QianChao Liang, JianFeng Zhao, MengJie Li, JinYi Hu, and Yang Chen. "Online identification of optimal efficiency of multi-stack fuel cells(MFCS)." Energy Reports 8 (July 2022): 979–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.01.243.
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Zheng, Jianmin, Liusheng Xiao, Mingtao Wu, Shaocheng Lang, Zhonggang Zhang, Ming Chen, and Jinliang Yuan. "Numerical Analysis of Thermal Stress for a Stack of Planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cells." Energies 15, no. 1 (January 4, 2022): 343. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15010343.
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In this work, a 3D multi-physics coupled model was developed to analyze the temperature and thermal stress distribution in a planar solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stack, and then the effects of different flow channels (co-flow, counter-flow and cross-flow) and electrolyte thickness were investigated. The simulation results indicate that the generated power is higher while the thermal stress is lower in the co-flow mode than those in the cross-flow mode. In the cross-flow mode, a gas inlet and outlet arrangement is proposed to increase current density by about 10%. The generated power of the stack increases with a thin electrolyte layer, but the temperature and its gradient of the stack also increase with increase of heat generation. The thermal stress for two typical sealing materials is also studied. The predicted results can be used for design and optimization of the stack structure to achieve lower stress and longer life.
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Montaland, Patrice. "Multi-Scale Physical Modeling of Fuel Cells, From Sub-System to Stack." ECS Transactions 17, no. 1 (December 18, 2019): 149–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3142745.
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Wang, Yingmin, Ying Han, Weirong Chen, and Ai Guo. "HIERARCHICAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY BASED ON THE MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY RANGE FOR A MULTI-STACK FUEL CELL HYBRID POWER SYSTEM." DYNA 98, no. 4 (July 1, 2023): 397–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.6036/10857.
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A multi-stack fuel cell hybrid power system (MFCHS) consists of multiple sources with various characteristics. The power distribution between different sources influences the performance of the system, which involves many factors. To distribute the power effectively and enhance the efficiency and fuel economy of a single-stack fuel cell system, this study proposed a hierarchical energy management strategy (EMS) for MFCHS. An MFCHS configuration that included three fuel cell systems and a battery was presented. An MFCHS model that incorporated the effect of altitude was constructed, and an efficiency analysis of the multi-stack fuel cell system (MFCS) was performed. The hierarchical EMS of MFCHS was composed of a bottom control layer and a top management layer. The bottom control layer utilized a coordinated optimal distribution strategy based on the maximum efficiency range of MFCS to realize optimal power allocation between the different fuel cells in MFCS. The top management layer used EMS under multiple operating conditions to realize the effective distribution of the demand power between MFCS and the battery. Results demonstrate that the proposed strategy improves the average efficiency of MFCS by up to 5.2% and 8.9% compared with those of the equal distribution and daisy chain strategies, respectively. The proposed strategy also displays good performance in terms of the hydrogen consumption of MFCS, which saved 1% and 3% hydrogen compared with the equal distribution and daisy chain strategies, respectively. The proposed strategy results in promising improvements in the overall performance of the system. This study provides a good reference for developing EMS for MFCHS. Keywords: Fuel cell, Multi-stack fuel cell hybrid power system, Energy management strategy, Coordinated optimal distribution, Maximum efficiency range
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Yang, Zhibin, Ze Lei, Ben Ge, Xingyu Xiong, Yiqian Jin, Kui Jiao, Fanglin Chen, and Suping Peng. "Development of catalytic combustion and CO2 capture and conversion technology." International Journal of Coal Science & Technology 8, no. 3 (June 2021): 377–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40789-021-00444-2.
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AbstractChanges are needed to improve the efficiency and lower the CO2 emissions of traditional coal-fired power generation, which is the main source of global CO2 emissions. The integrated gasification fuel cell (IGFC) process, which combines coal gasification and high-temperature fuel cells, was proposed in 2017 to improve the efficiency of coal-based power generation and reduce CO2 emissions. Supported by the National Key R&D Program of China, the IGFC for near-zero CO2 emissions program was enacted with the goal of achieving near-zero CO2 emissions based on (1) catalytic combustion of the flue gas from solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stacks and (2) CO2 conversion using solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs). In this work, we investigated a kW-level catalytic combustion burner and SOEC stack, evaluated the electrochemical performance of the SOEC stack in H2O electrolysis and H2O/CO2 co-electrolysis, and established a multi-scale and multi-physical coupling simulation model of SOFCs and SOECs. The process developed in this work paves the way for the demonstration and deployment of IGFC technology in the future.
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Mouginn, Julie, Jérôme Laurencin, Julien Vulliet, Marie Petitjean, Elisa Grindler, Stéphane Di Iorio, Karine Couturier, et al. "Recent Highlights on Solid Oxide Cells, Stacks and Modules Developments at CEA." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154168mtgabs.
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Solid Oxide Cell (SOC) technology is a versatile technology able to operate either in electrolysis mode (SOEL), to produce hydrogen at high efficiency, in fuel cell mode (SOFC) using different fuels (carbon-based or non-carbon based like ammonia), in reversible mode (rSOC) with different cycles between electrolysis and fuel cell modes depending on the use case and the type of upstream coupling with renewable energies, and finally in co-electrolysis mode (co-SOEL) to produce syngas out of steam and CO2. Though proofs-of concept have been achieved at different relevant scales for those different operating modes, some R&D works still need to be performed to improve performance, durability and cost in a concomitant way, to meet the targeted key performance indicators as set by the EU for instance. Improved and upscaled cells and stacks need to be developed, with a methodology combining multiscale and multiphysics modelling, electrochemical characterization in relevant conditions and post-test analysis. Their integration into modules made of several stacks is also a stepping stone in order to reach multi-MW electrolysers as needed to meet the targets set by the RePowerEU plan intending to install 100 GW of electrolysers in EU in 2030 [1]. CEA is working on the whole value chain of SOC technologies, from cell development and optimisation to module design and operation through stack upscaling. Regarding SOC cells, the process has been optimised to obtain a good reproducibility on the cell performances (figure 1a). A current density of – 0.8 A/cm² has been reached at the thermoneutral voltage at 700°C. Works are in progress on the electrodes microstructures and interfaces to further increase the performances. After validation at single cell level, 100 cm² and 200 cm² cells active area have been produced with a good reproducibility and validated at short stack level. As far as stack developments are concerned, CEA continued its program on upscaling [2]. In parallel, improved seals are developed to increase the stack robustness to transient operation and interconnect coatings are developed using different deposition techniques. Those components have been first validated at sample scale before integrating them into short stacks and full-stacks for validation in real configuration. For instance, the integration of interconnect protective coatings in short stacks has been evaluated over more than 4500h of operation. Finally, a 4-stack module has been developed and put in operation. Made of 4 stacks, each comprising 25 cells of 100 cm² active area, it is able to operate in electrolysis, fuel cell and reversible mode (figure 1b). [1] REPowerEU: affordable, secure and sustainable energy for Europe, 18 May 2022 [2] S. Di Iorio et al., “Solid Oxide Electrolysis Stack development and upscaling”, 15th European SOFC&SOE Forum 5-8 July 2022, Luzern A0904 (2022) Figure 1
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Jiang, Wei, Ke Song, Bailin Zheng, Yongchuan Xu, and Ruoshi Fang. "Study on Fast Cold Start-Up Method of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Based on Electric Heating Technology." Energies 13, no. 17 (August 28, 2020): 4456. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13174456.
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In order to realize the low temperature and rapid cold start-up of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack, a dynamic model containing 40 single proton exchange membrane fuel cells is established to estimate the melting time of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack as well as to analyze the melting process of the ice by using the obtained liquid–solid boundary. The methods of proton exchange membrane electric heating and electrothermal film heating are utilized to achieve cold start-up of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). The fluid simulation software fluent is used to simulate and analyze the process of melting ice. The solidification and melting model and multi-phase flow model are introduced. The pressure-implicit with splitting of operators algorithm is also adopted. The results show that both the proton exchange membrane electric heating technology and the electrothermal film heating method can achieve rapid cold start-up. The interior ice of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack melts first, while the first and 40th pieces melt afterwards. The ice melting time of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack is 32.5 s and 36.5 s with the two methods, respectively. In the end, the effect of different electrothermal film structures on cold start-up performance is studied, and three types of pore diameter electrothermal films are established. It is found that the electrothermal film with small holes melts completely first, and the electrothermal film with large holes melts completely last.
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Minary-Jolandan, Majid. "Formidable Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Solid Oxide Electrolyzers (SOECs) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) for Electrolytic Hydrogen Economy toward Global Decarbonization." Ceramics 5, no. 4 (October 14, 2022): 761–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ceramics5040055.
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Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are the leading high-temperature devices to realize the global “Hydrogen Economy”. These devices are inherently multi-material (ceramic and cermets). They have multi-scale, multilayer configurations (a few microns to hundreds of microns) and different morphology (porosity and densification) requirements for each layer. Adjacent layers should exhibit chemical and thermal compatibility and high-temperature mechanical stability. Added to that is the need to stack many cells to produce reasonable power. The most critical barriers to widespread global adoption of these devices have been their high cost and issues with their reliability and durability. Given their complex structure and stringent requirements, additive manufacturing (AM) has been proposed as a possible technological path to enable the low-cost production of durable devices to achieve economies of scale. However, currently, there is no single AM technology capable of 3D printing these devices at the complete cell level or, even more difficult, at the stack level. This article provides an overview of challenges that must be overcome for AM to be a viable path for the manufacturing of SOECs and SOFCs. A list of recommendations is provided to facilitate such efforts.
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Bahrami, Milad, Jean-Philippe Martin, Gaël Maranzana, Serge Pierfederici, Mathieu Weber, Farid Meibody-Tabar, and Majid Zandi. "Multi-Stack Lifetime Improvement through Adapted Power Electronic Architecture in a Fuel Cell Hybrid System." Mathematics 8, no. 5 (May 7, 2020): 739. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math8050739.
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To deal with the intermittency of renewable energy resources, hydrogen as an energy carrier is a good solution. The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) as a device that can directly convert hydrogen energy to electricity is an important part of this solution. However, durability and cost are two hurdles that must be overcome to enable the mass deployment of the technology. In this paper, a management system is proposed for the fuel cells that can cope with the durability issue by a suitable distribution of electrical power between cell groups. The proposed power electronics architecture is studied in this paper. A dynamical average model is developed for the proposed system. The validation of the model is verified by simulation and experimental results. Then, this model is used to prove the stability and robustness of the control method. Finally, the energy management system is assessed experimentally in three different conditions. The experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed topology for developing a management system with which the instability of cells can be confronted. The experimental results verify that the system can supply the load profile even during the degradation mode of one stack and while trying to cure it.
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El-Hay, E. A., M. A. El-Hameed, and A. A. El-Fergany. "Improved performance of PEM fuel cells stack feeding switched reluctance motor using multi-objective dragonfly optimizer." Neural Computing and Applications 31, no. 11 (May 9, 2018): 6909–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00521-018-3524-z.
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Ma, Tiancai, Jiajun Kang, Weikang Lin, Xinru Xu, and Yanbo Yang. "Highly Integrated Online Multi-Channel Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Measurement Device for Fuel Cell Stack." Energies 15, no. 9 (May 7, 2022): 3414. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15093414.
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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can provide information about the internal state of fuel cells, which makes EIS an important tool for fuel cell fault diagnosis. However, high cost, large volume, and poor scalability are limitations of existing EIS measurement equipment. In this study, a multi-channel online fuel cell EIS measurement device was designed. In this device, based on multi-phase interleaved Boost topology and average current control, an excitation source, which can output 1~500 Hz, 10 A sinusoidal excitation current was designed and verified by model simulation. Then, based on the quadrature vector digital lock-in amplifier (DLIA) algorithm, an impedance measuring module that can achieve precise online impedance measurement and calculation was designed. A prototype was then built for the experiment. According to the experiment test, the amplitude error of the excitation source is less than 1.8%, and the frequency error is less than 0.3%. Compared with the reference data, the impedance measured by the prototype has a modulus error of less than 3.5% and a phase angle error of less than 1.5°. Moreover, the waveform control and impedance extraction function of the EIS measurement device is implemented on an embedded controller, which can cut the price and reduce the volume.
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Kwaśniewski, Tomasz, and Marian Piwowarski. "Design Analysis of Hybrid Gas Turbine‒Fuel Cell Power Plant in Stationary and Marine Applications." Polish Maritime Research 27, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 107–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/pomr-2020-0032.
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AbstractThe paper concerns the design analysis of a hybrid gas turbine power plant with a fuel cell (stack). The aim of this work was to find the most favourable variant of the medium capacity (approximately 10 MW) hybrid system. In the article, computational analysis of two variants of such a system was carried out. The analysis made it possible to calculate the capacity, efficiency of both variants and other parameters like the flue gas temperature. The paper shows that such hybrid cycles can theoretically achieve extremely high efficiency over 60%. The most favourable one was selected for further detailed thermodynamic and flow calculations. As part of this calculation, a multi-stage axial compressor, axial turbine, fuel cell (stack) and regenerative heat exchanger were designed. Then an analysis of the profitability of the installation was carried out, which showed that the current state of development of this technology and its cost make the project unprofitable. For several years, however, tendencies of decreasing prices of fuel cells have been observed, which allows the conclusion that hybrid systems will start to be created. This may apply to both stationary and marine applications. Hybrid solutions related to electrical power transmission, including fuel cells, are real and very promising for smaller car ferries and shorter ferry routes.
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Cubizolles, Geraud, Simon Alamome, Félix Bosio, Brigitte Gonzalez, Christian Tantolin, Lucas Champelovier, Sebastien Fantin, and Jerome Aicart. "Development of a Versatile and Reversible Multi-Stack Solid Oxide Cell System Towards Operation Strategies Optimization." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154258mtgabs.
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High Temperature Electrolysis based on Solid Oxide Cell technology is rapidly entering an industrialization phase, driven by promises of high efficiencies compared to the more market-ready solutions. To decrease the CAPEX and footprint related to module-based scale-up strategies, multiple stacks are typically assembled within the same thermal enclosure. As such, thermal phenomena become much more prominent in determining stack behavior compared to single stack test benches, and appropriate control strategies have to be developed. In this context, CEA LITEN has developed a new investigation tool (MURPHY) devoted to the operation of several Solid Oxide stacks within the same thermal enclosure. MURPHY enables stack operation in both the steam electrolysis (SOE) and the fuel cell (SOFC-H2) modes. For the later, CH4, natural gas or NH3 can be used as fuel, while additional gases are being considered. The one module system incorporates a compact Balance of Plant (BOP) located closely to the thermal enclosure. Its main functions are (i) to provide inlet process air by centrifugal blower towards higher efficiency, (ii) target high level of overall thermal integration and performances, (iii) actively preheat inlet gases independently of overall furnace temperature, (iv) recycle hot/cold fuel exhaust, and (v) control pressure levels distribution through multiple back-pressure valves. Overall, a high level of instrumentation was deployed to support modeling development and estimate accurate process efficiencies. MURPHY is currently compatible with four stacks of CEA standard base design [1]. Each comprising 25 cathode-supported cells each of 100 cm² active area, the corresponding maximum power range of the module is -16/4 kWDC [2], [3]. Nevertheless, the Hot Box has some capacity to adapt to different stack geometries and partner’s need. Finally, the MURPHY system is connected to the Multistack platform [4] for supply and venting of gases produced. This report details system architecture down to component level. It also puts forward preliminary experimental results related to stack operation in an environment controlled by thermal phenomena. Performance and efficiency curves obtained under parametric variations of operating conditions (Temperature, flowrates) are reported for both SOE and SOFC-H2 modes. A special attention is given to heat performance of the overall system and its components. In this view, flow parameters (composition, temperature, pressure) at several locations over the reactant circuitries are provided. [1] G. Cubizolles, J. Mougin, S. Di Iorio, P. Hanoux, and S. Pylypko, “Stack Optimization and Testing for its Integration in a rSOC-Based Renewable Energy Storage System,” ECS Trans., vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 351–361, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1149/10301.0351ecst. [2] J. Aicart, S. Di Iorio, M. Petitjean, P. Giroud, G. Palcoux, and J. Mougin, “Transition Cycles during Operation of a Reversible Solid Oxide Electrolyzer/Fuel Cell (rSOC) System,” Fuel Cells, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 381–388, May 2019, doi: 10.1002/fuce.201800183. [3] J. Aicart et al., “Benchmark Study of Performances and Durability between Different Stack Technologies for High Temperature Electrolysis,” in 15th European SOFC & SOE Forum, Lucerne, Switzerland, May 2022, vol. A0804, pp. 138–149. [4] J. Aicart et al., “Performance evaluation of a 4-stack solid oxide module in electrolysis mode,” Int. J. Hydrog. Energy, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 3568–3579, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.056. Figure 1
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LEE, SANG-WOOK, and DONG-UK WOO. "THE DEFORMATION OF THE MULTI-LAYERED PANEL OF SHEET METALS UNDER ELEVATED TEMPERATURES." International Journal of Modern Physics B 22, no. 31n32 (December 30, 2008): 6206–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979208051807.
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A Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) stack consists of several layered unit cells. In each unit cell, the stiff structure of the separator plate contains the softer components, such as electrodes. When surface pressure acts on the stack over an extended period of time at elevated temperatures, the stiffness of the separator plate tends to degrade. Moreover, the demands for large electrode area (to increase the electric capacity of a unit cell) and thinner separator plates (to reduce weight) complicate the design of a separator plate with high stiffness. To evaluate the stiffness of the separator plate at elevated temperatures, we design and test a tiny, multi-layered separator plate specimen using a three-point bending tool. To determine the optimal structure of the separator plate, we investigate three design factors: angle, pitch and height. We adopt the Taguchi method to evaluate the experiments, and use finite element analysis to examine the experimental results. Based on these results, pitch is the most effective of these factors. As the pitch narrows, the stiffness of the separator plate increases. Therefore, we propose the pitch factor as a design criterion for the separator plate of the MCFC stack.
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Yun, Sanghyun, Jinwon Yun, and Jaeyoung Han. "Development of a 470-Horsepower Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Xcient Dynamic Model Using SimscapeTM." Energies 16, no. 24 (December 15, 2023): 8092. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16248092.
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Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are employed in trucks and large commercial vehicles utilizing hydrogen as fuel due to their rapid start-up characteristics and responsiveness. However, addressing the requirement for high power output in the low-current section presents a challenge. To solve this issue, a multi-stack can be applied using two stacks. Furthermore, thermal management, which significantly affects the performance of the stacks, is essential. Therefore, in this study, a hydrogen electric truck system model was developed based on a Hyundai Xcient hydrogen electric truck model using MATLAB/SimscapeTM 2022b. In addition, the system’s performance and thermal characteristics were evaluated and analyzed under different road environments and wind conditions while driving in Korea.
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Mouginn, Julie, Jérôme Laurencin, Julien Vulliet, Marie Petitjean, Elisa Grindler, Stéphane Di Iorio, Karine Couturier, et al. "Recent Highlights on Solid Oxide Cells, Stacks and Modules Developments at CEA." ECS Transactions 111, no. 6 (May 19, 2023): 1101–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/11106.1101ecst.
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Solid Oxide Cell (SOC) technology is considered as an efficient electrolysis technology to produce hydrogen at large scale. It can also operate in fuel cell mode using different fuels (carbon-based or non-carbon based like ammonia), and in reversible mode. Though proofs-of concept have been achieved at different relevant scales for those operating modes, some R&D works still need to be performed to improve performance, durability and cost. Improved and upscaled cells and stacks need to be developed, with a methodology combining multiscale and multiphysics modelling, electrochemical characterization in relevant conditions and advanced post-test analysis. Their integration into modules made of several stacks is also a stepping stone in order to reach multi-MW electrolysers. CEA is working on the whole value chain of SOC technology, from cell development and optimisation to module design and operation through stack upscaling. Recent achievements on those aspects will be presented.
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Wang, Xiaohong, Yiming Zhu, Caiwei Shen, Yan’an Zhou, Xiaoming Wu, and Litian Liu. "A novel assembly method using multi-layer bonding technique for micro direct methanol fuel cells and their stack." Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 188 (December 2012): 246–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2012.02.007.
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Goosmann, Tobias, Sebastian Raab, Philipp Oppek, Andre Weber, and Ellen Ivers-Tiffee. "Impedance-Based, Multi-Physical DC-Performance-Model for a PEMFC Stack." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 46 (July 7, 2022): 1959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-01461959mtgabs.
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Performance prediction for large-sized polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stacks necessitates consideration of spatially deviating operating conditions on the nonlinear electrochemical behaviour. This interaction between operating conditions and electrochemistry is best described by complex CFD-models. But high computing power excludes stack and system modelling in real time applications. We address this challenge by a multi-physical stack model, which couples (i) the non-linear electrochemistry within the cell, (ii) the fluid pressure drop along the gas channels and (iii) the thermal behaviour within the stack. The spatial resolution focusses on the most relevant directions and thus limits the computational effort. Simulation runtime is further reduced by modelling the electrochemical behaviour by a physico-chemically meaningful equivalent circuit model (ECM) [1], which relies on a data set of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements performed on incremental cells [2]. Individual impedance contributions are identified by the distribution of relaxation times (DRT). ECM model parameters are subsequently quantified by a CNLS-fitting procedure [3,4] and transferred to a nonlinear, zero-dimensional DC-performance-model. The magnitude of the modelled pressure depends on the gas flow within the channel and considers the change of gas composition, whereas the local gradients in current density cause gradients in released heat within the cell itself. This effect along the gas flow, the convection between fluids and solid parts of the stack (bipolar plates and cell) and the internal heat conduction between the solid control volumes are considered in the modelled thermal behaviour. In this contribution a multi-physical stack model considering gradients in temperature, pressure and gas composition is presented. The interdisciplinary interactions and dependencies within the different physical domains, especially the influence of pressure and temperature on the non-linear electrochemical model, are shown. A concise validation based on measured data and conclusions for the possibilities of further applications as a system model will be discussed. [1] D. Klotz et. al., ECS Transactions 25, pp. 1331-1340 (2009) [2] M. Heinzmann et al., J. Power Sources 402, pp. 24-33 (2018). [3] H. Schichlein et al., J. Appl. Electrochem. 32, pp. 875-882 (2002). [4] S. Dierickx et al. Electrochimica Acta 355, 136764 (2020)
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Poirot-Crouvezier, Jean-Philippe, Arnaud Morin, Pierrick Balestriere, and Christophe Vacquier. "Study of Fuel Cell Stacks Combining Pseudo-3D Multi-Physics Simulations with Experimental Mappings of Current Density and Liquid Water." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 37 (December 22, 2023): 1792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02371792mtgabs.
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In this work, experimental and numerical analyses of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell stacks for automotive application are proposed. Performance and durability of PEMFC stacks strongly rely on an optimized water management. An adequate balance has to be found between a sufficient membrane hydration enhancing electrical conductivity and a limited liquid water presence avoiding water flooding. This requires investigations at a local scale inside the cells, because the location of water condensation is not distributed homogeneously in the active area, due to spatial variations of temperature, gas composition or current density. Allowing the quantification of liquid water locally inside PEMFCs, neutron imaging is a powerful tool for the analysis of fuel cell operation at a local scale. It is generally used with single cells and not with stacks, due to the complexity of such experiments. A quantification of liquid water over the active area is obtained through neutron imaging of stacks for several operating conditions. Specific segmented high surface sensors are placed inside stacks to map the current density and temperature distribution in the same area. A multi-physics pseudo-3D two-phase flow model coupling all the electrochemical and transport phenomena supports the understanding of the relationship between all these parameters. The comparison with experimental mappings validates the model, which is able to predict both the current density and the amount of liquid water at a local scale. Unlike experimental measurements that gives a total amount of liquid water in the cell, the model allows to distinguish between anode and cathode sides, or between channels and GDLs, providing crucial information regarding flooding phenomena. Moreover, the flowing direction of the fluids inside the stack have a major influence on liquid water distribution. As a general trend, it is observed that the average total water thickness always decreases when current density increases, in all tested stack flow configurations. Furthermore, a clear relationship appears between flooding, cathode pressure drop and cathode liquid water content. Finally, a detailed analysis is proposed to explain the flooding phenomena, in order to improve the fuel cell stack control. Figure 1
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Wehrle, Lukas, Akhil Ashar, Olaf Deutschmann, and Rob J. Braun. "Modeling High-Power Density Ceria-Based Direct Ammonia Fueled SOFC Stacks for Mobile Applications." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154119mtgabs.
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The transport sector currently accounts for 23% of the global energy-related CO2 emissions, with an average annual growth of +1.8% since 2010, which is faster than for any other end-use sector [1]. Decarbonization of the mobility sector is particularly challenging due to the highly strenuous space, weight and efficiency demands for a power generation system applied for vehicle propulsion. Batteries have established themselves as a solution for the electric propulsion of passenger cars. However, their low energy densities and high recharging durations hinders their deployment in vehicles with large gross weight including trucks, ships, trains and airplanes [2, 3]. High-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) possess many advantageous characteristics compared to polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells that can be effectively exploited in a vehicle, such as high efficiency, fuel flexibility and impurity tolerance. SOFCs can be directly run with a great variety of fuels, such as NH3, which is currently regarded to be a very promising energy and hydrogen carrier, mostly due to its carbon neutrality, favorable volumetric energy density (12.7 MJ/L) and transportability [4]. In this contribution, we assess the performance of intermediate temperature direct NH3-fueled SOFC stacks as a highly efficient power generation source for mobile applications by means of a detailed multi-physics modeling approach, comprising investigations on electrode, button cell, and stack scales. The modeled SOFC stack is intended to be integrated in a hybrid system concept by coupling with a gas turbine. Firstly, a 1D model of cell containing a gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC) electrolyte is developed based on an established multi-scale computational framework [2]. The electrochemical sub-model is subsequently parametrized and validated through reproducing measurements collected on a high-power density Ni-GDC/GDC/SSC-GDC cell. In order to physically account for the electronic leakage current due to mixed ionic-electronic conduction (MIEC) properties of the ceria-based electrolyte, the model contains the implementation of a distributed charge-transfer model that solves individual electronic and ionic conduction pathways across all constituents of the membrane-electrode assembly (MEA) [5]. The decomposition of NH3 on the surface of the Ni particles in the fuel electrode is modeled based on a thermodynamically consistent 12-step elementary kinetic mechanism [6]. The thermo-catalytic and electrochemical sub-frameworks are then integrated into a 3D stack model, which is built upon a lightweight design. The numerical simulations indicate that the performance of the SOFC stack based on the anode-supported GDC-electrolyte cell design is not only highly sensitive to the temperature, but also to the selection of the absolute pressure level. Results suggest the stack to reach a very promising performance in the intermediate temperature range with a predicted ASR of ~0.7 Ω cm2 at 550 °C, pure NH3 feed and 50% anode off-gas recirculation. By predicting species, temperature and current density distributions across the stack, the developed model proves itself to be highly instrumental for the identification of design points that provide a feasible trade-off between performance and safety metrics. References [1] IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2022). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ [2] L. Wehrle, Y. Wang, P. Boldrin, N. P. Brandon, O. Deutschmann, A. Banerjee, ACS Environ. Au, 2, 42 (2022). [3] P. Boldrin, N. P. Brandon, Nat. Catal., 2, 571, (2019). [4] S. S. Rathore, S. Biswas, D. Fini, A. P. Kulkarni, S. Giddey, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(71), 35365 (2021). [5] M. Rahmanipur, A. Pappacena, M. Boaro, A. Donnazzi, J. Electrochem. Soc., 164(12), F1249 (2017). [6] S. Appari, V. M. Janardhanan, S. Jayanti, L. Maier, S. Tischer, O. Deutschmann, Chem. Eng. Sci., 66(21), 5184 (2011).
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Peloriadi, Konstantina, Petros Iliadis, Panagiotis Boutikos, Konstantinos Atsonios, Panagiotis Grammelis, and Aristeidis Nikolopoulos. "Technoeconomic Assessment of LNG-Fueled Solid Oxide Fuel Cells in Small Island Systems: The Patmos Island Case Study." Energies 15, no. 11 (May 25, 2022): 3892. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15113892.
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Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is regarded as the cleanest among fossil fuels due to its lower environmental impact. In power plants, it emits 50–60% less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere compared to regular oil or coal-fired plants. As the demand for a lower environmental footprint is increasing, fuel cells powered by LNG are starting to appear as a promising technology, especially suitable for off-grid applications, since they can supply both electricity and heating. This article presents a techno-economic assessment for an integrated system consisting of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stack and a micro gas turbine (MGT) fueled by LNG, that feeds the waste heat to a multi-effect desalination system (MED) on the Greek island of Patmos. The partial or total replacement of the diesel engines on the non-interconnected island of Patmos with SOFC systems is investigated. The optimal system implementation is analyzed through a multi-stage approach that includes dynamic computational analysis, techno-economic evaluation of different scenarios using financial analysis and literature data, and analysis of the environmental and social impact on the island. Specific economic indicators such as payback, net present value, and internal rate of return were used to verify the economic feasibility of this system. Early results indicate that the most sensitive and important design parameter in the system is fuel cell capital cost, which has a significant effect on the balance between investment cost and repayment years. The results of this study also indicate that energy production with an LNG-fueled SOFC system is a promising solution for non-interconnected Greek islands, as an intermediate carrier prior to the long-term target of a CO₂-free economy.
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Anam, Khairul, and Chih Kuang Lin. "Thermal Stress Intensity Factors of Crack in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells." Applied Mechanics and Materials 493 (January 2014): 331–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.493.331.
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Structural durability is the main focus of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) development which is affected by the thermal stress caused by considerable CTE mismatch between components and thermal gradient. In this paper we investigate the thermal stress intensity factor for mode I, mode II and mode III of positive electrode-electrolyte-negative electrode (PEN) at room temperature and steady stage for an initial crack size of 10 μm. A commercial finite element analysis (FEA) was used to find the highly stressed regions in PENs and calculate the thermal stress intensity factors. The stress distributions are calculated at uniform room temperature and at steady stage with a non-uniform temperature profile. The thermal stress intensity factors are calculated for various principal directions at the location having the greatest maximum principal stress at room temperature and steady stage. The critical stress regions are identified based on the maximum principal stress at room temperature and steady stage. The maximum principal stress is of 53.45 MPa and 45.12 MPa in principal direction of-43.97° and-42.37° at room temperature and steady stage, respectively. The mixed-mode stress intensity factor including mode I, mode II, and mode III is calculated due to multi-axial thermal stresses. However, the stress intensity factor for mode I have a highest value compared to those for modes II and III. The principal direction has an effect on the thermal stress intensity factor for the critical region with the greatest maximum principal stress. All the calculated stress intensity factors in the present study are less than the corresponding fracture toughness given in the literature, ensuring the structural integrity for the given planar SOFC stack.
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De Bernardinis, Alexandre, Marie-Cécile Péra, James Garnier, Daniel Hissel, Gérard Coquery, and Jean-Marie Kauffmann. "Fuel cells multi-stack power architectures and experimental validation of 1kW parallel twin stack PEFC generator based on high frequency magnetic coupling dedicated to on board power unit." Energy Conversion and Management 49, no. 8 (August 2008): 2367–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.01.022.
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Janicka, Ewa, Michal Mielniczek, Lukasz Gawel, and Kazimierz Darowicki. "Optimization of the Relative Humidity of Reactant Gases in Hydrogen Fuel Cells Using Dynamic Impedance Measurements." Energies 14, no. 11 (May 24, 2021): 3038. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14113038.
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Water management is a key factor affecting the efficiency of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The currently used monitoring methods of PEMFCs provide limited information about which processes or components that humidity has a significant impact upon. Herein, we propose the use of a novel approach of impedance measurements using a multi-sinusoidal perturbation signal, which enables impedance measurements under dynamic operating conditions. The manuscript presents the effect of the relative humidity (RH) of the reactants on the instantaneous impedance of the middle cell in the PEMFC stack as a function of the current load. Analysis of changes in the values of equivalent circuit elements was carried out to determine which process determines the stack’s performance depending on the load range of the fuel cell during operation. Comprehensive impedance analysis showed that to ensure optimal cell operation, the humidity of the reactants should be adjusted depending on the load level. The results showed that at low-current loads, the humidity of gases should be at least 50%, while at high-current loads, the cell should operate optimally at a gas humidity of 30% or lower. The presented methodology provides an important tool for optimizing and monitoring the operation of fuel cells.
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Ben Hamad, Khlid, Doudou N. Luta, and Atanda K. Raji. "A Grid-Tied Fuel Cell Multilevel Inverter with Low Harmonic Distortions." Energies 14, no. 3 (January 29, 2021): 688. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14030688.
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As a result of global energy demand increase, concerns over global warming, and rapid exhaustion of fossil fuels, there is a growing interest in energy system dependence on clean and sustainable energy resources. Attractive power technologies include photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, and biomass power. Fuel cells are also clean energy units that substitute power generators based on fossil fuels. They are employed in various applications, including transportation, stationary power, and small portable power. Fuel cell connections to utility grids require that the power conditioning units, interfacing the fuel cells and the grids, operate accordingly (by complying with the grid requirements). This study aims to model a centralised, single-stage grid-tied three-level diode clamped inverter interfacing a multi-stack fuel cell system. The inverter is expected to produce harmonic distortions of less than 0.5% and achieve an efficiency of 85%. Besides the grid, the system consists of a 1.54 MW/1400 V DC proton exchange membrane fuel cell, a 1.3 MW three-level diode clamped inverter with a nominal voltage of 600 V, and an inductance-capacitance-inductance (LCL) filter. Two case studies based on the load conditions are considered to assess the developed system’s performance further. In case 1, the fuel cell system generates enough power to fully meet this load and exports the excess to the grid. In the other case, a load of 2.5 MW was connected at the grid-tied fuel cell inverter’s output terminals. The system imports the grid’s power to meet the 2.5 MW load since the fuel cell can only produce 1.54 MW. It is demonstrated that the system can supply and also receive power from the grid. The results show the developed system’s good performance with a low total harmonic distortion of about 0.12% for the voltage and 0.07% for the current. The results also reveal that the fuel cell inverter voltage and the frequency at the point of common coupling comply with the grid requirements.
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Sarner, Stephan, Norbert H. Menzler, Andrea Hilgers, and Olivier Guillon. "Recycling and Reuse Strategies for Ceramic Components of Solid Oxide Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154210mtgabs.
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Fuel Cell and Hydrogen (FCH) applications will become crucial to enable the transition towards decarbonatization and meet the EU's zero net greenhouse gas emission targets to be achieved by 2050 (The European Green Deal, European Commission, 2019). As one part of novel FCH technologies, Solid Oxide Cells (SOCs) can be used as fuel cells and electrolyzers, enabling a fuel-flexible and adaptable range of applications. However, the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of SOCs is currently assessed at 5–7 (H2-international, October 2022), which is lower compared to most of the technologies mentioned above. In order to achieve their market breakthrough, SOCs require scalable and cost-efficient manufacturing trails. This involves an adequate End-of-Life (EoL) material treatment, minimizing environmental impact, and avoiding landfill disposals. EoL strategies for FCH applications (including the SOC) are currently in the early stages and have not been adequately addressed. Until now, existing novel technologies and their materials are reviewed based on hazardousness, scarcity and cost. Initial considerations directly for SOC material recovery are given in two very recent publications. In these two studies, the focus was on the ceramic cell part of an SOC, aiming for the recovery of the most valuable cell fractions in a (semi-) closed loop scenario. Challenges in cell recycling arise from the diversity of structures and materials of established stack and cell designs. For industrial applications, planar stack geometry is likely to prevail, further subdivided based on the mechanical support used (fuel electrode-supported cells, FESC; electrolyte-supported cells, ESCs; metal-supported cells, MSCs). As a part of the German government-funded technology platform “H2Giga”, we are working on the re-integration of EoL FESC-type SOCs into the cell manufacturing process. The concept for FESC-recycling (Figure 1.) is based on the separation of the air-side perovskite materials (air-side electrode and contact layer) from the remaining predominant cell fraction (mechanical support, fuel electrode, electrolyte, and diffusion barrier layer).[1] Separation can be achieved by exploiting the chemical resistance of NiO and YSZ to suitable leachants such as hydrochloric acid or nitric acid. In comparison, the structure of the conventional perovskites used is more vulnerable to acid corrosion. The remaining solid fraction then undergoes a re-dispersion step and is incorporated into newly manufactured substrate. The recycled substrate is characterized in terms of electrical conductivity, mechanical stability, and microstructure. Critical components (Co, La) in the separated perovskite liquid fraction are to be recovered from the solution by precipitation. The presentation will guide the audience through the concept of multi-step recovery of the predominant cell fraction Ni(O)/YSZ, and will provide insides of the experimental results, ranging from the hydrometallurgical separation of cell fractions to suitable reprocessing techniques. [1] Sarner, S., Schreiber, A., Menzler, N. H., & Guillon, O. (2022). Recycling Strategies for Solid Oxide Cells. Advanced Energy Materials, 12(35), 2201805. Figure 1
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Luo, Zixuan, Yang Hu, Huachi Xu, Danhui Gao, and Wenying Li. "Cost-Economic Analysis of Hydrogen for China’s Fuel Cell Transportation Field." Energies 13, no. 24 (December 10, 2020): 6522. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13246522.
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China has become a major market for hydrogen used in fuel cells in the transportation field. It is key to control the cost of hydrogen to open up the Chinese market. The development status and trends of China’s hydrogen fuel industry chain were researched. A hydrogen energy cost model was established in this paper from five aspects: raw material cost, fixed cost of production, hydrogen purification cost, carbon trading cost, and transportation cost. The economic analysis of hydrogen was applied to hydrogen transported in the form of high-pressure hydrogen gas or cryogenic liquid hydrogen and produced by natural gas, coal, and electrolysis of water. It was found that the cost of hydrogen from natural gas and coal is currently lower, while it is greatly affected by the hydrogen purification cost and the carbon trading price. Considering the impact of future production technologies, raw material costs, and rising requirements for sustainable energy development on the hydrogen energy cost, it is recommended to use renewable energy curtailment as a source of electricity and multi-stack system electrolyzers as large-scale electrolysis equipment, in combination with cryogenic liquid hydrogen transportation or on-site hydrogen production. Furthermore, participation in electricity market-oriented transactions, cross-regional transactions, and carbon trading can reduce the cost of hydrogen. These approaches represent the optimal method for obtaining inexpensive hydrogen.
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Louzazni, Mohamed, Sameer Al-Dahidi, and Marco Mussetta. "Fuel Cell Characteristic Curve Approximation Using the Bézier Curve Technique." Sustainability 12, no. 19 (October 1, 2020): 8127. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12198127.
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Accurate modelling of the fuel cell characteristics curve is essential for the simulation analysis, control management, performance evaluation, and fault detection of fuel cell power systems. However, the big challenge in fuel cell modelling is the multi-variable complexity of the characteristic curves. In this paper, we propose the implementation of a computer graphic technique called Bézier curve to approximate the characteristics curves of the fuel cell. Four different case studies are examined as follows: Ballard Systems, Horizon H-12 W stack, NedStackPS6, and 250 W proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The main objective is to minimize the absolute errors between experimental and calculated data by using the control points of the Bernstein–Bézier function and de Casteljau’s algorithm. The application of this technique entails subdividing the fuel cell curve to some segments, where each segment is approximated by a Bézier curve so that the approximation error is minimized. Further, the performance and accuracy of the proposed techniques are compared with recent results obtained by different metaheuristic algorithms and analytical methods. The comparison is carried out in terms of various statistical error indicators, such as Individual Absolute Error (IAE), Relative Error (RE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Bias Errors (MBE), and Autocorrelation Function (ACF). The results obtained by the Bézier curve technique show an excellent agreement with experimental data and are more accurate than those obtained by other comparative techniques.
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Dogan, Deniz, Burkhard Hecker, Hermann Tempel, and Rüdiger-A. Eichel. "Experimental and Theoretical Investigations of Shunt Currents between Alkaline Water Electrolyzers." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 24 (December 22, 2023): 1331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02241331mtgabs.
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A pivotal component of national climate strategies is the transition of the energy sector from fossil fuels to green energy. In this context, electrochemical processes will play a significant role in the future, requiring electrochemical systems with high efficiency and maximum system life cycles.1,2 For industrial electrochemical systems capital and operating costs are often reduced by a system design with a shared and circulating electrolyte supply providing ionically conductive cell-to-cell pathways. Under such conditions, parasitic ion migration occurs between adjacent cells, known as shunt currents.3,4 Shunt currents can have severe implications, such as decrease in faraday efficiency, material corrosion or interferences with instrumentation 3,5,6. To ensure high efficiency and maximum system life cycle, shunt current estimation is of high importance for the design of electrochemical multi-cell systems. A widely used approach in the literature is the theoretical, model-based approach using equivalent circuit models for shunt current determination7–9. Only a few publications demonstrate experimental determination methods 10,11. Furthermore, most shunt current studies in the field of electrochemistry focus on redox flow batteries. This work shows an innovative experimental approach for direct shunt current measurements between two alkaline water electrolysis cells with shared and circulating electrolyte feed under various conditions. The flow field design enables the insertion of reference electrodes into the flow cells for direct measurement of the potential differences between adjacent electrodes. Combined with the experimental data of the ionic tube resistances, the cell-to-cell shunt currents were accurately determined. Furthermore, an equivalent circuit model was created, fed with experimental data and validated with measured results. After successful validation the model was extended to electrolysis systems with more than two cells. Experimental data and simulations are in good agreement. The conducted experiments show the impact of temperature, cell voltage and tube manifold geometry on shunt current formation between alkaline water electrolyzers. Simulations performed are carried out to calculate shunt currents as a function of these parameters in large multi-cell systems. Furthermore, efficiency losses and corrosion processes as a result of shunt currents are estimated based on the results of this work. Literature Baños R, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Gil C, Alcayde A, Gómez J. Optimization methods applied to renewable and sustainable energy: A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2011;15(4):1753-1766. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.12.008 Yan Z, Hitt JL, Turner JA, Mallouk TE. Renewable electricity storage using electrolysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(23):12558-12563. doi:10.1073/pnas.1821686116 Delgado NM, Monteiro R, Cruz J, Bentien A, Mendes A. Shunt currents in vanadium redox flow batteries – a parametric and optimization study. Electrochim Acta. 2022;403:139667. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139667 Kaminski EA, Savinell RF. A Technique for Calculating Shunt Leakage and Cell Currents in Bipolar Stacks Having Divided or Undivided Cells. J Electrochem Soc. 1983;130(5):1103-1107. doi:10.1149/1.2119891 Yin C, Guo S, Fang H, Liu J, Li Y, Tang H. Numerical and experimental studies of stack shunt current for vanadium redox flow battery. Appl Energy. 2015;151:237-248. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.080 Pletcher D, Walsh FC. Industrial Electrochemistry. Springer Science & Business Media; 2012. Schaeffer JA, Chen L Der, Seaba JP. Shunt current calculation of fuel cell stack using Simulink®. J Power Sources. 2008;182(2):599-602. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.04.014 Wandschneider FT, Röhm S, Fischer P, Pinkwart K, Tübke J, Nirschl H. A multi-stack simulation of shunt currents in vanadium redox flow batteries. J Power Sources. 2014;261:64-74. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.054 Ye Q, Hu J, Cheng P, Ma Z. Design trade-offs among shunt current, pumping loss and compactness in the piping system of a multi-stack vanadium flow battery. J Power Sources. 2015;296:352-364. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.06.138 Rous̆ar I, Cezner V. Experimental Determination and Calculation of Parasitic Currents in Bipolar Electrolyzers with Application to Chlorate Electrolyzer. J Electrochem Soc. 1974;121(5):648. doi:10.1149/1.2401878 Fink H, Remy M. Shunt currents in vanadium flow batteries: Measurement, modelling and implications for efficiency. J Power Sources. 2015;284:547-553. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.03.057
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Schmider, Daniel, Catherine Notar, and Julian Dailly. "Development of Large Area Protonic Ceramic Cells for Stack Implementation." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154269mtgabs.
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Protonic Ceramic fuel and electrolysis Cells (PCCs) offer a promising alternative to oxide-conducting cells in the fields of renewable energy and hydrogen. Due to their operation at reduced temperatures and with pure hydrogen flows (while in SOCs the hydrogen flow is diluted with water) they present a potential of cost reduction in large-scale applications. However, the SOC technology is more advanced and is already commercialized at the stack level and implemented in demonstration plants. The newer PCC technology is not yet at the same level as cells and stacks are not commercially available, but research on the scale-up and implementation of cells into stacks and systems is a major topic in the PCC landscape. A major obstacle to the increase of the PCC technology readiness is the scale of the cells themselves. Research on electrochemical activity is mostly reserved for button cells with areas of less than 10 cm2. For the cells to be integrated into a stack, the active area needs to be larger to allow for a cost-efficient production of larger-scale devices. However, the manufacture of large cells is complicated by the increase in frequency of defects such as pinholes, cracks, bends among others. These prevent the use of a cell in or decrease the quality of an electrochemical performance measurement. Therefore, a careful and thorough adaption of the manufacturing process is necessary. Compared to common laboratory-scale preparations such as powder pressing, the use of wet chemical industrial processes allows for the elaboration of larger cells and the establishment of protocols that are more easily scalable and may be utilized in commercial applications in the future. Using a multi-step manufacturing wet chemical route, a number of hydrogen electrode-supported cells with areas of over 60 cm2 and half-cells with a maximum of 75 cm2 have been achieved. First, the hydrogen electrode is manufactured via tape-casting from a slurry containing NiO and BCZY721 (BaCe0.7Zr0.2Y0.1O3-d) as the functional materials. After drying, the cutouts are coated with a BCZY721 electrolyte ink by screen-printing. The two layers are co-sintered at 1300°C to yield a half-cell. The low sintering temperature limits the effect of shrinkage of the half-cell, while a dense electrolyte is nonetheless ensured by utilizing infiltrated ZnO as a sintering aid. The thusly produced half-cells are then coated with air electrode layers composed of LSCF (La0.4Sr0.6Co0.2Fe0.8O3-δ) or BGLC (Ba0.5Gd0.8La0.7Co2O6-δ) compositions. To improve the thermomechanical compatibility, a composite layer of BCZY271 and the respective air electrode material is applied before the pure air electrode layer. A second sintering step is performed to ensure a good bonding at the interface between the electrolyte and the air electrode layers. The resulting microstructure is a dense electrolyte of 5-10 µm thickness, whereas the electrodes remain highly porous to ease the gas diffusion. The significant parameters crucial to a high yield of suitable large cells are the electrolyte ink composition and screen-printing process parameters, and the sintering configuration (temperature and pressure applied). The effects of these parameters on the cell output and the electrochemical characterization results of the manufactured complete cells including electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) will be discussed. As a step towards the implementation into stacks, results on these cells in a serial repeating unit (SRU), i.e. including interconnects and sealing, will also be discussed. Figure 1
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Goosmann, Tobias, Philipp Oppek, and Andre Weber. "Method for Systematic Validation of a Physically Based PEMFC Model By Spatially Resolved Impedance Measurements." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 38 (December 22, 2023): 1837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02381837mtgabs.
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Loss mechanisms in PEM Fuel Cells related to charge transfer reactions or diffusive gas transport result in a strongly nonlinear performance, which is furthermore affected by operating conditions as temperature, relative humidity of the gases and stoichiometries. These dependencies have to be considered and validated in fuel cell models to ensure accuracy. Thus, the interpretation of the simulated results becomes more reliable. Direct comparison of simulated and measured current/voltage-relation only allows to evaluate deviations in resulting cell voltages but exclude internal state variables of the model such as overvoltages due to different loss mechanisms. In consequence, simulated and measured values of voltage or current can concur by unnoticed compensation of different errors in magnitude and sign. Additionally, limited numbers of measurements and comparisons increase the probability and impact of this effect. Aggravating, every single process within the cell depends on the comprehensive combination of all operating conditions and runs simultaneously with all other ones. A direct comparison of individual simulated and measured polarization curves therefore is not a suitable and sufficient validation. We address this challenge by applying measurements of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) during systematically varied operating conditions spatially resolved along the gas flow direction [1]. The loss processes within the cell can be separated by distribution of relaxation times (DRT) and quantified by a physico-chemical meaningful transmission line model. The resulting amount and distribution of resistances caused by loss processes is compared with the corresponding simulated values of a multiphysical model for observation and monitoring during operation [2]. These insights support the investigation of deviations between simulated and measured polarization curves and therefore the validation the model. In this contribution, the resulting physical interpretation is discussed. Consequences and conclusions for the further development of the cell model are demonstrated. [1]: P. Oppek et al., „ Spatially Resolved Deconvolution of Loss Processes in PEM Fuel Cells”, 241st ECS Meeting, Vancouver [2] T. Goosmann et al. „Impedance-Based, Multi-physical DC-Performance-Model for a PEMFC Stack”, 241st ECS Meeting, Vancouver
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Minh, Nguyen Q., and Kyung Joong Yoon. "(Invited) High-Temperature Electrosynthesis of Hydrogen and Syngas - Technology Status and Development Needs." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 49 (October 9, 2022): 1906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02491906mtgabs.
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High-temperature solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) technology has been considered and developed for production of hydrogen (from steam) and syngas (from mixtures of steam and carbon dioxide). The SOEC, a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) in reverse or electrolysis operating mode, is traditionally derived from the more technologically advanced SOFC. The SOEC uses the same materials and operates in the same temperature range (600˚-800˚C) as the conventional SOFC. The SOEC therefore has the advantages shown by the SOFC such as flexibility in cell and stack designs, multiple options in cell fabrication processes, and choice in operating temperatures. In addition, at the high operating temperature of the SOEC, the electrical energy required for the electrolysis is reduced and the unavoidable Joule heat is used in the splitting process. SOEC technology has made significant progress toward practical applications in the last several years. To date, SOEC single cells, multi-cell stacks and systems have been fabricated/built and operated. However, further improvements are needed for the SOEC in several areas relating to the key drivers (efficiency, reliability and cost) to enable commercialization. This paper provides an overview on the status of SOEC technology, especially zirconia based technology, and discusses R&D needs to move the technology toward practical applications and widespread uses.
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Furst, Oscar, Lukas Wehrle, Daniel Schmider, Julian Dailly, and Olaf Deutschmann. "Systematic Determination of Optimal Design-Points of Fully Integrated Power-to-SNG Process Chains Via Detailed Simulation of SOEC Stacks." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154308mtgabs.
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The target of carbon neutrality by 2050 set in the 2015 Paris agreement requires ambitious investments in renewable energy plants. Most potential lies in solar and wind energy, though their intermittent nature needs to be compensated by means of large-scale energy storage technologies. Power-to-SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas) enables the production of the versatile energy carrier CH4 through the use of electrical energy, allowing long-term storage of energy in chemical form. SNG produced using captured CO2 and green hydrogen is carbon-neutral and could therefore help to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of the transportation and chemical industry [1]. In a Power-to-SNG plant comprising a CO2 capture unit, an electrolyzer and methanation reactors, electrical power is the largest contributor to the levelized cost of the produced SNG [2]. This makes the optimization of the system efficiency a critical step towards achieving commercial viability. Since the water splitting reaction is the largest energy sink in the cascade of conversion steps, the use of Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) is promising because their energy requirement can be partially covered by high temperature heat provided by the methanation reactors. When optimizing the performance of the plant, the operating conditions of the electrolyzer must therefore be considered in conjunction with other parameters contributing to the thermal balance of the plant, which calls for dedicated system modeling approaches. In this work, multiple Power-to-SNG process chains with integrated SOEC module are developed by means of detailed, yet highly customizable plant and component models. Optimal design points of each plant configuration are determined and comparatively assessed. The different process chains are generated by varying CO2 sources and methanation technologies, whilst processes are resolved down to the individual pumps, heat exchangers, cleaning and conditioning steps. Good comparability between configurations and operating conditions of the plant is guaranteed through ideal thermal integration using the pinch method [3]. The SOEC module is simulated based on high-accuracy, multivariate performance maps obtained from a multi-physics 3D stack simulation tool [4,5] computed on a high-performance cluster. For the simulations, two types of SOEC technologies are considered: Ni-GDC/3YSZ/LSCF-electrolyte supported cells and Ni-YSZ/8YSZ/LSC cathode-supported cells. The plant configurations are optimized independently with a simplex algorithm and thereby, the results of investigations focusing on standalone SOEC stacks or using low level-of-detail stack models in system simulations are ascertained. Results demonstrate the importance of balance-of-plant trade-offs in order to achieve best possible efficiencies. For example, in cases with direct air capture (DAC) of CO2, best results are obtained with endothermal operation of the stack and elevated air flow through the anode. Thus, using electrolyte supported cells, power-to-SNG efficiencies (based on HHV) of 67% (fixed-bed methanation) to 69% (fluidized-bed methanation) can be reached. References [1] M. Sterner and I. Stadler, Energiespeicher - Bedarf, Technologien, Integration (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014) [2] D. Parra, X. Zhang, C. Bauer and M. Patel, Appl. Energy 193, 440-454 (2017) [3] R. Anghilante, C. Müller, M. Schmid, D. Colomar, F. Ortloff, R. Spörl, A. Brisse, and F. Graf, Energy Convers. Manag. 183, 462 (2019) [4] L. Wehrle, D. Schmider, J. Dailly, A. Banerjee, and O. Deutschmann, Appl. Energy 317, 119-143 (2022) [5] H. Zhu, R.J. Kee, V. M. Janardhanan and O. Deutschmann, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152, A2427 (2005) Figure: Temperature distribution and hydrogen mole fraction in the electrolyte-supported SOEC stack. Stack is operated at 1 bar and 0.3 A cm-2 with inlet gases at 1173 K such that 90% steam conversion is reached, which corresponds to efficiency-optimized conditions in plants with direct air capture. The species mole fractions along the fuel channel as well as the current density computed for the central repeating unit is shown in more detail. Figure 1
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Vasquez Franco, Mariana, Ulrike I. Kramm, Michael Reindl, Natascha Weidler, Adrian Jurjević, Rafat Mahmood, Markus Kübler, Nicole Segura Salas, and Robert Lawitzki. "Investigation of the Influence of Selected Operating Modes on the Long-Term Stability of Electrocatalysts in the PEM Fuel Cell." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 42 (October 9, 2022): 1573. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02421573mtgabs.
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The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is the core component of the fuel cell stack. In it, the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy takes place at the catalyst layers. The functional capability of the MEA is an indispensable prerequisite for the operation of the fuel cell stack and thus plays a decisive role in defining its stability. In addition to the selection of suitable materials, the mode of operation plays a major role in the durability of the MEA. It is known from the literature that electrochemical degradation reactions generally depend on operating parameters such as temperature, potential and dynamics. [1] Therefore, in order to derive a durability promoting mode of operation for the PEM Fuel Cell as well as to make lifetime predictions, it is necessary to identify and understand the processes occurring during the aging of the MEA. This work deals with the investigation of the influence of the operating parameters in the drive cycle as an important operating mode on the aging of the cathode catalyst layer in the MEA. According to the state of the art, nanoparticulate platinum supported on carbon (Pt/C) is usually used as the cathode catalyst. The degradation of Pt/C has been intensively studied in recent years. Platinum dissolution and Pt agglomeration are discussed as the main causes of Pt/C degradation during PEMFC operation. [2, 3] Studies have shown that the dissolution rate generally increases with potential and can accelerate under potentiodynamic conditions. [1] Dissolution of Pt from the catalyst, transport of Pt ions through the electrode, and precipitation of Pt in the membrane, possibly due to reduction of Pt ions by the H2 crossover from the anode can be associated with the loss of cathode electrochemical surface area (ECSA) and thus irreversible performance loss. [4] The primary objective of this work is to investigate the influence of different operating parameters such as temperature and potential range on the degradation rate of the cathode using an accelerated stress test (AST) which was developed to simulate an analogous to real drive cycle operation of a PEM fuel cell in a vehicle. A secondary objective is to evaluate the AST itself in order to determinate its capability of fuel cell lifetime prediction. For that the transferability of the observed degradation rates are to be evaluated on different integration levels such as single-cell PEM test bench and short-stack multi-cell test bench. As a measure to evaluate the transferability of the accelerated stress tests, the loss of electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) serves as an indirect measure of catalyst degradation and the resulting Pt particle size distribution which is determined by TEM serves as a direct measure. The derivation of acceleration factors for the lifetime tests of the different integration levels would allow an early estimation of the lifetime, this way test time and cost could be significantly saved in the evaluation of new materials. References [1] Borup, R. L., Davey, J. R., Garzon, F. H., Wood, D. L., and Inbody, M. A. 2006. PEM fuel cell electrocatalyst durability measurements. Journal of Power Sources 163, 1, 76–81. [2] Mahlon S. Wilson, Fernando H. Garzon, Kurt E. Sickafus, and Shimshon Gottesfeld. Surface Area Loss of Supported Platinum in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells. In J. Electrochem. Soc., 2872–2877. [3] Yu, X. and Ye, S. 2007. Recent advances in activity and durability enhancement of Pt/C catalytic cathode in PEMFC Part II: Degradation mechanism and durability enhancement of carbon supported platinum catalyst. Journal of Power Sources 172, 1, 145–154. [4] Ahluwalia, R. K., Arisetty, S., Wang, X., Wang, X., Subbaraman, R., Ball, S. C., DeCrane, S., and Myers, D. J. 2013. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Platinum Dissolution from Carbon-Supported Electrocatalysts in Aqueous Media under Potentiostatic and Potentiodynamic Conditions. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, 4, F447-F455.
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Ghezel-Ayagh, Hossein. "Solid Oxide Cell Technology for Power Generation, Hydrogen Production and Energy Storage." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-015420mtgabs.
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The progress in maturation of solid oxide cell technology has led to development of new applications that would explode its presence in many areas, far beyond power generation. The solid oxide cell technology has the potential to have a formidable presence in production of hydrogen and, eventually, long duration storage of electric power. Following the successful operation of a 200 kW SOFC system under a project supported by Department Energy/NETL, FuelCell Energy (FCE) is pursing the development of SOC based plant configurations from subMW to electrolysis, and further, to energy storage. Multi-faceted evolution of the technology has been underway since the earlier demonstration of SOFC power plant. FCE has developed state-of-the-art lightweight Compact SOFC Architecture (CSA) stacks that are packaged in compact modules with adaptability for use in a variety of configurations and capacities. The CSA stacks can operate directly on a variety of fuels - natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen- without any modification. FCE’s existing fuel cell pilot manufacturing line for CSA cells and stacks includes robotics and automation such as cell screen printing, interconnect subassembly, seal application, QC, as well as stack assembly and conditioning. Via a design for manufacturing approach, as well as focus on minimization of raw material, recent detailed cost studies show a path to low factory stack production cost (<100/kW) at high volumes (1,000 MW/year). The large market existing for power generation equipment, in the range of 200-300kW, is a significant driver for development of high efficiency SOFC products that would easily cater to early-adopters prior to wide-spread acceptance. The accelerated interest in hydrogen as the fuel source will widen the market for SOFC deployment even more. Under a project supported by DOE, FCE is working on design of MW-class SOFC power plants as future extension of the subMW SOFC plant products. FCE is developing a first-of-a-kind 250kW Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) system with the hydrogen production capacity of 150kg/day. The overarching goal of the project is to verify that the integration of Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) systems within nuclear plants will maximize the plants’ efficiency and flexibility and will increase their revenue by switching between electric power generation and hydrogen production. Hybrid nuclear-hydrogen production operations are expected to help the present and future nuclear plants diversify and increase profitability. The 250kW SOEC system is planned to be demonstrated and operated at Idaho National Laboratory (INL). The project will culminate in verification and validation testing and solidify SOEC technology as a low cost and efficient means for hydrogen production integrated within the nuclear power plant environment. The SOEC system will be interfaced with a High-Level front-end Controller (HLC) simulating communications from a nuclear plant and the electric grid. The HLC will determine an optimized hydrogen production schedule to meet all contractual obligations, while maximizing revenue from the integrated operations. FCE is also developing energy storage systems based on the Company’s Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) technology. Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (RSOFC) technology is suitable for medium to long-duration energy storage achieving high round trip electric efficiencies near 70% (electricity-in to electricity-out) at an expected levelized cycle cost of ≤ $0.05 / kWh-cycle. FCE is currently conducting operational tests of an RSOFC prototype system to accomplish the of validation and verification of engineering/pilot-scale RSOFC technology in a relevant environment. A bread-board pilot demonstration system is being utilized to verify cell materials and stack design improvements as well as to validate power electronics and system control strategies that will be utilized for optimization of efficiency, transient response, and lifetime characteristics.
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Vudata, Sai, Yifan Wang, James M. Fenton, and Paul Brooker. "Transient Modeling and Optimization of a PEM Electrolyzer for Solar Photovoltaic Power Smoothing." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 39 (July 7, 2022): 1728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-01391728mtgabs.
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While renewable energy fuel has always had no cost, in the past the cost of the energy conversion technology was prohibitive. Today, due to improved efficiency in the technology and substantial increases in manufacturing volume the cost to generate electricity from the renewables and the cost to store this electricity in lithium-ion batteries for four hours has made these technologies more than competitive with traditional sources. As higher renewable energy penetrations occur the variability and intermittent nature of solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity can cause steep ramping of conventional power plants, so longer term energy storage (days, weeks, instead of hours) will be needed to increase the reliability of grid operation. In Florida cloud cover of a PV field can cause rapid fluctuations of PV output requiring a fast response to smooth out the PV electric power output. A polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer can serve as a utility controllable load that can be available at all times and the produced hydrogen can be sold or converted back into electricity directly through a PEM fuel cell. To study the integration of renewable solar with hydrogen for increasing grid reliability, a multi-software power control method and a transient thermal electrochemical PEM electrolyzer model has been developed. One-dimensional ("through-plane") and two-dimensional ("through-plane" and "in-plane") un-steady state models using gPROMS 2.1.1. were developed. The model considers mass, energy, momentum and current balance equations. The thermal energy balance considers the heat transfer through the backing layer, the flowfield plates and the gas and liquid flows. Kinetic parameters used in the model were determined using parameter estimation of single cell steady state polarization curves [1]. The single cell unsteady state models were extended to a stack model by adding cells in series and parallel. Real-time PV data taken from a 8.9 MWAC solar farm from Orlando Utilities Commission’s Stanton Energy Center was scaled up to 75 MWAC to design the electrolyzer that would be sized with the typical utility PV installation in Florida. The 75 MW PV data was smoothed using a power control strategy developed in MATLAB. The developed multi-software power control method and the electrochemical dynamic stack model shows the effectiveness of an electrolyzer in smoothing the PV signal to increase the grid stability and flexibility. Results are presented of different size electrolyzers to minimize short term cloud cover spikes in power while maximizing hydrogen production and the effectiveness of the electrolyzer. [1] Vincenzo Liso, Giorgio Savoia, Samuel Simon Araya, Giovanni Cinti and Søren Knudsen Kær, “Modelling and Experimental Analysis of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Water Electrolysis Cell at Different Operating Temperatures”, Energies, 11 (2018) 3272. doi:10.3390/en11123273
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Ramadesigan, Venkatasailanathan. "Use of Physics-Based Models for Different Applications of Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion Devices." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 25 (August 28, 2023): 1690. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-01251690mtgabs.
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This talk will present the application of physics-based models applied to two different electrochemical storage and conversion systems, viz. Li-ion batteries and Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs). Battery energy storage system (BESS) is becoming a crucial part of standalone renewable hybrid power systems due to the intermittent nature of power generation and for aiding in various operations like frequency regulation, voltage support, and peak shaving. The lithium-ion battery is a promising choice for BESS due to its high energy density, power density, operating voltage, negligible self-discharge, suitable operating temperature range, modularity, and reliability. A standalone renewable hybrid power system framework with lithium-ion battery energy storage is developed to investigate its performance using physics-based battery models. Power management and control strategies are developed for standalone renewable hybrid power systems. These control strategies can track the MPP of the solar cells and wind turbines while avoiding overcharging the battery and guaranteeing 0% dumping power under different ambient and working conditions. The battery is exposed to harsh ambient conditions in the real world, resulting in the dynamic and continuous capacity fade. A thermal management and control strategy is developed to analyze the effect of temperature on lithium-ion batteries' performance and degradation without using external cooling systems. Dynamic battery degradation analysis and life prediction are essential for better techno-economic estimation of renewable hybrid power systems. The impact of BESS size variation on degradation and the cost of energy generation is analyzed. The developed renewable hybrid power system framework is independent of location and system size and can be extended to incorporate other renewable energy generation sources and energy storage systems. The second part of this talk will focus on using physics-based models to understand the water dynamics and degradation mechanisms inside PEMFC, which is necessary for water management, long-life operation, and cost reduction. PEMFCs have emerged as an alternative green energy technology in various applications such as automobiles, portable and stationary applications, and auxiliary power supplies for space exploration missions. The cost and durability targets remain unmet largely, which restrains the commercialization of the PEMFCs. The major difficulty in modeling lies in the wide scale of dimensions from the millimeter level (flow channel) to the micron level (catalyst layer (CL) thickness). The multi-scale physics-based model enables the life cycle analysis of PEMFC under various operating conditions. The mass transport limitation is the major hurdle in performance enhancement for higher current density operations. It arises from the liquid water generated during the electrochemical reactions, which hinders the reaction sites of CL and oxygen transport reaction sites in the gas diffusion layer, resulting in performance deterioration. Many experimental studies reported the two-phase flow visualization techniques in PEMFCs, viz. neutron imaging, optical visualization, and X-ray radiography. However, the difficulties in conducting experiments for flow visualization and related parameters such as liquid volume fraction have encouraged researchers to adopt numerical simulations that are less expensive and computationally efficient. Understanding liquid water movement inside the cell at the micro-scale help to improve the PEMFC performance at the stack level. Here, we develop a comprehensive 3-D, multiphase, non-isothermal, steady-state physics-based model of the PEMFC that can closely approximate the liquid water flooding and membrane drying. The findings from this work can be used to design an efficient flow configuration and to study membrane deformation due to the shrinking-swelling under humidification and thermal cycling. The ultimate goal of the multi-scale model is to enhance the PEMFC stack output with less degradation.
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Salas Ventura, Santiago, Matthias Metten, Marius Tomberg, Dirk Ullmer, Cem Ünlübayir, Marc P. Heddrich, and S. Asif Ansar. "Transient Solid Oxide Cell Reactor Model Used in rSOC Mode-Switching Analysis and Power Split Control of an SOFC-Battery Hybrid." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 54 (August 28, 2023): 278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-0154278mtgabs.
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Defossilization of the global energy system requires a transition towards intermittent renewable energy sources and approaches that enable efficient conversion of primary energy sources into electrical energy. Due to their high efficiency in converting chemical into electrical energy and vice versa, solid oxide cell (SOC) systems provide solutions for both of these aspects. Within this contribution, two researched cases utilizing SOC's are presented, based on simulation studies and experiments. Characteristically, SOC reactors produce hydrogen from steam in solid oxide electrolysis (SOE) mode, or electricity from reformates in solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) mode. An application of both modes as reversible solid oxide cell (rSOC) is to balance a renewable power supply with storage and power production, leading to high utilization of the same equipment. An application in SOFC mode is the maritime transportation powertrain. In both cases, transient operation is needed whenever mode transitions occur. In particular, switching between rSOC modes implies transitioning exothermal SOFC, endothermal, thermoneutral and exothermal SOE operation. Similarly, supplying the power demand of a maritime drivetrain in SOFC mode leads to various exothermic levels, as pertinent to part or full load operation. Operating strategies are needed to suppress potentially damaging thermal stresses during these transitions in the electrochemical SOC reactors. In order to identify such operating strategies, experiments have been carried out and a transient model has been developed for the analysis of rSOC mode-switching and SOFC drivetrain power supply, which are presented in this study. The 1D+1D SOC dynamic multi-reactor model includes the individual SOC reactors, piping and insulation, and is implemented in the in-house developed transient energy process system simulation framework TEMPEST [1,2]. The model couples the transient balances of mass and energy with electrochemistry, internal reforming kinetics, heat transfer, and flow distribution. As a result, temperature and voltage characteristics at cell, stack, and module levels are obtained to analyze for e.g. unwanted thermal stress. In the EU project SWITCH [3], experiments were performed at DLR with a Large Stack Module (LSM) from SolydEra (formerly SOLIDpower) to validate the model in transient 75 kW electrolysis mode, 25 kW fuel cell mode and mode-switching operation between electrolysis and polygeneration mode. The so called polygeneration mode refers to simultaneous generation of hydrogen and electricity at partial fuel utilization with natural gas, biogas or e-methane. Simulative studies of mode-switching procedures from SOE to SOFC-mode polygeneration show that drawing fuel cell current soon after reaching open circuit voltage and sufficiently in advance of the methane ramp completion leads to a reduced temperature decrease at the inlet of the cell without reaching oxygen to carbon ratios low enough to favor carbon deposition. In the EU project NAUTILUS [4], the mismatch between the transient response possibilities of SOFC systems and the power demand of a ship is addressed by connecting Li-ion batteries to the powertrain. Batteries respond to highly transient ship load demand changes, while the SOFC’s provide base part load to full load, according to a power split control strategy. A battery model developed and parametrized by the Chair for Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Systems of RWTH Aachen University [5] was added to TEMPEST and validated using DLR experiments with a 40 kWh Li-ion battery. Simulation results of the SOFC-battery hybrid in Figure 1 show that a rule-based power split control strategy [6] ensures that the power demand of the ship is met at all times while the battery state of charge (SoC) remains within specified range, and the SOFC power is drawn at one of three fixed power levels for reduced thermal stress. An experimental campaign to test this and other control strategies with a 32 kW LSM from SolydEra and the 40 kWh battery is in progress at DLR. Acknowledgements Project SWITCH has received funding from the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking (now Clean Hydrogen Partnership) under Grant Agreement No 875148. This Joint Undertaking receives support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation program, Hydrogen Europe and Hydrogen Europe Research. Project NAUTILUS has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 861647. References [1] S. Srikanth et al., Applied Energy 232 (2018) 473–488. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.186 [2] M. Tomberg et al., J. Electrochem. Soc. 2022, 169, 054530. DOI: 10.1149/1945-7111/ac7009 [3] SWITCH [Online, 16.12.2022] https://switch-fch.eu/ [4] NAUTILUS [Online, 16.12.2022] https://nautilus-project.eu/ [5] ISEA Framework [Online, 16.12.2022] https://git.rwth-aachen.de/isea/framework [6] Peng, H. et al. (2020). eTransportation, 4, 100057. DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2020.100057 Figure 1. Transient simulation using an SOFC-battery power split algorithm and battery State of Charge (SoC). Figure 1
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Yasin, Liam, and Sam Cooper. "Quantifying Diffusion Across Solid-Solid Interfaces in Electrochemical Cells." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 38 (August 28, 2023): 2280. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-01382280mtgabs.
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Enabling an increased rollout of hydrogen-based technologies requires decarbonisation of both hydrogen production and conversion. Solid Oxide Cells (SOCs), in the form of electrolysers and fuel cells, could play a significant role in achieving this, however lifetime and degradation of SOCs remain major obstacles to commercialisation. Understanding the mechanisms governing ionic transport in ceramics is important to improving the performance and durability of SOCs. Properties such as the oxygen tracer diffusivity, , can be measured by Isotopic Exchange Depth Profiling (IEDP) as developed by Kilner et al. [1]. This method has, so far, primarily been used to characterise the properties of single materials; however, SOCs are multilayer devices with solid-solid interfaces that may also affect transport. Some investigations into the diffusion behaviour across multiple layers using the IEDP technique have been done in thin film samples [2][3]. Profiles obtained from these studies appear to show an abrupt concentration drop at the interface between certain materials, indicating an interface which significantly impacts the diffusion behaviour (and by extension the overall cell performance). However, no attempt was made to quantify this interface effect with a theoretical modelling approach. A finite-difference model for diffusion in a system containing multiple layers with interfaces is developed. It numerically solves Fick’s second law of diffusion with various boundary conditions. This model can be used to fit experimental data obtained from tracer diffusion SIMS data, yielding new way of quantifying interfacial resistance. A new interfacial resistance parameter, , has been defined, which quantifies the magnitude of concentration drop across any given interface and thus offers a universal way of numerically characterising resistance to diffusion. The validity of the developed method has been experimentally tested in samples containing layers of lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (LSCF) and gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC), a commonly used system in SOCs. Initial data from tracer diffusion experiments as seen in Figure 1 have shown the presence of a significant concentration drop at the interface of a LSCF-GDC stack which can be fitted to the numerical model developed by the authors. This approach is used to measure the changing interface properties under various ageing conditions, as well as the influence of interlayers and material selection on the interfacial resistances both in SOC and other diffusion systems. [1] J. A. Kilner, B. C. H. Steele, and L. Ilkov. Oxygen self-dffusion studies using negative-ion secondary ion mass-spectrometry (sims). Solid State Ionics, 12(MAR):89-97, 1984. [2] K. Develos-Bagarinao, H. Yokokawa, H. Kishimoto, T. Ishiyama, K. Yamaji, and T. Horita. Elucidating the origin of oxide ion blocking effects at gdc/srzr(y)o-3/ysz interfaces. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 5(18):8733-8743, 2017. [3] Katherine Develos-Bagarinao, Haruo Kishimoto, Jeffrey De Vero, Katsuhiko Yamaji, and Teruhisa Horita. Effect of la0.6sr0.4co0.2fe0.8o3-delta microstructure on oxygen surface exchange kinetics. Solid State Ionics, 288:6-9, 2016. Fig. 1. Oxygen isotopic fraction data of an LSCF layer deposited on a GDC substrate and annealed in Oxygen-18 atmosphere at 650 C for 1h obtained using cross-sectional SIMS (left) and fit of the data using the multi-layer diffusion model developed by the authors (right). Figure 1
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Zhang, Xueping, Mingtao Wu, Liusheng Xiao, Hao Wang, Yingqi Liu, Dingrong Ou, and Jinliang Yuan. "Thermal Stress in Full-Size Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Stacks by Multi-Physics Modeling." Energies 17, no. 9 (April 25, 2024): 2025. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en17092025.
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Mechanical failures in the operating stacks of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are frequently related to thermal stresses generated by a temperature gradient and its variation. In this study, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed and further applied in full-size SOFC stacks, which are fully coupled and implemented for analysis of heat flow electrochemical phenomena, aiming to predict thermal stress distribution. The primary object of the present investigation is to explore features and characteristics of the thermal stress influenced by electrochemical reactions and various transport processes within the stacks. It is revealed that the volume ratio of the higher thermal stress region differs nearly 30% for different stack flow configurations; the highest probability of potential failure appears in the cell cathodes; the more cells applied in the stack, the greater the difference in the predicted temperature/thermal stress between the cells; the counter-flow stack performs the best in terms of output power, but the predicted thermal stress is also higher; the cross-flow stack exhibits the lowest thermal stress and a lower output power; and although the temperature and thermal stress distributions are similar, the differences between the unit cells are bigger in the longer stacks than those predicted for shorter stacks. The findings from this study may provide a useful guide for assessing the thermal behavior and impact on SOFC performance.
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Ma, Jie, Suning Ma, Xinyi Zhang, Daifen Chen, and Juan He. "Development of Large-Scale and Quasi Multi-Physics Model for Whole Structure of the Typical Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Stacks." Sustainability 10, no. 9 (August 30, 2018): 3094. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10093094.
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Although the performance and corresponding manufacturing technology of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) units have greatly improved and have met commercial requirements over the past decades, they are constructed such that they perform poorly and lack strong duration outputs. Therefore, achieving high performance and extending duration at a stack level are challenges faced by the development process. This paper develops a large-scale and multiphysics model for the complete structure of a typical 10-cell SOFC stack. It includes solid components, flow paths, and porous sections—solid ribs, interconnectors, anode support, anode function layer, electrolyte layer, cathode layer, air/fuel feed manifolds, feed header, rib channels, exhaust header and outlet manifolds. The multiphysics application includes momentum, mass, energy and quasi electrochemical transporting; and their mutual coupling processes within the stack. This new model can help us understand the working specifics of the large-scale stack, obtaining distribution details of static pressure, species fraction, and temperature gradient; further addressing optimization of structure and operation parameters. These details serve as guidelines for practical structural designs and parameters in real stack levels.
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Katayama, Shota, Masashi Matsumoto, Hideto Imai, Takahiko Asaoka, and Kazuki Amemiya. "Comparison of MEA Degradation through FCV Actual Driving Test and Load-Cycle Durability Test." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 37 (December 22, 2023): 1773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02371773mtgabs.
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Introduction In research and development of high-durability polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) for fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), accelerated stress tests (ASTs) are employed to evaluate durability of materials with a short time [1-3]. In order to validate an AST, it is necessary to confirm that the degradation mechanisms in the AST and in actual FCV operation are consistent, and to elucidate quantitative correspondence of their degradation rates. In this study, we analyzed degradation of a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) after FCV real-world driving and compared the degradation factor with that of a load-cycle durability test in a laboratory. Experiments MEA samples were extracted from an FC stack of a Toyota MIRAI 2014 model which was operated in real-world driving of 200,000 km, about 6000 h. MEA performance and electrochemical properties of them were investigated using a small differential cell with a straight flow field. As a comparison, another MEA at beginning of life (BOL) was subjected to a load-cycle durability test following a protocol encouraged by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan. Cell temperature and relative humidity were controlled at 80°C and 100%, respectively. A square-wave potential cycle shown in Figure 1 was adopted. MEA performance was investigated after cycles of 500, 1000, 3000, 10,000, and 30,000. Structures of catalyst layers and catalyst particles were analyzed for the MEAs after driving test and 30,000 cycles of the load-cycle test using scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS). Results and discussion The performance of the MEA after 200,000 km driving is close to that of the MEA after 30,000 cycles of the load-cycle test as shown in Figure 2. The performance degradation is mainly attributed to degradation of the catalyst layer, and properties of a gas diffusion layer and a proton exchange membrane are unchanged from those of the BOL sample. Degradation mechanisms of the catalyst layers in the driving test and the load cycle test are well corresponding. First, mass activities of PtCo catalyst decay to about a half of the BOL value mainly due to the decrease in electrochemically effective surface areas (ECSAs) as represented in Figure 3. Decrease rates of the ECSAs are consistent with the increase in average particle sizes of the catalyst. The catalyst size distributions of the two samples are also comparable. Then, oxygen transport resistance in the catalyst layers is increased. The resistance of the samples after the driving test and 30,000 cycles of the load-cycle test are twice as large as the BOL value. As shown in Figure 4, the transport resistance obviously exhibits inverse proportion to the catalyst surface area. This relationship represents that the primary factor of the resistance is one at vicinity of catalyst particles including ionomer permeation [4], and increase in it is attributed to decrease in the catalyst surface area. A performance simulation based on a simple 1-dimensioal MEA model supports that the decrease in the ECSA causes most of the MEA performance degradation through the deterioration in the catalyst activity and the oxygen transport resistance. Conclusions The MEA performance degradation after the 200,000 km real-world driving with the system of MIRAI 2014 model is primarily caused by catalyst metal coarsening and is well simulated by NEDO load-cycle durability test of 30,000 cycles. This result has validated the test protocol and should contribute to a target-setting of durability of future MEAs. References [1] “Fuel Cell Technologies Office Multi-Year Research, Development, and Demonstration Plan”, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Office, Department of Energy, U. S., (2017 updated). [2] S. Stariha, N. Macauley, B. T. Sneed, D. Langlois, K. L. More, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, J. Electrochem. Soc. 165, F492 (2018). [3] M. Uchimura and S. S. Kocha, ECS Trans. 11, 1215 (2007). [4] N. Nonoyama, S. Okazaki, A. Z. Weber, Y. Ikogi, and T. Yoshida, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158, B416 (2011). Acknowledgement This work was supported by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization. The MEA samples after the driving test were provided by Toyota Motor Corporation. Figure 1
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Santarelli, Claudio, Christopher Helbig, An Li, Benoit Honel, Thomas Nyhues, and Fabian Böhm. "A Multi-Disciplinary Approach for the Electrical and Thermal Characterization of Battery Packs—Case Study for an Electric Race Car." World Electric Vehicle Journal 14, no. 4 (April 10, 2023): 102. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040102.
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A novel, multi-disciplinary approach is presented where experiments, system simulation and Computational Fluid Dynamics are combined for the electrical and thermal characterization of an air-cooled battery pack. As a case study, a Formula Student race car is considered and the procedure proposed consists of three steps: (1) experimental characterization of the battery cells under several thermal conditions; (2) thermal and electrical modeling of the battery stack with system simulation; (3) three-dimensional, time-dependent Conjugate Heat Transfer simulation of the whole battery pack to investigate the cooling performance of the chosen design, and to access fundamental quantities of the batteries, such as state of charge, temperature and ohmic heating. Future improvements of the current work are discussed, including the extension to a liquid-cooled design, battery aging consideration and model integration into a full vehicle system model.
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Price, Nicholas A., Bertrand J. Neyhouse, and Fikile R. Brushett. "A Computationally-Efficient, Zero-Dimensional Stack Model for Simulating Redox Flow Battery Performance." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 3 (August 28, 2023): 801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-013801mtgabs.
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Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are an electrochemical energy storage platform with potential to support grid-scale decarbonization and resiliency efforts. The RFB architecture allows for decoupled energy and power, long lifetimes with simplified maintenance, and a range of potential chemistries. Despite their promising characteristics, present embodiments are too expensive for widespread adoption.1 , 2 Significant research efforts have focused on advancing new redox couples and constituent materials (e.g., electrodes, flow fields, membranes), but these contributions primarily focus on individual lab-scale cells, due, at least in part, to the time, material, and expertise required to investigate performance and durability in larger device formats (e.g., multi-cell stacks). This results in knowledge gaps within the field—specifically, electrochemical reactor scaling relationships are not yet well-understood and the relative importance of many tunable molecular and material properties at the stack level remains unclear. To aid with RFB stack design and understanding, computational models of varying dimensionality and complexity have been developed to simulate charge-discharge cycling.3 Zero- and one-dimensional models, which make simplifying assumptions about underlying electrochemistry and fluid dynamics, are particularly useful for capturing general trends in cell performance at a much lower computational cost than comprehensive multi-dimensional frameworks. However, previous models still employ numerical methods to solve complex systems of differential equations, which slows simulation time and impedes broader inquiry (e.g., durational cycling, parametric property sweeps).4 ,5 Further, existing models are typically designed to interrogate specific chemistries and, as such, cannot easily incorporate the array of properties and operating conditions possible for different redox couples and constituent materials. In this presentation, we will discuss the formulation and application of a computationally-lightweight zero-dimensional RFB stack model suitable for linking stack-level electrochemical and fluid dynamic performance characteristics to molecular- and cell-level property sets. By constructing analytical expressions for mass balances and cell voltages under galvanostatic cycling conditions,6 this framework facilitates connections between system design, component material properties, operating conditions, and cycling performance at the stack level with little computational expense. To validate the functionality of the model, we simulate durational performance (i.e., capacity fade, energy efficiency, power density) across a range of different representative chemistries, operating conditions, and reactor scales. Additionally, we evaluate the impact of typical parasitic losses—including shunt currents, crossover, and species decay —on cycling characteristics over hundreds of charge-discharge cycles. Finally, we will discuss pathways to integrate this framework into techno-economic assessments to enable physics-informed cost predictions that support more holistic technology comparisons. More broadly, the tools described here have the potential to advance understanding of cell-to-stack design principles by enabling assessments of system viability early in the innovation pipeline. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, an Energy Innovation Hub funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences. B.J.N gratefully acknowledges the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant Number 1122374. Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. References B. R. Chalamala et al., Proceedings of the IEEE, 102, 976–999 (2014). Z. Yang et al., Chem. Rev., 111, 3577–3613 (2011). B. Kumar Chakrabarti et al., Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 4, 5433–5468 (2020). M. Pugach, M. Kondratenko, S. Briola, and A. Bischi, Applied Energy, 226, 560–569 (2018). J. L. Barton and F. R. Brushett, Batteries, 5, 25 (2019). B. J. Neyhouse, J. Lee, and F. R. Brushett, J. Electrochem. Soc., 169, 090503 (2022).