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1

Dubula, Nomfundo. Mother to child: Explained by sister to sister. [South Africa]: Treatment Action Campaign, 2002.

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2

Swaziland. Ministry of Health and Social Welfare., UNICEF Swaziland, World Health Organization Swaziland, Italy. Direzione generale per la cooperazione allo sviluppo., and Turner Foundation Fund, eds. Guidelines for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV. [Mbabane]: UNICEF, 2003.

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3

Kenya. National guidelines, prevention of mother-to-child HIV/AIDS transmission (PMCT). 2nd ed. Nairobi: National AIDS and STD Control Programme, 2002.

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4

National AIDS Control Programme (Tanzania), ed. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT): National guidelines. [Dar es Salaam]: United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Mpango wa Kudhibiti Ukimwi, 2007.

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5

Namibia. Family and Community Health Division. and Namibia. Ministry of Health and Social Services. Division: Health Sector., eds. Guidelines for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Windhoek: Directorates: Primary Health Care and Special Programmes, Divisions: Family Health and Health Sector, 2004.

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6

Health, Botswana Ministry of, ed. The Botswana prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV programme: Handbook. [Gaborone: Ministry of Health?, 2004.

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7

National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (Nepal), ed. National guidelines, prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Nepal. 3rd ed. Kathmandu: Govt. of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population, National Centre for AIDS and STD Control, 2008.

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8

ṭeʻenā, Eritrea Ministri, and UNICEF in Eritrea, eds. Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV: Communication strategy, 2007-2010. Asmara: Unicef, 2006.

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9

National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (Nepal), ed. National guidelines, prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Nepal. 3rd ed. Kathmandu: Govt. of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population, National Centre for AIDS and STD Control, 2008.

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10

Zanzibar. Zanzibar national prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: (PMTCT) guidelines. [Zanzibar]: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 2006.

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11

Health, Zambia Ministry of, ed. National protocol guidelines: Integrated prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS. Lusaka: MInistry of Health, 2008.

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12

editor, Pazvakavambwa Brian C., and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, eds. The Zimbabwe mother-to-child HIV transmission prevention project: Situation analysis, March 1998. Zimbabwe: Ministry of Health & Child Welfare, Government of Zimbabwe, 1998.

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13

Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in Nepal: Standard operating procedures. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population, National Centre for AIDS and STD Control, 2012.

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14

Preble, Elizabeth A. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Africa: Practical guidance for programs. Washington, DC: Support for Analysis and Research in Africa (SARA) Project, Academy for Educational Development, 2001.

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15

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Malawi: Handbook for health workers. Lilongwe, Malawi: Ministry of Health and Population, 2003.

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16

Chimbali, Henry, and Michael Eliya. Media brief on prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV in Malawi. Lusaka, Zambia: Panos Institute Southern Africa, 2012.

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17

M, Kadzandira John, Mvula Peter, Malawi. Ministry of Health and Population., Malawi National AIDS Commission, and UNICEF, eds. Formative research on prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV/AIDS: A report. Zomba, Malawi: University of Malawi, Centre for Social Research, 2003.

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18

Susan, Kaai, and Population Council, eds. Community-based approaches to prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: Findings from a low-income community in Kenya. Washington, D.C: Population Council, 2007.

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19

Malawi. Ministry of Health and Population., Malawi National AIDS Commission, and UNICEF--Malawi, eds. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Malawi: Training manual for health workers : facilitators guide. Lilongwe, Malawi: Ministry of Health and Population, 2004.

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20

Michael, Kaplan, Botswana Family Health Division, Academy for Educational Development (Botswana). Center on AIDS and Community Health., and Botswana-USA Partnership, eds. Five-year social marketing strategy for the Botswana Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) Program. [Gaborone: AED Center for HIV/AIDS and Community Health, 2005.

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21

Michael, Kaplan, Botswana Family Health Division, Academy for Educational Development (Botswana). Center on AIDS and Community Health., and Botswana-USA Partnership, eds. Five-year social marketing strategy for the Botswana Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) Program. [Gaborone: AED Center for HIV/AIDS and Community Health, 2005.

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22

Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Health. National guidelines for the implementation of prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV programme in Nigeria. Nigeria]: Federal Ministry of Health, 2001.

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23

Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Health., ed. National guidelines for the implementation of prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV programme in Nigeria. [Nigeria]: Federal Ministry of Health, 2001.

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24

Kenya. Towards the elimination of mother to child transmission of HIV and keeping mothers alive: Strategic framework, 2012-2015. Nairobi, Kenya: National AIDS and STI Control Programme (NASCOP), 2011.

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25

Mwisongo, Aziza. Report: Baseline health facility needs assessment and community KAP study for piloting of prevention of mother-to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) in Zanzibar. [Zanzibar?: s.n., 2003.

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26

Ginwalla, R. Integration of ProTEST and mother-to-child transmission prevention programme in Lusaka Zambia: A combined approach : end of year report, October 2001-December 2002. Lusaka: s.n., 2003.

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27

East, Central, and Southern African Health Community., ed. Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV: Review of programmes, policies, and guidelines in East, Central, and Southern Africa, 2005. Arusha, Tanzania: ECSA Health Community, 2005.

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28

Mukuka, Catherine. The mother to child transmission intervention: A report on the formative research conducted in Chipata Health Centre and its catchment area. [Lusaka: s.n., 1999.

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29

Anita, Asiimwe, Treatment & Research Aids Center (Rwanda), Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation., and International Center for AIDS Care and Treatment Programs (Columbia University), eds. Evaluation of access to and utilization of services for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV in Rwanda: Summary report, January 2007. Kigali, Rwanda: Ministry of Health, TRAC, 2007.

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30

Jamii, Tanzania Wizara ya Afya na Ustawi wa. National scale up plan for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and paediatric HIV care and treatment: 2009-2013. Dar es Salaam]: United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 2009.

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31

té̂, Vietnam Bộ y. Project assessment report on the Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT): Pilot project in five provinces in Viet Nam. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Hà Nội, 2008.

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32

Zimbabwe. Ministry of Health and Child Welfare. PMTCT: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV : procedures and logistics manual : practical policy guidelines on implementing and managing PMTCT programmes for health service planners and providers. Harare: Ministry of Health & Child Welfare, 2003.

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33

Bond, Ginny. Formative research on mother to child transmission of HIV/AIDS in Zambia: A working report of focus group discussions held in Keemba, Monze, November 1999. [Lusaka: s.sn, 2000.

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34

Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health., ed. Reducing mother to child transmission of HIV infection in the United Kingdom: Recommendations of an Intercollegiate Working Party for Enhancing Voluntary Confidential HIV Testing in Pregnancy. London: Royal College of Paediatrics and Child health, 1998.

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35

Zimbabwe. Ministry of Health and Child Welfare., ed. Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in Zimbabwe: A trainer's manual for the integrated approach to HIV and AIDS prevention, care, treatment, and follow up for pregnant women, their babies and families. 2nd ed. Harare: Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, 2006.

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36

National protocol guidelines: Integrated prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS. Lusaka: MInistry of Health, 2008.

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37

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Malawi: Guidelines for implementers. Lilongwe, Malawi: Ministry of Health and Population, 2003.

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38

Public Interest Recordings: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Nepal. Kathmandu: National Centre for AIDS and STD Control, Ministry of Health and Population, Govt. of Nepal, 2008.

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39

Campbell, Melanie Elizabeth. Womens' access to nevirapine to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a case study of policy development in South Africa. 2003, 2003.

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40

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Malawi: Training manual for health workers : facilitators guide. Lilongwe, Malawi: Ministry of Health and Population, 2004.

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41

Chu, Carolyn, and Christopher M. Bositis. HIV Transmission Prevention. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190493097.003.0004.

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The prevention of HIV transmission involves a number of behavioral, structural, and biomedical interventions. Behavioral methods include education about sexual health, drug use, and risk reduction, as well as specific messages for at-risk populations who are HIV positive. Needle exchange programs and consistent use of condoms have proven effective for prevention of HIV infection. Post-exposure prophylaxis against HIV with antiviral drugs is often recommended in occupational health care and non-occupational settings. Voluntary male circumcision also reduces the risk of HIV acquisition. The treatment of pregnant women who are HIV infected can effectively eliminate mother-to-child transmission of the virus. Recently, the use of antiretroviral drugs for pre-exposure prophylaxis has proven highly effective in preventing HIV infections in high-risk groups including men who have sex with men. Promising therapies that likely will be available in the future include injectable antiviral drugs, vaginal microbicides, and HIV vaccines.
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42

Short, William R., and Jason J. Schafer. Antiretroviral Therapy in Pregnant Women. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190493097.003.0026.

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Research has demonstrated that proper prevention strategies and interventions during pregnancy, labor, and delivery can significantly reduce the rate of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) should be initiated in all HIV-infected pregnant women regardless of CD4+ T cell count or HIV-1 RNA level. ARVs should be given in combination therapy, similar to nonpregnant patients, with the goal of complete virologic suppression. Treatment changes during pregnancy have been associated with the loss of virologic control and independently associated with mother-to-child transmission. All cases of prenatal antiretroviral exposure should be reported to the Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry, which collects data on HIV-infected pregnant women taking ARVs with the goal of detecting any major teratogenic effects.
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43

Altcheh, Jaime, Guillermo Moscatelli, and Facundo Garcia Bournissen. Chagas Disease (Trypanosoma cruzi). Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0016.

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Chagas disease (CD), or American trypanosomiasis, is caused by the hemoflagellate parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and has evolved from a regional, Latin American disease to one that is becoming widespread in other parts of the world. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of Chagas disease has become the primary means of transmission of T. cruzi worldwide. Congenital Chagas disease can be prevented by treating women of reproductive age. It is important to develop strategies for the systematic screening of pregnant women for CD, as well as all children born to infected mothers, and also to treat every infected child as early as possible.
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44

Gilroy, Mark N., and Juan C. Salazar. Syphilis (Treponema pallidum). Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0021.

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Syphilis, a chronic, sexually transmitted disease caused by the extracellular spirochete Treponema pallidum, has exhibited a remarkable resurgence in recent years. Despite the existence of inexpensive, easily administered, and highly effective antibiotic treatments, maternal and neonatal syphilis infections continue to be a major global public health problem. In addition to its potential to cause morbidity in the mother, untreated gestational syphilis (GS) can lead to serious adverse outcomes in the offspring, including stillbirth, prematurity, low birth weight, and neonatal death. Congenital syphilis (CS) is regarded as a missed opportunity during the antenatal care of the mother, resulting from socioeconomic, demographic, and behavioral factors that promote mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of syphilis. This chapter emphasizes emerging concepts about screening aimed at controlling the ongoing epidemic, including serological screening of mother and infant, newer paradigms of “reverse screening,” clinical presentation, therapy, and long-term neurodevelopmental disabilities that must be a component of follow-up care.
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45

Krain, Lisa J., and Kenrad E. Nelson. Hepatitis E Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0006.

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) poses serious risks to pregnant women and their developing fetuses, including increased risk of pregnancy loss, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and early infant death. Supportive care is currently the standard treatment for pregnant women with HEV infection, but in some cases, ribavirin treatment or early delivery may be indicated. Infants born with acute HEV infection face increased risk of complications and death. Intensive monitoring and support may be required in the neonatal period, particularly for preterm infants. Infants who survive the early neonatal period are likely to recover fully and clear the virus. Immunoassays and molecular methods for diagnosis of HEV have improved markedly over the past decade. New HEV vaccines may provide an opportunity to prevent both maternal illness and mother-to-child transmission (vertical transmission) (MTCT).
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46

Moriuchi, Hiroyuki. Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0010.

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Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), a human retrovirus that infects an estimated 10–20 million people worldwide, has endemic foci in Japan, West and Central Africa, the Caribbean, Central and South America, and Melanesia. Also, it is the etiological agent of a lymphoproliferative malignancy, adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL), as well as chronic inflammatory diseases such as HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). HTLV-1 can be transmitted vertically, sexually, or by blood-borne transmission. ATLL occurs in approximately 5% of carriers who are infected during early childhood, and primary prevention is the only strategy likely to reduce this fatal disease. Children born to carrier mothers acquire the virus predominantly from breastfeeding. In endemic areas, mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) can be significantly reduced by screening pregnant women for the HTLV-1 antibody, followed by replacing breastfeeding with exclusive formula feeding. Indications for serological screening and recommendations for prevention of perinatal transmission are reviewed in this chapter.
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47

Bolduc, Philip, Navix Order, and Emily Colgate. Epidemiology and the Spread of HIV. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190493097.003.0001.

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Worldwide, approximately 36 million people are infected with HIV. The number of new infections has been declining in most geographic areas including sub-Saharan Africa due to a larger number of persons receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) and the uptake of new prevention methods. Prevalence in many areas has either stabilized or gradually increased due to prolonged survival. The US epidemic has remained stable, with approximately 1.2 million persons living with HIV. There are fewer AIDS deaths and approximately 40,000–50,000 new infections yearly, leading to an overall increase in HIV prevalence in the United States. Globally, most new infections are via heterosexual transmission, with more than half of new infections occurring in women. In Europe and the United States, the largest number of new infections is occurring in men who have sex with men. Due to the progressive uptake of ART, mother-to-child transmission has declined significantly throughout the world.
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48

Read, Jennifer S. Zika Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0015.

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Although generally asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic in the general population, infection with the Zika virus (ZIKV) during pregnancy may lead to severely adverse fetal and infant outcomes, including the congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). Characteristics of this syndrome that are unique to it or are not typically observed with other congenital infections comprise anomalies of the brain and cranial morphology, ocular anomalies, congenital contractures, and neurological sequelae. The full spectrum of outcomes of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of ZIKV appears to be large, ranging from asymptomatic infection at birth, with possible later manifestation of significant abnormalities, to obvious and severe abnormalities in the fetus and infant. Although our understanding of pathogenesis, rates, and manifestations of CZS has improved rapidly and dramatically, much remains unknown or poorly understood regarding this potentially devastating congenital infection. Because of this, a broad research agenda regarding ZIKV is being implemented.
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49

Purandare, Amol, and Barbara A. Jantausch. Parvovirus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0012.

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Parvovirus B19 is a common infection in humans that occurs worldwide. Parvovirus B19 is transmitted through exposure to respiratory droplets, blood, and blood products, and through mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) in utero. Intrauterine parvovirus B19 infection is a rare occurrence during pregnancy but can result in significant morbidity and mortality for the fetus, including severe fetal anemia and nonimmune fetal hydrops (NIFH). Intrauterine transfusion can be successful in treating fetal anemia. Neurodevelopmental impairment has been reported in infants with congenital infection who have received intrauterine transfusion (IUT). Future research on the development of antiviral agents for the treatment of parvovirus B19 infection in pregnant women is needed, along with the development of a parvovirus B19 vaccine. Longitudinal studies to evaluate neurodevelopmental outcome of infants with a history of congenital parvovirus B19 infection are needed in order to facilitate the optimal evaluation and management of these infants.
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50

Honegger, Jonathan R. Hepatitis C Virus. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190604813.003.0005.

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An estimated 185 million individuals have been infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) worldwide. Although often clinically silent for decades, chronic HCV infection predisposes to late-onset complications, including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HCV affects approximately 5% of children born to viremic mothers and is the primary route of HCV infection in young children. While some vertically acquired HCV infections are resolved during the first years of life, many persist indefinitely. Chronically infected children tend to be asymptomatic and have mild liver disease, but they face a risk of progression to advanced liver disease in adulthood. Current diagnostic and management strategies leave most infected children undiagnosed and untreated. Widespread use of newly-available direct-acting antiviral therapies has the potential to substantially reduce the global burden of HCV, including vertically acquired HCV, but an effective vaccine likely will be required to achieve this ultimate goal.
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