Journal articles on the topic 'Morpheme acquisition order'

Unlike most early second language morpheme acquisition studies which remained at a surface descriptive level, this paper provides the reasons for the natural morpheme acquisition order by characterizing morphemes based on how they are projected from the mental lexicon. Three types of morphemes are identified based on how they are activated: Morphemes directly elected at the lemma level are content morphemes, morphemes indirectly elected together with content morpheme heads are early system morphemes, and morphemes structurally assigned at the functional level are late system morphemes. It argues that the levels of morpheme activation, whether at the lemma level or at the fimctional level, determines the acquisition order. Based on the characterization of morphemes and the natural second language data, an irnplicational hierarchy of morpheme acquisition order in second language learning is proposed: content morphemes are acquired before system morphemes, and early system morphemes are acquired before late system morphemes. Unlike early second language morpheme acquisition order studies, this study not only identifies or describes the morpheme order itself but also provides some reasons for this order.

We revisit morpheme studies to evaluate the long-standing claim for a universal order of acquisition. We investigate the L2 acquisition order of six English grammatical morphemes by learners from seven L1 groups across five proficiency levels. Data are drawn from approximately 10,000 written exam scripts from the Cambridge Learner Corpus. The study establishes clear L1 influence on the absolute accuracy of morphemes and their acquisition order, therefore challenging the widely held view that there is a universal order of acquisition of L2 morphemes. Moreover, we find that L1 influence is morpheme specific, with morphemes encoding language-specific concepts most vulnerable to L1 influence.

Regarding the order of morpheme acquisition in both first language (L1) and second language (L2) acquisiton there appears to be a so-called 'natural order' of acquisition. In addition, there are peculiarities which are part of the morphosyntax of any language influencing the order of morpheme acquisition in L2, whether it be from the L1, or as in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, another L1. We use Myers-Scotton's (2002) 4-M model to help us analyze and discuss the data. The analysis shows a tendency for speakers to acquire language morphology in a natural order, regardless of the L1, but with special reference to Spanish and English we show that the two languages can influence each other and make changes in the order of acquisition.

Abstract Since the 1970s, findings from Morpheme Order Studies (MOS) have suggested that the emergence of morphemes follows a predictable order in L2 English. In this paper we show how the tools and practices in Learner Corpus Research (LCR) offer a richer descriptive basis, which is achieved with Interlanguage Annotation (ILA), a manual, fined-grained, purpose-oriented type of annotation. Additionally, we use a standardised placement test, since proficiency level has been overlooked in most previous MOS. Both of these practices provide a more detailed description of morpheme accuracy order across different levels. We analyse four proficiency levels (A1-B2) in a subcorpus of L1 Spanish-L2 English secondary-school learners from the CORpus of English as a Foreign Language (COREFL). Our results partially confirm findings from previous MOS, but also reveal key findings that had gone previously unnoticed regarding the role of proficiency level and the subtype of errors, which are relevant factors for SLA research.

AbstractThe Morpheme Acquisition of 2 Up to 2 Years Old and a Half Kids. The study waslimited in the scope of his language skills, especially in the morpheme children at age 2years to 2 years 6 months. In addition, some parents are still many do not keep up withher well-spoken language development in behavior and development. This study useda qualitative descriptive method. The study was done in order to determine the form ofmorphemes the child, the child form of words that are strung together in a sentence oneword to two word sentences at age 2 years to 2 years 6 months. The research data is amorpheme; free and bound. Techniques used in data collection is provocation, tapping,see the good involved, records and technical notes. The data generated is 150 childrenand 15 free morpheme bound morpheme. Obtained free morphemes more children thanthe bound morpheme. (1) being acquired morpheme children at age 2 years to 2 years6 months, a free morpheme and bound morpheme, (2) form morpheme obtained free ofchildren at age 2 years to 2 years 6 months, (3) form bound morpheme obtained bychildren at age 2 years to 2 years 6 months, and (4) morpheme form obtained from thespeech one word or two-word utterances. Children’s ability to obtain the child’s morphemeto be assembled into one-word utterances and the utterances of two words, even capableof using morpheme as child speech in everyday language.Keywords: free morphemes, bound morphemes, speech.AbstrakPemerolehan Morfem Anak Usia 2 Tahun sampai 2 Tahun 6 Bulan. Penelitian inidibatasi pada ruang lingkup keterampilan berbahasa anaknya khususnya pada morfemanak yang pada usia 2 tahun sampai 2 tahun 6 bulan. Selain itu, masih banyak sebagianorang tua tidak mengikuti perkembangan anaknya baik perkembangan bahasanyadalam bertutur dan perkembangan tingkah lakunya. Penelitian ini menggunakan metodedeskriptif kualitatif. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui wujudmorfem anak, wujud kata yang dirangkai anak pada kalimat satu kata menjadi kalimatdua kata pada usia 2 tahun sampai 2 tahun 6 bulan. Data penelitian ini berupa morfem;bebas dan terikat. Teknik yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data adalah pancingan,sadap, simak libat cakap, rekam dan teknik catat. Data yang dihasilkan anak adalah150 morfem bebas dan 15 morfem terikat. Morfem bebas lebih banyak diperoleh anakdaripada morfem terikat. (1) wujud morfem yang diperoleh anak pada usia 2 tahunsampai 2 tahun 6 bulan, berupa morfem bebas dan morfem terikat; (2) wujud morfembebas yang diperoleh anak pada usia 2 tahun sampai 2 tahun 6 bulan; (3) wujudmorfem terikat yang diperoleh anak pada usia 2 tahun sampai 2 tahun 6 bulan; dan(4) wujud morfem yang diperoleh dari ujaran satu kata atau ujaran dua kata.Kemampuan anak dalam memperoleh morfem bebas dan morfem terikat dari ujaran164satu kata dan ujaran dua kata, bahkan mampu menggunakan morfem sebagai ujarananak dalam bahasanya sehari-hari.Kata-kata kunci: morfem bebas, morfem terika

This study sought to determine the sequence of L2 morpheme presentation, as well as to determine whether or not the sequence of morpheme presentations correspond with the recognized natural order of morpheme acquisition in English Language Teaching course books utilized with young adult learners at a public sector vocational education institution in Thailand. Qualitative analysis was employed in the scrutinizing of twelve beginner and elementary level ESL and EFL learners course books that have been utilized as the primary teaching material for over a decade by the general education department of the institute. This examination revealed that the morpheme presentation sequence within the selected ELT course books was not analogous with the conclusions in the supporting literature. The findings further indicated that the widely accepted viewpoint of natural order morpheme acquisition was likewise not substantially reflected within the analyzed texts. Albeit, earlier studies have found that an unnatural sequence of morpheme presentation in EFL course books may hamper communicative competence in English, further study is required to establish if this may be a contributing factor for the overall low English proficiency of adult L2 learners in Thailand.

The present study aims to examine the acquisition of English lexical morphemes - i.e. past –ed marker and plural –s marker on nouns, in L2 (second language) English within the framework of Processability Theory (henceforth PT). The participant of this research was LE, an Indonesian learner learning English as L2 in an instructional context. The data in the form of essay written by LE was collected longitudinally at four points in time during the period of four months. Based on the data, a distributional analysis was carried out, and then the findings were analysed by using the implicational scaling in accordance with the emergence criterion in order to determine the points of acquisition of the two morphological forms under scrutiny. The research finding indicates that the acquisition points of the lexical morphemes appear to follow PT’s predictions, where the emergence point of past –ed marker and plural –s marker occurred at comparatively the same point in time as hypothesised in PT. Moreover, the finding of this research reveals that the predictions of PT seem to be followed in L2 written English; it indicates PT’s capacity to account for morphological acquisition in both written and spoken language production. Keywords: processability theory, L2 acquisition, lexical morpheme

Purpose The purpose of this analysis was to understand how grammatical morpheme production in Spanish for typically developing Spanish–English bilingual children relates to mean length of utterance in words (MLUw) and the extent to which different bilingual profiles influence order of grammatical morpheme acquisition. Method Participants included 228 Spanish–English bilingual children ages 4;0–7;6 (years;months). Grammatical morpheme accuracy was evaluated using an experimental version of the Bilingual English–Spanish Assessment (Peña, Gutiérrez-Clellen, Iglesias, Goldstein, & Bedore, 2014). MLUw data were calculated from children's narrative samples. Production accuracy of plural nouns, singular and plural definite articles, preterite tense, imperfect aspect, direct object clitics, prepositions, subjunctive, and conjunctions was calculated and analyzed as a function of MLUw in Spanish. Level of accuracy on these forms was compared for Spanish-dominant and English-dominant groups. Results Accuracy was significantly associated with MLUw. The relative difficulty of Spanish grammatical morphemes is highly similar across different bilingual profiles. Conclusions There are common elements of Spanish that are easy (imperfect, plural nouns, singular articles, conjunctions), medium (plural articles, preterite), or hard (prepositions, direct object clitics, subjunctive), regardless of whether a child is a Spanish-dominant or English-dominant bilingual.

ABSTRACTSamples of the communicative behavior of a group of higher-level mentally retarded adults engaged in conversation with peers were examined for indications of mature linguistic competence, specifically, grammatical morpheme and complex sentence use. The findings confirmed the expectation that the eventual level of mastery of these aspects of linguistic competence in higher-level retarded individuals is relatively high. Evidence for a normal developmental progression in the mastery of the grammatical morphemes was also forthcoming. In an analysis of individual complex sentence structures, no relationship was found between relative frequency of use of different types of complex sentences and presumed order of acquisition. However, subjects' ability to combine complex sentences did appear to be related to the presumed order of acquisition, although other factors may have also contributed to this relationship. Unexpectedly, a significant negative correlation was observed between relative frequency of complex sentence use and an estimate of conversational communicative competence. A possible reason for this finding was discussed.

This article surveys the development of second language acquisition research in the area of tense and aspect. Research in the area has grown from the incidental investigation of tense-aspect morphology as part of the morpheme-order studies to investigations of the construction of interlanguage temporal semantics. Going beyond verbal morphology, many studies investigate a full range of temporal expression, including the use of pragmatic and lexical means. Much recent research also draws on theories of inherent, or lexical, aspect. An emphasis on the relation of form and meaning characterizes both the form-oriented approach and the semantic-oriented approach, the competing research paradigms that currently guide our work. The increase in scholarly activity in this domain of second language acquisition, as reflected not only in the number of studies undertaken but in the number of target languages investigated, bodes well for the understanding of temporality in second language.

AbstractThe authors analyzed 104 language samples, obtained from 42 different normal language learning children at 25, 29, and 35 months of age, for the proportional use of 11 grammatical morphemes: plural -s, possessive 's, progressive -ing, regular and irregular past, and regular and irregular present, as well as the contractible and uncontractible forms of the copula and auxiliary to be. Wide variability was found among the samples in the proportional use of each morpheme, whether the samples were grouped by age or mean length of utterance (MLU). At ages 25 and 29 months, the range of proportional use was over .95 for 9 of the 11 morphemes, and at 35 months, it was .50 or greater for 8. At an MLU level of 2.50–2.99, the range of scores was .90 or greater for 8 of the morphemes, and over .65 for the remaining 3. By MLUs of 4.00 or more, ranges had narrowed but were still .50 or greater for 4 of the morphemes. Rank order of acquisition by MLU level varied somewhat from that previously reported in the literature (e.g., contractible copula was ranked higher and irregular past was ranked lower than has been reported in other studies). Correlations of MLU and morpheme use ranged from .11 to .74, with rho > .60 for only 3 and <.35 for 4 morphemes. Comparisons of these data with those reported in the literature on specifically language-impaired (SLI) children indicated that group means were generally lower for SLI children, but that many of the SLI children's scores overlapped with those of the children studied here.

The production of the grammatical morphemes studied by Brown and his colleagues was examined in free speech samples from a cohort of 4-year-olds with a history of slow expressive language development (SELD) and a control group of normal speakers. Results suggest that children with SELD acquire morphemes in an order very similar to that shown in previous acquisition research. Children who were slow to begin talking at age 2 and who continued to evidence delayed expressive language development by age 4 showed mastery of the four earliest acquired grammatical morphemes, as would be expected, based on their MLUs, which fell at Early Stage IV. Four-year-olds with normal language histories produced all but one of the grammatical morphemes with more than 90% accuracy, as would be expected based on their late Stage V MLUs. Children who were slow to acquire expressive language as toddlers, but who "caught up" in terms of sentence length by age 4 did not differ in MLU from their peers with normal language histories. However, they had acquired fewer of the grammatical morphemes. The implications of these findings for understanding the phenomenon of slow expressive language development are discussed.

Does young bilingual children's code-mixing obey the same structural constraints as bilingual adults' code-mixing? The present study addresses this question using code-mixing data from 15 French–English bilingual children filmed in conversation with both parents at six-month intervals from the age of 2;0 to 3;6. The children's code-mixed utterances were examined for violations of the principles set out in the Matrix-Language Frame model (e.g. Myers-Scotton, 1993, 1997). The results show that the children obeyed all the constraints set out in the Matrix Language Frame model the majority of the time. With respect to the Morpheme Order Principle and to the interaction of Congruence and Matrix Language Blocking, they demonstrated consistent adherence with only marginal violations from the outset. In contrast, the children produced comparatively more frequent violations of the System Morpheme Principle and showed increasing adherence to this principle over time. We discuss possible explanations for the contrast between the children's performance on the System Morpheme Principle and the other constraints, which include the unequal emergence of INFL in the acquisition of French and English.

ABSTRACTThis study examined the spoken English development of a hearing child of deaf parents who used American Sign Language (ASL). The child first learned ASL in interactions with his parents and later developed spoken English outside the home environment. It was hypothesized that the child's acquisition of spoken English would systematically reflect both expected monolingual developmental patterns and interlinguistic transfer. Four areas of mismatch between ASL and spoken English were identified. Language sample data from ages 2;9–5;2 were examined for evidence to evaluate the hypotheses. Features that reflected the simultaneous versus sequential mismatch between ASL and English, undifferentiated versus differentiated aspects, free versus bound morpheme mechanisms, and word-order differences provided evidence of ASL influence on spoken English acquisition. Although not extensive, ASL appears to have exerted consistent influence on several areas of the child's spoken English development.

Second language acquisition (SLA) generates and tests the theories concerning the acquisition of languages other than first language (L1) in different contexts. Even if SLA is a nascent discipline, its history is remarkable and helpful to seek the answers to the questions that researchers are raising in the field of second language or foreign language. Based on this context, this article aims to recount the history of the burgeoning discipline that heavily draws from numerous disciplines like linguistics, psychology, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and so on. To achieve the objective, document analysis method has been used. The analysis and interpretation of the available documents exhibit that the traces of SLA were observed in the studies that address the issue of language transfer. Specifically, the diachronic study proves that the development of the discipline has undergone three evolving phases like background, formative, and developmental. The background phase caters for behaviourism, contrastive analysis hypothesis, and the attacks on the fundamental premises of behaviourism. The formative phase deals with Chomsky’s revolutionary steps, error analysis, interlanguane theory, morpheme order studies, and the Krashen’s monitor model that opened up the avenues for further studies of SLA. The developmental phase recounts various studies that have consolidated SLA as a separate discipline.

AbstractThis study examines the morphosyntactic constraints on Cree-English intrasentential codeswitching involving mixed nominal expressions to test the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model. The MLF model is one of the most influential frameworks in the field of contact linguistics used in the study of grammatical aspects of codeswitching and other contact-induced phenomena. The three principles associated with MLF, viz., the Matrix Language Principle, the Asymmetry Principle and the Uniform Structure Principle, were tested on data consisting of 10 video recordings (constituting of 323 tokens of English nouns in mixed utterances) collected from the speech of a Cree child, aged 04;06 - 06;00. The data is drawn from Pile’s (2018) thesis which is based on the data collected from the Chisasibi Child Language Acquisition Study (CCLAS). The results of the analyses suggest general support for the three principles since, in the entire data set, not a single counter example has been recorded. The Cree-English bilingual data appears asymmetrical in structure, where the Matrix Language, namely Cree, provides morpheme order and outsider late system morphemes, and consequently, is responsible for the well-formedness and morphosyntactic frame of bilingual clauses..

To understand the principles of second language acquisition, we could adopt a variety of perspective. Research on second language acquisition (SLA) by children and adults is characterized by many different subfields and perspectives, both cognitive and social in orientation. Although children feature as participants in this research, it is relatively rare to find reviews or overviews of SLA that deal specifically with child SLA although there are a few important exceptions. This general lack of focus on children’s SLA is somewhat surprising, considering that data from children as first language learners have often provided a basis and impetus for SLA theorizing. Among the best-known first language studies to prove influential was Brown’s seminal work showing a predictable order of morpheme acquisition by children under the age of three. Many early years settings now welcome children and families from different cultures who use languages other than English. Young children who are starting to learn English as an additional language may also be attending a nursery school, pre-school, day nursery or child-minder perhaps for the first time. They will bring with them many skills and experiences from their home culture and will be both anxious and excited about their new situation. A good foundation for learning English as an additional language is embedded in quality early years practice. To know more about the principle of second language acquisition in children, this paper will present some issues related with it such as the nature and the role of language learning and the logical problem in language learning.

<p>There are some factors regarding which aspect of second language acquisition is affected by individual learner factors, age, learning style. aptitude, motivation, and personality.<strong> </strong>This research is about English language acquisition of fourth-year child by nature and nurture. The child acquired her second language acquisition at home and also in one of the courses in Jakarta. She schooled by her parents in order to be able to speak English well as a target language for her future time. The purpose of this paper is to see and examine individual learner difference especially in using English as a second language. This study is a library research and retrieved data collected, recorded, transcribed, and analyzed descriptively. The results can be concluded: the child is able to communicate well and also able to construct simple sentences, complex sentences, sentence statement, phrase questions, and explain something when her teacher asks her at school. She is able to communicate by making a simple sentence or compound sentence in well-form (two clauses or three clauses), even though she still not focus to use the past tense form and sometimes she forgets to put bound morpheme -s in third person singular but she can use turn-taking in her utterances. It is a very long process since the child does the second language acquisition. The family and teacher should participate and assist the child, the proven child can learn the first and the second language at the same time.</p>

<p>Even though <em>–ing</em> form is acquired earlier based on the natural order hypotheses of L2 morpheme acquisition, it remains difficult for L2 learners to acquire mainly for those who are not frequently exposed to the targeted linguistic feature inputs. A number of investigations were already carried out to find out the frequency effect on the acquisition of verbs as a complement (gerund and infinitive), yet this paper was designed to identify the role of frequency on the acquisition of English <em>–ing</em> form structure by Indonesia L2 learners. Participants consisted of four groups from different semester (1,3,5, and 7). Each semester also indicated various language exposure experienced by L2 learners. Each group comprised 10 participants. Data were collected by employing the writing test to elicit <em>–ing</em> form production including interview and observation. The coding of students’ composition was carried out to determine the correct productions—which were scored to interpret frequency effect on students’ acquisition and their misconceptions in composing a sentence containing –<em>ing</em> forms. The findings revealed that the rate of frequency inputs of –<em>ing</em> form structure accessed by learners fairly contributed to students’ constructional schemas in accordance with the high score. Each word possessed various frequency inputs of distribution which then led them to any deviant production. In addition, intra-lingual errors were responsible for any misconception perceived by learners (overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restriction, and false concepts hypothesized). </p>

An issue currently being debated in second language acquisition research is whether negative evidence (i.e., information to the learner that his or her utterance is ungrammatical) plays a positive role in the acquisition of the L2. Some researchers, such as White (1991a; 1991b) and Carroll and Swain (1993), have argued that negative evidence has positive effects while others (see, for example, Schwartz and Gubala-Ryzak, 1992) are sceptical about such effects. In this article, we report the results of a small-scale study that investigated the effects of formal instruction on the acquisition of the English passive by native speakers of Japanese. Japanese has both the ‘direct’ and ‘indirect passive’, whereas English only has the direct passive. The ‘indirect passive’ is possible in Japanese because of the dual status of the passive morpheme rare, which can function not only as a non-thematic (auxiliary) verbal element but also as a lexical/thematic verb. A learnability problem posed by the differences between Japanese and English is that Japanese ESL learners may initially treat the passive auxiliary be in English as being similar to rare in Japanese and thus assume that English, like Japanese, allows not only the ‘direct passive’ but also the ‘indirect passive’. Negative evidence will, therefore, be necessary in order to enable them to arrive at the correct L2 grammar. A group of Japanese ESL learners, who were pretested on the English passive, were placed in an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group was explicitly instructed on the impossibility of the indirect passive in English, whereas the control group was not. Following instruction, both groups were post-tested. The results indicated that the experimental group improved dramatically, whereas the control group did not.

In order to provide authors of text books with empirical data on the acquisition in Dutch of written morphology in nouns, verbs and adjectives, several empirical studies were undertaken. In this article, the second study is reported on the performance of the morpheme -en in a special case of adjectives in Dutch: material adjectives such as 'gouden' (gold). The study tried to determine factors which affect the performance in reading and writing. Factors involved were two interference factors (plural in adjacent nouns; normal adjectives), cognitive task (comprehension versus writing) and two syntactic factors (grammatical function and position in the sentence of the constituent. Subjects (n=80, grades 6 and 7, from four schools) individually completed a comprehension and a production task in which factors were systematically varied. No effects of cognitive task were observed. Therefore only results for the production task were reported in detail. It turned out that material adjectives were more difficult than normal adjectives, and that within the category of material adjectives two subcategories should be distinguished, the easier one in which the morpheme is preceded by a stressed syllable as in 'gouden', and the more difficult one in which this is not the case, as in 'zilveren'. Of the two syntactic factors, only the grammatical function seems to affect the performance: adjectives in constituents with subject function were more difficult than adjectives with other grammatical functions; interactions between group and category of adjectives were found. Of the two interference factors, both factors seemed to affect performance.

We begin by reviewing data from Korean, Turkish, Italian and Spanish-speaking adults acquiring German without formal instruction. Our findings have shown that these learners transfer their L1 VPs: the Korean and Turkish speakers transfer a head-final VP and the Italian and Spanish speakers first transfer a head-initial VP and then switch its headedness to the correct, head-final value for German. Although functional projections in Korean and Turkish are head-final and in Italian and Spanish head-initial, all four groups of learners subsequently posit head-initial functional projections in German (which are not always target-like). We conclude that only lexical projections constitute the L2 learner's initial state; the development of functional projections is driven solely by the interaction of X'-Theory with the target-language input. We then discuss some studies on the acquisition of French by English speakers and of English by speakers of various L1s which purport to bring evidence to bear against our approach. Upon closer examination, the evidence turns out to offer further support for the position that the sole projections which the learner transfers from the L1 are lexical ones. Finally, we account for potentially problematic verb-raising data from French learners of English. Rather than taking the stance that French raising to Agr is transferred, we propose that L2 learners' identification of free morphemes as salient triggers leads to a misanalysis of verb raising in English. We also apply this idea to a reanalysis of the morpheme-order studies of the 1970s.

The Afro-Hispanic creole, Palenquero, has been spoken (together with Spanish) in the village of San Basilio de Palenque, Colombia, for centuries. Until recently, Palenquero was endangered due to prejudice, but language revitalization efforts are underway, and younger speakers are learning Palenquero, but with little reinforcement out of school. The school instruction involves no grammatical explanations, almost no student production, or critical feedback. Adult speakers usually do not address younger speakers in Palenquero, thus leaving school-acquired forms suspended without reinforcement. This represents a unique scenario of heritage acquisition of a language with no bidirectional communication between younger and adult speakers. The present study focuses on the use of preverbal particles and prenominal plural marker by heritage speakers of Palenquero before and after explicit instruction. Communication activities explicitly presented the prenominal plural ma and preverbal particles, such as zero morpheme (simple present), asé (habitual), ta (progressive), a (perfective/simple past) and tan (future). Participants performed better at the post-test and results suggest that explicit explanation of grammatical rules, practice, repetition, and corrective feedback improved the usage of ma and tan. This result lines up with previous studies that posit the amount of time and exposure that learners need in order to acquire complex morphology.

In order to provide textbook authors with empirical data on the acquisition in Dutch of written morphology in nouns, verbs and adjectives, several empirical studies have been undertaken. In this article, the third study reports on the performance of the morpheme -e in a special case of adjectives in Dutch: the adjectives derived from participles. The study tries to determine the possible interference between the morphological rules for verb inflection (past tense) and adjective declension in reading and writing. Five classes of adjectives were distinguished according to order of relative difficulty established a priori. Subjects (n=157, grade 6, 7 and 8 from two schools) individually completed a compre-hension and a production task in which factors were systematically varied. Also a recognition test on the spelling of the past tense of verbs was administered. The results showed an effect of categories of verbal adjectives in the production task, but only for groups 7 and 8; group 6 was not sensitive to the differences between the categories. In the recognition task, no effect of type of adjective (verbal or normal) was found for groups 7 and 8; but for group 6, performance on verbal adjectives was lower for the three most difficult categories of adjectives. In the production task, all three groups performed lower on verbal adjectives than normal adjectives in the two most difficult categories of adjectives. It turned out that groups which acquired spelling rules for the past tense of verbs to a higher level, made more errors in the spelling of verbal adjectives, especially in the two categories of adjectives which related the strongest to the spelling of verbs. It was concluded that indications were found that negative transfer or interference is present. Authors recommend changing the order of phases in which spelling rules are trained: from 'adjective declension-verb inflection (past tense)-verbal adjective declension' to 'adjective declension (including verbal adjective declension)-verb declension (past tense).

This paper investigates the order of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes in the interlanguage of Croatian pupils of English as a foreign language (EFL). The order of acquisition was determined for nine grammatical morphemes. Additionally, the selected morphemes were combined to form the four verb tenses so as to determine the order of their emergence in the pupils’ verb-morphology repertoire. The study was conducted on a corpus of 36 transcribed recordings of parts of classroom interaction. The pupils’ speech production was elicited by various task-based activities. The suppliance of nine grammatical morphemes was investigated by means of obligatory occasion analysis (Brown 1973) which examined their obligatory and correct use. The obtained results revealed progress only in the acquisition of the present tense copula be. The emergence of verb tenses was partly identified due to the insufficient suppliance of grammatical morphemes in the pupils’ speech production.

Aspect shows cross-linguistic variation, and the role of the first language in the acquisition of aspect is often discussed in second language literature. However, whether L1 transfer actually occurs in the areas of grammar is controversial. In this paper, I discuss the aspectual characteristics of English and Japanese associated with their aspectual verb classes, which show both similarities and differences between the languages. Japanese learners of English are predicted to have difficulty in associating the form with the meaning and transfer L1 features when learning aspectual properties of English. In order to investigate this prediction, I examine whether the learners transfer the L1 interpretations associated with the verb classes and the aspectual morpheme when learning English aspect. I then discuss effective instruction for teaching aspect and introduce instructional materials designed to be used for Japanese learners of English. アスペクトには言語特有の特徴が見られ、第二言語習得における母語の影響がしばしば指摘されている。しかしながら、文法習得において母語の転移が起こるか否については意見の統一が見られていない。本論文は、英語と日本語それぞれの動詞のアスペクトによる分類に基づく特徴と両言語の類似点及び相違点について述べ、日本語母語話者が英語のアスペクトを学ぶ際に母語の転移が起こるかについて考察する。さらに、日本語母語話者を対象とした英語のアスペクトの効果的な指導方法を考察しその教材を紹介する。

This research paper analyzes the extent to which Arabic-speaking EFL learners are aware of the English plural morphemes and whether they are able to recognize them in context. The study also investigates whether the participants’ English proficiency level may play a role in their ability to recognize these morphemes. For the purpose of the study, we designed a Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT), which was by sixty students from Al Ain University of Science and Technology, Al Ain, The United Arab Emirates (UAE), to elicit data. The sentences used in the test were adapted and modified from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) in order to suit the students’ English proficiency level. The results revealed that there is a little awareness of the English plural morphemes among Arabic-speaking EFL learners. In addition, the participants’ English proficiency level had a little effect on the participants’ use of English plural morphemes. Finally, the paper concluded with some pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research.

The aim of the present study was to investigate,in vivo, the effect of aBrugmansia arboreaextract (BRU), chromatographic fractions (FA and FNA), and isolated alkaloids on the expression and the acquisition of morphine tolerance and dependence. Substances were acutely (for expression) or repeatedly (for acquisition) administered in mice treated with morphine twice daily for 5 or 6 days, in order to make them tolerant or dependent. Morphine tolerance was assessed using the tail-flick test at 1st and 5th days. Morphine dependence was evaluated through the manifestation of withdrawal symptoms induced by naloxone injection at 6th day. Results showed that BRU significantly reduced the expression of morphine tolerance, while it was ineffective to modulate its acquisition. Chromatographic fractions and pure alkaloids failed to reduce morphine tolerance. Conversely BRU, FA, and pure alkaloids administrations significantly attenuated both development and expression of morphine dependence. These data suggest thatBrugmansia arboreaLagerh might have human therapeutic potential for treatment of opioid addiction.

This study investigates the acquisition of inflectional prefixes in Swahili, an eastern Bantu language. The order of morphemes in adult Swahili is: Subject Agreement – Tense – (Object Agreement) –Verb Root – (derivational suffixes) –Mood Vowel. I present data from an original corpus of 4 Swahili-speaking children (ages 1;8-3;0) who were recorded in Nairobi, Kenya. An analysis of the children’s verbal utterances reveals that four clause types occur in the speech of all four children: a. Agr–T–Verb StemFull Clause b. Ø–T–Verb Stem[-SA] Clause c. Agr–Ø–Verb Stem[-T] Clause d. ؖؖVerb StemBare Verb Stem Of these four, only full clauses and [-SA] clauses are permitted by adults in this non-standard dialect of Swahili. A review of five influential theories on the acquisition of morphosyntax (the Metrical Omission Model, Gerken, 1991; the Truncation Hypothesis, Rizzi, 1994; the Underspecification of T, Wexler, 1994; the underspecification of Agr, Clahsen et al. , 1996; and the underspecification of Agr and T, Schütze & Wexler, 1996) shows that the data support the Agr-Tense Omission Model (Schütze & Wexler, 1996) in showing that agreement and tense may be optionally and independently underspecified.

An area of considerable interest in second language (L2) acquisition is the difficulties learners face with the acquisition of articles. This article examines the role of prosody in the acquisition of articles by an endstate L2 English speaker focusing on the free morphemes the and a. In order to analyse the articles produced by a Turkish speaker named SD, we used the Praat (Boersma and Weenink, 2006) phonetic analysis software to determine the prosodic shape of each article in article + noun configurations and article + adjective + noun configurations. The aim of the analysis is to see whether a more detailed analysis of the data would be fully consistent with the strong or weak interpretation of the Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis. The findings of our analysis show that SD produces a large percentage of stressed articles, which are non target-like. We discuss the implications of our analysis for the interlanguage representation of articles by SD as well as the Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis.

ABSTRACTThis study tracked the order in which ten beginning spellers (M age=5 ; 05; SD=0·21 years) mastered the correct spellings of common inflectional suffixes in English. Spellings from children's journals from kindergarten and grade 1 were coded. An inflectional suffix was judged to be mastered when children spelled it accurately in 90 percent of the contexts in which it was grammatically required, a criterion used to study the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in oral language. The results indicated that the order in which children learned to spell inflectional suffixes correctly is similar to the order in which they learn to use them in oral language, before school age. Discrepancies between the order of mastery for inflectional suffixes in written and oral language are discussed in terms of English spelling conventions, which introduce variables into the spelling of inflected words that are not present in oral language.

Introduction and objective: ziconotide is the first-in-class drug of selective N-type voltage-sensitive calcium-channel blockers used to control severe chronic pain. The present study is developed in order to analyze clinical and economical outcomes of spinal neuromodulation with ziconotide continuous infusion in cancer pain in a real clinical practice.Methods: costs and effects of ziconotide are compared with those of traditional neuromodulation with morphine and adjuvant drugs, administered by intrathecal infusion.Effectiveness and resources consumption data were retrospectively collected in 22 patients with severe complex cancer pain followed by one Italian centre from the day of port implantation to drop-out , due to death or consent withdrawal. 11 patients received morphine regimens and the other 11 were treated with ziconotide. The evaluation of the number of days with controlled pain (i.e., with an at least 30% reduction on the Numeric Rating Scale-Pain Intensity, NRSPI) is the primary outcome of the analysis. The evaluated consumed health resources include drugs, visits, port maintenance, and pump recharge and amortization. Current Italian prices, real practice acquisition and remuneration costs borne by the third payer are applied.Results: patients receiving ziconotide lived significantly more days with controlled pain (78% vs 40%; p < 0.05). Average weekly cost is about 232 € for ziconotide and 120 € for morphine; the main driver being the pharmaceutical cost (respectively 81% and 65% of the total). Higher ziconotide acquisition costs are partially offset by minor expenses for adjuvant therapies, as ziconotide-treated patients on average receive a lower number of drugs than those receiving a traditional regimen. The incremental cost for one further day with controlled pain resulted of 42,30 €.Conclusions: ziconotide permits effective treatment of extremely difficult-to-manage pain, with a mild increment of cost, as compared to intrathecal morphine-based therapy.

We introduce a model of Hebrew reading development that emphasizes both the universal and script-specific aspects of learning to read a Semitic abjad. At the universal level, the study of Hebrew reading acquisition offers valuable insights into the fundamental dilemmas of all writing systems—balancing the competing needs of the novice versus the expert reader (Share, 2008). At the script-specific level, pointed Hebrew initially employs supplementary vowel signs, providing the beginning reader a consistent, phonologically well-specified script while helping the expert-to-be unitize words and morphemes via (consonantal) spelling constancy. A major challenge for the developing Hebrew reader is negotiating the transition from pointed to unpointed Hebrew, with its abundance of homographs. Our triplex model emphasizes three phases of early Hebrew reading development: a progression from lower-order, phonological (sublexical) sequential spelling-to-sound translation (Phase 1, Grade 1) to higher-order, string-level (lexical) lexico-morpho-orthographic processing (Phase 2, Grade 2) followed, in the upper elementary grades, by a supralexical contextual level (Phase 3) essential for dealing with the pervasive homography of unpointed Hebrew.

The acquisition of verb morphology is often studied using categorical criteria for determining the productivity of a morpheme. Applying this approach to Japanese, an agglutinative language, this study finds no consistent order for morpheme acquisition and that productivity could be explained by sampling effects. To examine morpheme acquisition using more graded measures of productivity, the authors compared various regression models for predicting the age of acquisition of 311 verb forms across a large combined corpus of seven Japanese-speaking children (aged 1;1–5;1). Complex forms were learned earlier than frequency-matched simple forms, and morpheme ending identity explained substantial variation. Both of these findings suggest that children have some segmented morphemes and have learned some of their semantic/pragmatic characteristics. Sampling would predict that verb form acquisition would be sensitive to lemma and ending frequency, but acquisition was also sensitive to aspects of input frequency that were independent of these factors, and this suggests that children are encoding whole verb forms in addition to creating forms with compositional morphological rules.

This study aimed to investigate the hypothesis that there appears a systematic order of the acquisition of past tenses. It is claimed that irregular past tense verbs are acquired earlier than regular past tense verbs. In comparison to the acquisition of irregular and regular past verbs, the acquisition of the past copula be forms `was` and `were` is believed to take place much earlier. To test this hypothesis, the data were collected from forty-six students who were asked to write an essay with a minimum of 250 words to get data of the use of past tenses. The findings reveal partial support for the hypothesis, suggesting that the universal order of morpheme acquisition may not be a stable phenomenon.

This article focuses on the acquisition of German verb inflection by native speakers of Thai, an isolated language which has no concept of inflection at all. The acquisition process of German verb morphology is analyzed based on all the verb inflectional affixes found in the corpus consisting of spontaneous utterances in Standard German produced by16 female immigrants living in German-speaking Switzerland. It aims to find out a systematic acquisition order of verb inflectional morphemes and the explanation to this sequence, especially to answer the following four questions: 1) What is the acquisition order of verb inflectional morphemes found in this group of informants 2) Are there any differences between the acquisition of finite and that of non-finite verbs? 3) Are there any differences in the verb morphology acquisition of different types of verbs? 4) Does the acquisition of verb inflection by these informants share more similiarities with the instructed or with the natural acquisition of German as a second language?

AbstractA morphological asymmetry is shared by certain Dravidian (and Finnic) languages. The phonological shape of a negation element is dependent on the finiteness of the verb it negates. Pragmatic factors are identified that could motivate the development of this shared asymmetry, using evidence from the grammar of a Dravidian-influenced contact language. I will show that contrastive finiteness marking (finite and non-finite morphology) can facilitate the development of pragmatically-motivated linear reordering of affirmative clauses and negated clauses in order to accommodate new information structure conventions, extending the contrast to negated verbs by expanding the functional range of a negative imperative marker.Radical contact languages resulting from collective adult second language acquisition in naturalistic social contexts are typically presumed to feature reduced functional morphology, in which only highly salient contrasts, such as temporal contrasts, are formally instantiated. If a formal finiteness contrast and other relatively marked properties (“complexity”) could develop in a highly analytic contact language that did not previously have them, this suggests that such a sequence of changes is in fact as plausible among genetically-unrelated languages in a sprachbund as it is over longer periods of time in genetically-related languages. We can observe this by examining grammatical change in a language that previously lacked both a finiteness contrast and a corresponding negation asymmetry, but which developed both the contrast and the asymmetry as a result of contact with a genetically-unrelated language that has analogous properties.Sri Lankan Malay (SLM) has undergone grammatical change due to contact with Dravidian (primarily Sri Lankan Muslim Tamil). Several of these changes involve verb morphology and syntax, and are plausibly motivated by discourse-pragmatic triggers. Consideration of tense and (non-)finiteness phenomena, as well as their reflexes in SLM negation, suggests a discourse-pragmatic motivation for these changes. Two discourse processes could conspire to motivate the development of the new morphology in SLM. The first is a clausal asymmetry, in which the predicate representing the most recent event is ordinarily in focus, indicated by tense morphology and position of the clause relative to clauses referring to subsequent events. The second is the communicative need to reassign focus in certain contexts to a temporally non-primary clause, one referring to an event that did not take place first. In spite of a constraint in Dravidian languages blocking the marking of functional contrasts under negation (so that only a negation morpheme can be prefixed to the verb), negation morphology encodes an obligatory finiteness contrast, optimally supporting these information-structuring processes. The clause describing the most recent event in a sentence remains visibly finite under negation, when a temporally secondary clause is focused.

Abstract Background Several studies have shown that glutamate neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) is required for the development of morphine-induced conditional place preference (CPP). In addition, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in NAc play important roles in the reward pathways. However, the precise role of mGluR4 in different steps of the morphine-induced CPP is less well known. In the present study the effect of bilateral intra-accumbal infusion of VU0155041, as a specific mGluR4 agonist on the acquisition and expression of morphine induced CPP in male Wistar rats was investigated. The animals were bilaterally implanted with guide cannulae above the NAc. In the first step of the study, the VU0155041 was administered at doses of 10, 30 and 50 μg/0.5 μL saline per side into the NAc during the 3 days of morphine (5 mg/kg) conditioning (acquisition) phase of morphine-induced CPP. In the second step of the study, the rats bilaterally received VU0155041 at the dose of 50 μg/0.5 μL, 5 min before the post-conditioning test in order to check the effect of VU0155041 on the expression of morphine-induced CPP. Results The results showed that the intra-accumbal injection of VU0155041 inhibits the acquisition of morphine-induced CPP in a dose dependent manner, but had no effect on expression. Conclusions The data indicated that intra-NAc administration of VU0155041 dose dependently blocks the establishment of morphine-induced CPP and reduces the rewarding properties of morphine. These effects may be related to changes in glutamate activity in the NAC and/or learning dependent mechanism of glutamate neurotransmission in reward pathway(s).

05–396Altenberg, Evelyn P. (Hofstra U, USA; sphepa@hofstra.edu), The perception of word boundaries in a second language. Second Language Research (London, UK) 21.4 (2005), 325–358.05–397Baker, Wendy (Brigham Young U, USA) & Pavel Trofimovich, Interaction of native- and second-language vowel system(s) in early and late bilinguals. Language and Speech (Twickenham, UK) 48.1 (2005), 1–27.05–398Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen (Indiana U, USA; bardovi@indiana.edu) & Robert Griffin, L2 pragmatic awareness: evidence from the ESL classroom. System (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 33.3 (2005), 401–415.05–399Barron, Anne (Universität Bonn, Germany; a.barron@uni-bonn.de), Variational pragmatics in the foreign language classroom. System (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 33.3 (2005), 519–536.05–400Barwell, Richard (U of Bristol, UK; richard.barwell@bris.ac.uk), Working on arithmetic word problems when English is an additional language. British Educational Research Journal (Abingdon, UK) 31.3 (2005), 329–348.05–401Benazzo, Sandra (CNRS & U of Lille 3, France), L'expression de la causalité dans le discours narratif en français L1 et L2 [The expression of causality in French narrative discourse]. Langages (Paris, France) 155 (2005), 33–51.05–402Carroll, Susanne E. (U of Potsdam, Germany; carroll@rz.uni-potsdam.de), Input and SLA: adults' sensitivity to different sorts of cues to French gender. Language Learning (Malden, MA, USA) 55.S1 (2005), 177, 79–138.05–403Chamot, Anna Uhl (George Washington U, Washington, DC, USA; auchamot@gwu.edu), Language learning strategy instruction: current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Cambridge, UK) 25 (2005), 112–130.05–404Chen, Aoju (Max-Planck-Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands), Carlos Gussenhoven & Toni Rietveld, Language-specificity in the perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning. Language and Speech (Twickenham, UK) 47.4 (2004), 311–349.05–405Cheng, Gao Yihong, Ying Zhao Yuan & Zhou Yan (Peking U, China; gaoyh@pku), Self-identity changes and English learning among Chinese undergraduates. World Englishes (Oxford, UK) 24.1 (2005), 39–51.05–406Chew, Kheng-Suan (Hong Kong Baptist U, Hong Kong, China; kschew@hkbu.edu.hk), An investigation of the English language skills used by new entrants in banks in Hong Kong. English for Specific Purposes (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 24.4 (2005), 423–435.05–407Chieh-Fang, Hu (Taipei Municipal Teacher's College, Taiwan, China; cfhu@tmtc.edu.tw) & C. Melanie Schuele, Learning non-native names: the effect of poor native phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK) 26.3 (2005), 343–362.05–408Clachar, Arlene (U of Miami, USA; aclachar@miami.edu), Creole English speakers' treatment of tense-aspect morphology in English interlanguage written discourse. Language Learning (Malden, MA, UK) 55.2 (2005), 275–334.05–409Clark, Martyn K. & Saori Ishida (U of Hawai'i, Manoa, USA; martync@hawaii.edu), Vocabulary knowledge differences between placed and promoted EAP students. Journal of English for Academic Purposes (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 4.3 (2005), 225–238.05–410Dahl, Tove I., Margrethe Bals & Anne Lene Turi (U of Tromsø, Norway; tdahl@psyk.uit.no), Are students' beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with their reported use of learning strategies?British Journal of Educational Psychology (Leicester, UK) 75.2 (2005), 257–273.05–411Dalton-Puffer, Christiane (U of Vienna, Austria; christiane.dalton-puffer@univie.ac.at), Negotiating interpersonal meanings in naturalistic classroom discourse: directives in content-and-language-integrated classrooms. Journal of Pragmatics37.8 (2005), 1275–1293.05–412DaSilva, Iddings & Ana Christina (Vanderbilt U, USA), Linguistic access and participation: English language learners in an English-dominant community of practice. Bilingual Research Journal (Tempe, AZ, USA) 29.1 (2005), 165–183.05–413Davis, Adrian (Macao Polytechnic Institute, China), Teachers' and students' beliefs regarding aspects of language learning. Evaluation and Research in Education (Clevedon, UK) 17.4 (2004), 207–222.05–414De Angelis, Gessica (U of Toronto at Mississauga, Canada; gdeangel@utm.utoronto.ca), Interlanguage transfer of function words. Language Learning (Malden, MA, USA) 55.3 (2005), 379–414.05–415Dekydtspotter, Laurent (Indiana U, USA; ldekydts@indiana.edu) & Jon C. Hathorn, Quelque chose…de remarquable in English–French acquisition: mandatory, informationally encapsulated computations in second language interpretation. Second Language Research (London, UK) 21.4 (2005), 291–323.05–416Demagny, Annie-Claude (Université de Paris VIII, France) & Urszula Paprocka-Pietrowska, L'acquisition du lexique verbal et des connecteurs temporels dans les récits de fiction en français L1 et L2 [The acquisition of the lexis of verbs and of temporal connectors in the telling of fictional stories in French as L1 and L2]. Langages (Paris, France) 155 (2005), 52–75.05–417Dewaele, Jean-Marc (U of London; j.dewaele@bbk.ac.uk), Investigating the psychological and emotional dimensions in instructed language learning: obstacles and possibilities. The Modern Language Journal (Malden, MA, USA) 89.3 (2005), 367–380.05–418Fleckenstein, Kristie S. (Ball State U, Muncie, USA; kflecken@bsu.edu), Faceless students, virtual places: emergence and communal accountability in online classrooms. Computers and Composition (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 22.2 (2005), 149–176.05–419Goldschneider, Jennifer M. & Robert M. DeKeyser (U of Pittsburgh, USA; RDK1@pitt.edu), Explaining the ‘natural order of L2 morpheme acquisition’ in English: a meta-analysis of multiple determinants. Language Learning (Malden, MA, UK) 55.S1 (2005), 27–77.05–420Grüter, Theres (McGill U, Québec, Canada; theres.gruter@mail.mcgill.ca), Comprehension and production of French object clitics by child second language learners and children with specific language impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK) 26.3 (2005), 363–391.05–421Hincks, Rebecca (The Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden; hincks@speech.kth.se), Measures and perceptions of liveliness in student oral presentation speech: a proposal for automatic feedback mechanism. System (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 33.4 (2005), 575–591.05–422Huang, Jing (Zhanjiang Teachers U, China; peterjh@hkusua.hku.hk), A diary study of difficulties and constraints in EFL learning. 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(U of Texas, San Antonio, USA), English language learners left behind in Arizona: the nullification of accommodations in the intersection of federal and state policies. Bilingual Research Journal (Tempe, AZ, USA) 29.1 (2005), 1–29.05–457Zareva, Alla (Northern Arizona U, USA; Alla.Zareva@nau.ed), Models of lexical knowledge assessment of second language learners of English at higher levels of language proficiency. System (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 33.4 (2005), 547–562.05–458Zareva, Alla (Northern Arizona U, Flagstaff; Alla.Zareva@nau.edu), Paula Schwanenflugel & Yordanka Nikolova, Relationship between lexical competence and language proficiency: variable sensitivity. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge, UK) 27.4 (2005), 567–595.

<p><strong>1. Introduction. </strong>There exists an interesting paradox: English-speaking learners of Mandarin tend to significantly underuse the Resultative Verb Compounds in speech production tasks (Wen 1995 and 1997, Christensen 1997, Duff &amp; Li 2002) but at the same time demonstrate understanding of the compositional nature – and therefore, the meaning – of RVCs in sentence acceptability judgment tasks (Qiao 2008, Yuan &amp; Zhao 2011). In addition, learners significantly overuse the perfective aspect marker<em> –le.</em> The main goal of this study is to investigate this discrepancy and effect of <em>–le </em>on understanding of change-of-state events. Theoretical evidence suggests that speakers of two languages construe change of state in general and result specifically differently. I adapt the cognitive linguistics framework and specifically Talmy’s (1991, 2000) conceptual approach: namely, event conflation and crosslinguistic analysis of verbal patterns of how change-of-state is conceived and habitually expressed in English and Mandarin. </p><p> Following Talmy, I view both languages as belonging to a satellite-framed group of languages. However, there are several points in which English and Mandarin differ significantly with respect to understanding and thus linguistically expressing change of state. English speakers mainly use resultative verbs (<em>break</em>) and the resultative construction (<em>wipe the table dry</em>). And thus, in English, both the Resultative Construction and monomorphemic resultative verbs are habitually used to express change of state. With respect to Mandarin, it is commonly asserted that in order to convey change of state an RVC must be used. However, Mandarin also has a list of single-root verbs carrying resultative meaning. The perfective aspect marker <em>-le</em> is affixed to these verbs. For example, <em>zou-le </em>(leave-PFV) means ‘leave’ and <em>guan-le </em>(close-PFV) means ‘turn off’. Even thoughMandarin has a very limited number of monomorphemic resultatives, the most common way of expressing change-of-state situation is to use an RVC. One of the typical examples of RVCs is <em>ku-shi </em>(cry-wet):</p><p>(1) Ta <strong>ku- shi</strong> le shoujuan<em>. </em> <br /> He cry-wet PFV handkerchief<br /> ‘He cried the handkerchief wet.’</p><p> Lexically, RVCs are a combination of two or more morphemes (verbs or adjectives) forming a single verb (among many others, Chao 1968, Thompson 1973, Li &amp; Thompson 1981). The components of the RVC can be either transitive or intransitive with V₁ expressing a cause and V₂ expressing result. Syntactically, RVCs involve two or sometimes three verbs forming a construction that schematically looks like V₁+V₂. RVC acts like a single verb meaning that (1) nothing can be inserted between its constituents, (2) the aspect marker, which often accompanies RVCs, follows the compound treating it as one unit, and (3) arguments follow the entire RVC rather than being inserted between the action and result predicates (Chao 1968, Li &amp; Thompson 1981, Chen 2008). </p><p> Leonard Talmy’s (1991 and 2000) classification of English and Mandarin Resultatives shows that speakers of these two languages construe change-of-state events differently. It also provides the key-explanation of why there should be a problem with English speakers using Mandarin RVCs. First of all, English speakers view many change-of-state events as consisting of a single vent, where two subevents are conflated in such a way that speakers do not necessarily view this event as consisting of two subevents (take <em>kick</em>, for example). As a result, in addition to having a wide array of resultative constructions, English is rich in monomorphemic resultatives. Chinese speakers, on the other hand, for the vast majority of cases view resultative events as clearly consisting of two subevents. In order to say that Actor kicked Patient, an RVC <em>ti-zhao </em>(propel.the.foot.as.to.kick-come.into.contact.with) has to be used. An important factor that plays a role here is that Mandarin is rich in verbs with what Koenig and Chief (2008) call an <em>incompleteness effect</em> which is based on Talmy’s idea of <em>strength of implicature</em>. Secondly, if we look at classification of resultatives based on how speakers understand change of state events, we will find how exactly they differ. Talmy identified four patterns: (1) attainment fulfillment (<em>kick </em>something<em> flat</em>); (2) moot fulfillment (<em>hunt </em>somebody <em>down</em>); (3) implied fulfillment (<em>wash </em>something <em>clean</em>); (4) intrinsic fulfillment (<em>drown </em>as opposed to *<em>drown </em>somebody <em>dead</em>). English is rich in the first and fourth patterns when it comes to expressing change of state. It only has a few instances of the third pattern. Mandarin, however, has an extensively developed third pattern when if V₁is taken in isolation, it only implies that an action that took place with certain intention of a result and the implicature that the intention was realized. A V₂has to be used in order for an RVC to actually express realized change of state. In addition to this, in Mandarin a number of subtypes has developed where V₂ in addition to fulfillment and confirmation, also has ‘underfulfilment’, ‘overfulfilment’, ‘antifulfilment’, and ‘other event’ types of results. </p><p> What also has great influence on ability to use RVCs by English speakers is the perfective aspect marker <em>–le</em>, L2 acquisition of which is a widely acknowledged problem of its own. Both RVC and <em>–le </em>contribute to the aspectual properties of a sentence (Xiao &amp; McEnery 2004, Christensen 1997, Smith 1991). RVCs exemplify a lexical aspect and <em>–le </em>– a grammatical aspect. The fact that verb-final <em>–le </em>is used to perfectivise situations is a well-known and accepted phenomenon; however, RVCs function to perfectivise situations as well. The evidence yielded in the experiment discussed further suggests that there is a transfer of association from past tense marker <em>–ed </em>in English to the perfective aspect marker <em>–le </em>in Mandarin: possibly because English speakers correlate it with a past tense marker, or possibly because of the fact that simple past in English is the most common indicator of perfectivity. Thus, because of this strong L1 transfer, English speakers are strongly predisposed to use the verb-final <em>–le </em>with resultatives, whether it be RVCs or monomorphemic verbs which are treated as resultative in learners’ interlanguage.</p><p><strong>2. Experiment description and findings.</strong> In response, I conducted an experiment, which included 16 target video clips ranging from 5 to 25 seconds long. Video clips depicted an actor or actors performing certain actions. These 16 clips consisted of 8 pairs of clips where one clip showed an action where a result took place and another clip showed the same action but with no result achieved. No subject (48 L1 English speakers) watched both members of a pair. Each subject watched 8 target video clips (4 depicting change-of-state and 4 depicting no-change-of-state events) and performed 2 tasks: (1) a description task (where each participant described the clips in English) and (2) an acceptability judgment task with 2 sentences for each clip. Both sentences in each pair were the same except the first sentence contained an RVC plus <em>-le</em> and in the second sentence contained V₁ of an RVC plus <em>-le</em>. The acceptability judgment task was performed using a continuum scale where answers ranged in the following fashion: ‘completely unacceptable’, ‘probably unacceptable’, ‘I don’t know’, ‘probably acceptable’, and ‘completely acceptable.’ In the analysis the following scores were assigned to each value: ‘-2’, ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘+1’, and ‘+2.’ Statistical analysis (ANOVA) was applied in evaluating outcomes of the experiment. Subjects’ description of the video clips in English showed that they treated change-of-state events and no-change-of-state as such and that with change-of-state events used in the experiment they would not use monomorphemic resultatives with two subevents conflated. </p><p> I used 8 RVCs which were divided into four groups depending on how V₁<em>-le </em>was related to V₁ of an RVC in meaning: (1) RVCs where V₁<em>-le </em>has the same meaning as V₁ of an RVC<em>-le</em>; (2) RVCs where V₁<em>-le </em>does not have the same meaning as V₁ of an RVC<em>-le</em> and at the same time may have some resultative meaning but different from the meaning expressed by the RVC<em>-le</em>; (3) RVCs where V₁<em>-le </em>has the same meaning as RVC<em>-le</em>; and (4) RVCs where V₁<em>-le </em>has ambiguous meaning as it may or may not be interpreted as having the same meaning as RVC<em>-le</em>. The overall goal of this experiment was to see whether English speakers would favor Mandarin single-root verbs along with <em>–le </em>in describing change-of-state events. Specific questions addressed were: (1) whether English-speaking learners of Mandarin understand that a two-constituent RVC must be used to express a change-of-state event and (2) whether they equate the V₁<em>-le </em>combination with RVC thus taking the perfective aspect marker <em>–le </em>as having resultative connotation.</p><p> The outcomes show that both advanced and intermediate groups of learners understand that RVCs have to be used to describe change-of-state events. I conclude this based on the data that show that learners assigned high scores to RVCs in those situations where change of state took place and low scores in those situations where no change of state occurred. This happened with all RVC types except RVC Type (4), but the RVC belonging to this type have an ambiguous meaning and is not treated as decisive for this conclusion. </p><p> The data show that learners do not treat the aspect marker <em>–le </em>as carrying resultative meaning in those situations where in their L1 they would not use monomorphemic resultatives. If they were to treat the verb-final –<em>le </em>as such, we would see that non-native speakers assigned high scores to V₁<em>-le </em>in change-of-state situations and low scores in no-change-of-state situations. In other words, they would treat these V₁<em>-le </em>combinations as RVCs. This was not the case. With the RVC Type (1) advanced learners behaved like native speakers. Intermediate learners behaved in a similar fashion as well with the exception of two situations both occurring with no-change-of-state events. In one situation the data barely showed significant difference (p&lt;0.05) between V₁V₂<em>-le </em>and V₁<em>-le </em>and in another situation there was no significant difference at all even though there should be <ins cite="mailto:Katinka" datetime="2014-05-06T08:53">a </ins>clear gap and, therefore, significant difference. With the RVC Type (2), learners’ reaction is not as clear as with the RVC Type (1) because of the individual meanings of the V₁<em>-le </em>combinations. RVC’s V₁<em>-le </em>counterparts proved to be more challenging for learners. Learners did not behave differently from native speakers in treating RVCs, but in most cases both groups of learners showed misunderstanding of the V₁<em>-le </em>combinations. However, no matter how both groups of learners interpreted these structures, they reacted to them differently than to RVCs thus indicating that they do not equate V₁<em>-le </em>with RVC<em>-le</em>. RVC Type (3) shows that advanced learners reacted in the same way as native speakers did. Namely, they treated the V₁<em>-le </em>combination the same as V₁V₂<em>-le</em>. This is the only case when this kind of reaction is expected. Intermediate learners, on the other hand, did not produce such a response because they treated these two structures differently in the no-change-of-state situation. With the RVC Type (4) both V₁<em>-le </em>combination and RVC<em>-le </em>have ambiguous meaning as the data indicate that each was understood as expressing a result and action. In short, in this experiment there was some inconsistency in learners’ reaction to the target sentences, especially by intermediate learners. Their reaction was similar to that of native speakers in situations when V₁<em>-le </em>did not have the same meaning as V₁of RVC<ins cite="mailto:Katinka" datetime="2014-05-06T08:55">,</ins> but they produced inconsistent results when V₁<em>-le </em>was equal to V₁V₂<em>-le </em>or had some other resultative meaning. However, no matter how they interpreted V₁<em>-le </em>combinations, in no-change-of-state situations, learners had a gap between V₁<em>-le </em>and RVC<em>-le</em>. This fact supports the conclusion that learners do not take <em>–le </em>as having resultative meaning.</p><p> In this study, I conducted an experiment containing Mandarin RVCs that do not correspond to English monomorphemic resultative verbs in which two subevetns are conflated. And the outcomes clearly indicate that English speakers do not treat the V₁<em>-le </em>combination as consistently carrying resultative meaning. This is to be expected since the video clips depicted such situations where English speakers would not use monomorphemic resultatives. The next step is to see if they would take the V₁<em>-le </em>combination as resultative in those situations where in their L1 a monomorphemic resultativ verb would be used. Given the evidence briefly presented here, English speakers should not decline the V₁<em>-le </em>combination in change-of-state events as opposed to only accepting RVC. This is only one of the first steps in proving experimentally that English speakers and Chinese speakers construe the change-of-state events differently. </p>

Aunty Mary Graham, Kombu-merri elder and philosopher, writes, “you are not alone in the world.” We have a responsibility to each other, as well as to the land, and violence is the refusal of this relationship that binds us (Rose). Similarly, Emmanuel Levinas, a French-Lithuanian Jewish teacher and philosopher who lived through the Holocaust, writes that, “my freedom does not have the last word; I am not alone” (Levinas, Totality 101). For both writers, the recognition that one is not alone in the world creates an imperative to act ethically. For non-Indigenous educators working in the Indigenous Studies space—as arguably all school teachers are, given the Australian Curriculum—their relationship with Indigenous Australia creates an imperative to consider ethics and responsibility in their work. In this article, I use Emmanuel Levinas’s thinking and writing on epistemological violence and ethics as a first philosophy to consider how pre-service teachers engage with the ethical responsibilities inherent in teaching and learning Indigenous Studies.To begin, I will introduce Emmanuel Levinas and his writing on violence, followed by outlining the ways that Indigenous perspectives are incorporated into the Australian Curriculum. I will finish by sharing some of the reflective writing undertaken by pre-service teachers in a compulsory Indigenous education subject at an Australian university. These data show pre-service teachers’ responses to being called into responsibility and relationality, as well as some of the complexities in avoiding what I term here epistemological violence, a grasping of the other by trying to make the other infinitely knowable. The data present a problematic paradox—when pre-service teachers write about their future praxis, they necessarily defer responsibility to the future. This deferral constructs an image of the future which transcends the present, without requiring change in the here and now.Of note, some of this writing speaks to the violence enacted upon Indigenous peoples through the colonisation of Australia. I have tried to write respectfully about these topics. Yet the violence continues, in part via the traumatic nature of such accounts. As a non-Indigenous educator and researcher, I also acknowledge that such histories of violence have predominantly benefited people like myself and that the Countries on which this article was written (Countries of the sovereign Bindal and Wulgurukaba peoples) have never been ceded.Emmanuel Levinas: Ethics as First PhilosophyEmmanuel Levinas was a French-Lithuanian Jewish teacher and philosopher for whom surviving the Holocaust—where most of his family perished—fundamentally changed his philosophy. Following World War II, Levinas critiqued Heidegger’s philosophy, writing that freedom—an unencumbered being in the world—could no longer be considered the first condition of being human (Levinas, Existence). Instead, the presence of others in the world—an intersubjectivity between oneself and another—means that we are always already responsible for the others we encounter. Seeing the other’s face calls us to be accountable for our own actions, to responsibility. If we do not respect that the other is different to one’s self, and instead try to understand them through our own frames of reference, we commit the epistemological violence of reducing the other to the same (Levinas, Totality 46), bringing their infinity into our own totality.The history of Indigenous and non-Indigenous relations both in Australia and globally has been marked by attempts to bring Indigenous peoples into non-Indigenous orders of knowledge (Nakata, “Cultural Interface”). The word “Aboriginal”, derived from the Latin “of the original”, refers to both Indigenous peoples’ position as original inhabitants of lands, but also to the anthropological idea that Indigenous peoples were early and unevolved prototypes of human beings (Peterson). This early idea of what it means to be Indigenous is linked to the now well-known histories of ontological violence. Aboriginal reserves were set up as places for Aboriginal people to perish, a consequence not just of colonisation, but of the perception that Indigenous people were unfit to exist in a modern society. Whilst such racist ideologies linger today, most discourses have morphed in how they grasp Indigenous people into a non-Indigenous totality. In a context where government-funded special measures are used to assist disadvantaged groups, categories such as the Indigenous/non-Indigenous binary can become violent. The Closing the Gap campaign, for example, is based on this categorical binary, where “sickness=Indigenous” and “whiteness=health”. This creates a “moral imperative upon Indigenous Australians to transform themselves” (Pholi et al. 10), to become the dominant category, to be brought into the totality.Levinas’s philosophical writings provide a way to think through the ethical challenges of a predominantly non-Indigenous teaching workforce being tasked to not just approach the teaching of Indigenous students with more care than previous generations, but to also embed Indigenous perspectives and knowledges into their teaching work. Levinas’s warning of a “disinterested acquisition of knowledge” (Reader 78), seemingly unrestrained by memory or relationships, is useful in two ways. First, for pre-service teachers learning about Indigenous education, Levinas’s work provides a reminder of the ethical responsibilities that all members of a community have to each other. However, this responsibility cannot be predicated on unwittingly approaching Indigenous topics through Western knowledge lenses. Instead, Levinas’s work also reminds us about the ethics of knowledge production which shape how others—in this case Indigenous peoples—come to be known; teachers and pre-service teachers must engage with the politics of knowledge that shape how Indigenous peoples come to be known in educational settings.You Are Not Alone in the World: Indigenous Perspectives in the Australian CurriculumIn 2010, the Australian Curriculum was launched by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) with the goal of unifying state-driven curricula into a common approach. Developed from the 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs [MCEECDYA]), the Curriculum has occupied a prominent position in the Australian educational policy space. As well as preparing a future workforce, contemporary Australian education is essentially aspirational, “governed by the promise of something better” (Harrison et al. 234), with the Australian Curriculum appearing to promise the same: there is a concerted effort to ensure that all Australians have access to equitable and excellent educational opportunities, and that all students are represented within the Curriculum. Part of this aspiration included the development of three Cross-Curriculum Priorities (CCPs), focus areas that “give students the tools and language to engage with and better understand their world at a range of levels” (ACARA, “Cross-Curriculum Priorities” para. 1). The first of these CCPs is Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures and is organised into three key concepts: connection to Country/Place; diversity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures; and diversity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders societies. In the curriculum more broadly, content descriptions govern what is taught across subject areas from Prep to Year 10. Content elaborations—possible approaches to teaching the standards—detail ways that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures can be incorporated. For example, Year 7 Science students learn that “predictable phenomena on Earth, including seasons and eclipses, are caused by the relative positions of the sun, Earth and the moon”. This can be taught by “researching knowledges held by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples regarding the phases of the moon and the connection between the lunar cycle and ocean tides” (ACARA, “Science” ACSSU115). This curriculum priority mandates that teachers and learners across Australia engage in representations of Indigenous peoples through teaching and learning activities. However, questions about what constitutes the most appropriate activities, when and where they are incorporated into schooling, and how to best support educators to do this work must continue to be asked.As Indigenous knowledges and perspectives are brought into the classroom where this curriculum is played out, they are shaped by the discourses of the space (Nakata, “Cultural Interface”): what is normalised in a classroom, the teachers’ and students’ prior understandings, and the curriculum and assessment expectations of teaching and learning. Nakata refers to this space as the cultural interface, the contested space between Indigenous and Western knowledge systems where disciplinary discourses, practices and histories translate what is known about Indigenous peoples. This creates complexities and anxieties for teachers tasked with this role (Nakata, “Pathways”). Yet to ignore the presence of Indigenous histories, lifeworlds, and experiences would be to act as if non-Indigenous Australia was alone in the world. The curriculum, as a socio-political document, is full of representations of people. As such, care must be given to how teachers are prepared to engage in the complex process of negotiating these representations.The Classroom as a Location of PossibilityThe introduction of the Australian Curriculum has been accompanied by the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) which govern the requirements for graduating teachers. Two particular standards—1.4 and 2.4—refer to the teaching of Indigenous students and histories, cultures and language. Many initial teacher education programs in Australian universities have responded to the curriculum requirements and the APSTs by developing a specific subject dedicated to Indigenous education. It is difficult to ascertain the success of this work. Many in-service teachers suggest that more knowledge about Indigenous cultures is required to meet the APST, risking an essentialised view of the Indigenous learner (Moodie and Patrick). Further, there is little empirical research on what improves Indigenous students’ educational outcomes, with the research instead focusing on engaging Indigenous students (Burgess et al.). Similarly, there is yet to be a broadscale research program exploring how teacher educators can best educate pre-service teachers to improve educational outcomes for Indigenous students. Instead, much of the research focuses on engaging (predominantly non-Indigenous) becoming-teachers through a variety of theoretical and pedagogical approaches (Moreton-Robinson et al.) A handful of researchers (e.g. Moodie; Nakata et al.; Page) are considering how to use curriculum design to structure tertiary level Indigenous Studies programs—for pre-service teachers and more generally—to best prepare students to work within complex uncertainties.Levinas’s philosophy reminds us that we need to push beyond thinking about the engagement of Indigenous peoples within the curriculum to the relationship between educator-researchers and their students. Further, Levinas prompts us to question how we can research in this space in a way that is more than just about “disinterested acquisition of knowledge” (Reader 78), instead utilising critical analysis to consider a praxis which ultimately benefits Indigenous students, families and communities. The encounter with Levinas’s writing challenges us to consider how teacher educators can engage with pre-service teachers in a way that does not suggest that they are inherently racist. Rather, we must teach pre-service teachers to not impress the same type of epistemological violence onto Indigenous students, knowledges and cultures. Such questions prompt an engagement with teaching/research which is respectful of the responsibilities to all involved. As hooks reminds us, education can be a practice of freedom: classrooms are locations of possibilities where students can think critically and question taken-for-granted assumptions about the world. To engage with praxis is to consider teaching not just as a practice, but as a theoretically and justice-driven approach. It is with this backdrop that I move now to consider some of the writings of non-Indigenous pre-service teachers.The Research ProjectThe data presented here is from a recent research project exploring pre-service teachers’ experiences of a compulsory Indigenous education subject as part of a four-year initial teacher education degree in an Australian metropolitan university (see McDowall). The subject prepares pre-service teachers to both embed the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures CCP in their praxis and to teach Indigenous students. This second element engages both an understanding of Indigenous students as inhabiting an intercultural space with particular tensions (Nakata, “Pathways”), and the social-political-historical discourses that impact Indigenous students’ experiences. This includes the history of Indigenous education, the social construction of race, and a critical awareness of deficit approaches to working with Indigenous students. The subject was designed to promote a critical engagement with Indigenous education, to give pre-service teachers theoretical tools to make sense of both how Indigenous students and Indigenous content are positioned in classrooms and develop pedagogical frameworks to enable future teaching work. Pre-service teachers wrote weekly reflective learning journals as an assessment task (weighted at 30% of their total grade). In the final weeks of semester, I asked students in the final weeks of semester for permission to use their journals for a research project, to which 93 students consented.Reading the students’ reflective writing presents a particular ethical paradox, one intricately linked with the act of knowing. Throughout the semester, a desire to gain more knowledge about Indigenous peoples and cultures shifted to a desire to be present as teacher(s) in the Indigenous education landscape. Yet for pre-service teachers with no classroom of their own, this being present is always deferred to the future, mitigating the need for action in the present. This change in the pre-service teachers’ writing demonstrates that the relationship between violence and responsibility is exceedingly complex within the intersection of Indigenous and teacher education. These themes are explored in the following sections.Epistemological ViolenceOne of the shifts which occurred throughout the semester was a subtle difference in the types of knowledges students sought. In the first few weeks of the subject, many of the pre-service teachers wrote of a strong desire to know about Indigenous people and culture as a way of becoming a better educator. Their expectations were around wanting to address their “limited understandings”, wanting to “heighten”, “develop”, and “broaden” “understanding” and “knowledge”; to know “more about them, their culture”. At the end, knowing and understanding is presented in a different type of way. For some students, the knowledge they now want is about their own histories and culture: “as a teacher I need the bravery to acknowledge what happened in the past”, wrote one student in her final entry.For other students, the idea of knowing was shaped by not-knowing. Moving away from a desire to know, and thereby possess, the students wrote about the need to know no longer being present: “I owe my current sense of confidence to that Nakata article. The education system can’t expect all teachers to know exactly how to embed Indigenous pedagogy into their classrooms, can they?” writes one student in her final entry, following on to say, “the main strategy I got from the readings … still stands true: ‘We don’t know everything’ and I will not act like I do”. Another writes, “I am not an expert and I am now aware of the multitude of resources available, particularly the community”.For the students to claim knowledge of Indigenous peoples would be to enact epistemological violence, denying the alterity—difference—of the other and drawing them into our totalities. In the final weeks of the semester, some students wrote that they would use hands-on, outdoor activities in order to enact a culturally responsive pedagogy. Such a claim shows the tenacity of Western knowledge about Indigenous students. In this case, the students’ sentiment can be traced back to Aboriginal Learning Styles (Harris), the idea that Aboriginal students inherently learn via informal hands-on (as opposed to abstract) group approaches. The type of difference promoted in Aboriginal learning styles is biological, suggesting that on account of their Indigeneity, Aboriginal students inherently learn differently. Through its biological function, this difference essentialises Indigenous learners across the nation, claiming a sameness. But perhaps even more violently, it denies the presence of an Indigenous knowledge system in the place where the research took place. Such an Indigenous knowledge system begins from the land, from Country, and entails a rich set of understandings around how knowledge is produced, shared, learnt and, enacted through place and people-based knowledge practices (Verran). Aboriginal learning styles reduces richness to a more graspable concept: informal learning. To summarise, students’ early claims to knowledge shifted to an understanding that it is okay to ‘not know’—to recognise that as beginning teachers, they are entering a complex field and must continue learning. This change is complicated by the tenacity of knowledge claims which define Indigenous students into a Western order of knowledge. Such claims continue to present themselves in the students writing. Nonetheless, as students progressed through the semester and engaged with some of the difficult knowledges and understandings presented, a new form of knowing emerged. Ethical ResponsibilitiesAs pre-service teachers learned about the complex cultural interface of classrooms, they began to reconsider their own claims to be able to ‘know’ Indigenous students and cultures. This is not to say that pre-service teachers do not feel responsibility for Indigenous students: in many journals, pre-service teachers’ wanted-ness in the classroom—their understanding of their importance of presence as teachers—is evident. To write for themselves a need to be present demonstrates responsibility. This took place as students imagined future praxis. With words woven together from several journals, the students’ final entries indicate a wanting-to-be-present-as-becoming-ethical-teachers: I willremember forever, reactionsshocked, sad, guilty. A difference isI don’t feel guilt.I feelI’m not alone.I feelmore aware ofhow I teachhow my opinionscan affect people. I guesswe are the oneswho must makethe change. I feelsomewhat relieved bywhat today’s lecturer said.“If you’re willingto step outfrom behind fencesto engage meaningfullywith Indigenous communitiesit will not be difficult.” I believethe 8-ways frameworkthe unit of workprovide authentic experiencesare perfect avenuesshape pedagogical practicesI believemy job isto embrace remembrancemake this happenmake sure it stays. I willtake away frameworkssupport Indigenous studentsalongside Indigenous teacherslearn from themconsult with communityimprove my teaching. In these students’ words is an assumed responsibility to incorporate Indigenous knowledges and perspectives into their work as teachers. To wish representations of Indigenous peoples and knowledges present in the classroom is one way in which the becoming-teachers are making themselves present. Even a student who had written that she still didn’t feel completely equipped with pedagogical tools still felt “motivated” to introduce “political issues into Australia’s current system”.Not all students wrote of such presence. One student wrote of feeling left “disappointed”, “out of pocket”, “judged” – that the subject had “just ‘ticked the box’” (a phrase used by a second student as well). Another student wrote a short reflection that scratched the surface of the Apology¹, noting that “sorry is something so easy to say”. It is the mixture of these responses which reminds us as researchers and educators that it is easy to write a sense of presence as a projection into the future into an assessment task for a university subject. Time is another other, and the future can never be grasped, can never truly be known (Levinas, Reader). It is always what is coming, for we can only ever experience the present. These final entries by the students claim a future that they cannot know. This is not to suggest that the words written—the I wills and I believes which roll so quickly off the pen—are not meaningful or meant. Rather, responsibility is deferred to the future. This is not just a responsibility for their future teaching. Deferral to the future can also be a way to ease one’s self of the burden of feeling bad about the social injustices which students observe. As Rose (17) writes,The vision of a future which will transcend the past, a future in which current contradictions and current suffering will be left behind enables us to understand ourselves in an imaginary state of future achievement … enables us to turn our backs on current social facts of pain, damage, destruction and despair which exist in the present, but which we will only acknowledge as our past.The pre-service teachers’ reflective writing presents us with a paradox. As they shift away from the epistemological violence of claiming to know Indigenous others from outside positions, another type of violence manifests: claiming a future which can transcend the past just as they defer responsibility within the present. The deferral is in itself an act of violence. What types, then, of presence—a sense of responsibility—can students-as-becoming-professionals demonstrate?ConclusionRose’s words ask us as researchers and educators to consider what it might mean to “do” ethical practice in the “here and now”. When teachers claim that more knowledge about Indigenous peoples will lead to better practice, they negate the epistemological violence of bringing Indigeneity into a Western order of knowledge. Yet even as pre-service teachers’ frameworks shift toward a sense of responsibility for working with Indigenous students, families, and communities—a sense of presence—they are caught in a necessary but problematic moment of deferral to future praxis. A future orientation enables the deflection of responsibility, focusing on what the pre-service teachers might do in the future when they have their own classrooms, but turning their backs on a lack of action in the present. Such a complexity reveals the paradox of assessing learnings for both researchers and university educators. Pre-service teachers—visitors in placement classrooms and students in universities—are always writing and projecting skill towards the future. As educators, we continually ask for students to demonstrate how they will change their future work in a time yet to come. Yet when pre-service teachers undertake placements, their agency to enact difference as becoming-teachers is limited by the totality of the current school programs in which they find themselves. A reflective learning journal, as assessment directed at projecting their future work as teachers, does not enable or ask for a change in the here and now. 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