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Published: 10 December 2022
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1

Saha, Kshudiram. Tropical Circulation Systems and Monsoons. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03373-5.

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2

Saha, Kshudiram. Tropical Circulation Systems and Monsoons. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2010.

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3

Jiminez, Greg M. Diurnal variation over the tropical monsoon regions during northern summer 1991. Monterey, Calif: Naval Postgraduate School, 1997.

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4

Ignition stories: Indigenous fire ecology in the monsoon tropics. Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2012.

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5

Chang, C. P. Final technical report of Grant ATM 83-15175 "tropical and monsoonal studies". Monterey, Calif: Naval Postgraduate School, 1988.

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6

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of Indonesia. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis, 2008.

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7

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of Indonesia. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis, 2008.

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8

Keith, Lye. Equatorial climates. Austin, Tex: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1997.

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9

Monsoon Numerical Experimentation Group. Session. TOGA monsoon climate research: Report of the second session of the Monsoon Numerical Experimentation Group, Kona, Hawaii, U.S.A., 26-27 July 1990. [Geneva]: World Meteorological Organization, 1990.

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10

Session, Monsoon Numerical Experimentation Group. TOGA monsoon climate research: Report of the first session of the Monsoon Numerical Experimentation Group, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany, 21-22 September 1989. [Geneva]: World Meteorological Organization, 1990.

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11

International Symposium on Paleoenvironmental Change in Tropical-Subtropical Monsoon Asia (1994 Hiroshima University). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Paleoenvironmental Change in Tropical-Subtropical Monsoon Asia. Hiroshima: Research Center for Regional Geography, Hiroshima University, 1995.

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12

Taylor, Sylvia C. Interactions of large-scale tropical motion systems during the 1996-1997 Australian monsoon. Monterey, Calif: Naval Postgraduate School, 1998.

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13

Punchihewa, Ranjith Wasantha Kumara. Beekeeping for honey production in Sri Lanka: Management of Asiatic hive honeybee apis cerana in its natural tropical monsoonal environemnt. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Dept. of Agriculture in collaboration with Canadian International Development Agency, 1994.

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14

Villamayor, Julián. Influence of the Sea Surface Temperature Decadal Variability on Tropical Precipitation: West African and South American Monsoon. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20327-6.

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15

Vinay, Kumar. A model study of Indian summer monsoon drought of 2002: Influence of tropical convective activity over Northwest Pacific. Pune: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, 2006.

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16

Wang, Bin. Intraseasonal Modulation of the Indian Summer Monsoon. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.616.

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The strongest Indian summer monsoon (ISM) on the planet features prolonged clustered spells of wet and dry conditions often lasting for two to three weeks, known as active and break monsoons. The active and break monsoons are attributed to a quasi-periodic intraseasonal oscillation (ISO), which is an extremely important form of the ISM variability bridging weather and climate variation. The ISO over India is part of the ISO in global tropics. The latter is one of the most important meteorological phenomena discovered during the 20th century (Madden & Julian, 1971, 1972). The extreme dry and wet events are regulated by the boreal summer ISO (BSISO). The BSISO over Indian monsoon region consists of northward propagating 30–60 day and westward propagating 10–20 day modes. The “clustering” of synoptic activity was separately modulated by both the 30–60 day and 10–20 day BSISO modes in approximately equal amounts. The clustering is particularly strong when the enhancement effect from both modes acts in concert. The northward propagation of BSISO is primarily originated from the easterly vertical shear (increasing easterly winds with height) of the monsoon flows, which by interacting with the BSISO convective system can generate boundary layer convergence to the north of the convective system that promotes its northward movement. The BSISO-ocean interaction through wind-evaporation feedback and cloud-radiation feedback can also contribute to the northward propagation of BSISO from the equator. The 10–20 day oscillation is primarily produced by convectively coupled Rossby waves modified by the monsoon mean flows. Using coupled general circulation models (GCMs) for ISO prediction is an important advance in subseasonal forecasts. The major modes of ISO over Indian monsoon region are potentially predictable up to 40–45 days as estimated by multiple GCM ensemble hindcast experiments. The current dynamical models’ prediction skills for the large initial amplitude cases are approximately 20–25 days, but the prediction of developing BSISO disturbance is much more difficult than the prediction of the mature BSISO disturbances. This article provides a synthesis of our current knowledge on the observed spatial and temporal structure of the ISO over India and the important physical processes through which the BSISO regulates the ISM active-break cycles and severe weather events. Our present capability and shortcomings in simulating and predicting the monsoon ISO and outstanding issues are also discussed.
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17

Saha, Kshudiram. Tropical Circulation Systems and Monsoons. Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2014.

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18

Dunlop, Storm. 6. Weather in the tropics. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199571314.003.0006.

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‘Weather in the tropics’ considers the weather systems between the two subtropical anticyclones, lying at approximately latitudes 30 °N and S. The trade winds consist of air that flows out of the subtropical anticyclones towards the equatorial trough. They are strongest in the winter season, tending to weaken during the summer. The northern and southern hemisphere trade winds converge at the Intertropical Convergence Zone, whose position is variable. The South Pacific Convergence Zone is closely associated with the changes involved in the Walker Circulation and El Niño events. The convergence zones over the Indian Ocean show major changes in location during the northern summer, and these are related to seasonal monsoons.
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19

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

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20

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

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21

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

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22

Tan, Kim H. Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. CRC Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420069105.

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23

N, Mahajan P., and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology., eds. Investigation of features of monsoon depressions and tropical cyclones by IRS-P4 MSMR data. [Pune: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology], 2003.

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24

Bunker, Andrew F., and Margaret Chaffee. Tropical Indian Ocean Clouds. University of Hawaii Press, 2021.

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25

Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia (Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment). CRC, 2008.

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26

Bunker, Andrew F., and Margaret Chaffee. Tropical Indian Ocean Clouds (International Indian Ocean Expedition meteorological monographs). University of Hawaii Press, 1986.

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27

Braby, Michael. Atlas of Butterflies and Diurnal Moths in the Monsoon Tropics of Northern Australia. ANU Press, 2018.

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28

N, Keshavamurthy R., and Joshi P. C. 1950-, eds. Advances in tropical meteorology: Monsoon variability, satellite applications, and modelling. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., 1993.

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29

Diurnal Variation over the Tropical Monsoon Regions During Northern Summer 1991. Storming Media, 1997.

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30

Interactions of Large-Scale Tropical Motion Systems During the 1996-1997 Australian Monsoon. Storming Media, 1998.

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31

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Paleoenvironmental Change in Tropical-subtropical Monsoon Asia. [Hiroshima]: bResearch Center For Regional Geography, Hiroshima University, 1995.

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32

McCrie, Niven, and Richard Noske. Birds of the Darwin Region. CSIRO Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/9781486300358.

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Birds of the Darwin Region is the first comprehensive treatment of the avifauna of Darwin, a city located in Australia's monsoon tropics, where seasons are defined by rainfall rather than by temperature. With its mangrove-lined bays and creeks, tidal mudflats, monsoon rainforests, savanna woodlands and freshwater lagoons, Darwin has retained all of its original habitats in near-pristine condition, and is home or host to 323 bird species. Unlike other Australian cities, it has no established exotic bird species. Following an introduction to the history of ornithology in the region and a detailed appraisal of its avifauna, species accounts describe the habitats, relative abundance, behaviour, ecology and breeding season of 258 regularly occurring species, based on over 500 fully referenced sources, and original observations by the authors. Distribution maps and charts of the seasonality of each species are presented, based on a dataset comprising almost 120,000 records, one-third of which were contributed by the authors. Stunning colour photographs adorn the accounts of most species, including some of the 65 species considered as vagrants to the region. This book is a must-read for professional ornithologists and amateur birders, and an indispensable reference for local biologists, teachers and students, and government and non-government environmental agencies, as well as other people who just like to watch birds.
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33

Xue, Yongkang, Yaoming Ma, and Qian Li. Land–Climate Interaction Over the Tibetan Plateau. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.592.

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The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is the largest and highest plateau on Earth. Due to its elevation, it receives much more downward shortwave radiation than other areas, which results in very strong diurnal and seasonal changes of the surface energy components and other meteorological variables, such as surface temperature and the convective atmospheric boundary layer. With such unique land process conditions on a distinct geomorphic unit, the TP has been identified as having the strongest land/atmosphere interactions in the mid-latitudes.Three major TP land/atmosphere interaction issues are presented in this article: (1) Scientists have long been aware of the role of the TP in atmospheric circulation. The view that the TP’s thermal and dynamic forcing drives the Asian monsoon has been prevalent in the literature for decades. In addition to the TP’s topographic effect, diagnostic and modeling studies have shown that the TP provides a huge, elevated heat source to the middle troposphere, and that the sensible heat pump plays a major role in the regional climate and in the formation of the Asian monsoon. Recent modeling studies, however, suggest that the south and west slopes of the Himalayas produce a strong monsoon by insulating warm and moist tropical air from the cold and dry extratropics, so the TP heat source cannot be considered as a factor for driving the Indian monsoon. The climate models’ shortcomings have been speculated to cause the discrepancies/controversies in the modeling results in this aspect. (2) The TP snow cover and Asian monsoon relationship is considered as another hot topic in TP land/atmosphere interaction studies and was proposed as early as 1884. Using ground measurements and remote sensing data available since the 1970s, a number of studies have confirmed the empirical relationship between TP snow cover and the Asian monsoon, albeit sometimes with different signs. Sensitivity studies using numerical modeling have also demonstrated the effects of snow on the monsoon but were normally tested with specified extreme snow cover conditions. There are also controversies regarding the possible mechanisms through which snow affects the monsoon. Currently, snow is no longer a factor in the statistic prediction model for the Indian monsoon prediction in the Indian Meteorological Department. These controversial issues indicate the necessity of having measurements that are more comprehensive over the TP to better understand the nature of the TP land/atmosphere interactions and evaluate the model-produced results. (3) The TP is one of the major areas in China greatly affected by land degradation due to both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. Preliminary modeling studies have been conducted to assess its possible impact on climate and regional hydrology. Assessments using global and regional models with more realistic TP land degradation data are imperative.Due to high elevation and harsh climate conditions, measurements over the TP used to be sparse. Fortunately, since the 1990s, state-of-the-art observational long-term station networks in the TP and neighboring regions have been established. Four large field experiments since 1996, among many observational activities, are presented in this article. These experiments should greatly help further research on TP land/atmosphere interactions.
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34

Hutton, Wendy, and Masano Kawana. Touch of Tropical Spice: From Chilli Crab to Laksa 75 Fabulous Recipes from Monsoon Asia. Tuttle Publishing, 2012.

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35

A Study of South Asian Monsoon Convection and Tropical Upper Easterly Jet During Northern Summer 1991. Storming Media, 1996.

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36

Villamayor, Julián. Influence of the Sea Surface Temperature Decadal Variability on Tropical Precipitation: West African and South American Monsoon. Springer, 2019.

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37

Touch of Tropical Spice: From Chili Crab to Laksa 75 Easy-To Prepare Dishes from Monsoon Asia. Tuttle Publishing, 2009.

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38

Villamayor, Julián. Influence of the Sea Surface Temperature Decadal Variability on Tropical Precipitation: West African and South American Monsoon. Springer, 2020.

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39

Lézine, Anne-Marie. Vegetation at the Time of the African Humid Period. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.530.

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An orbitally induced increase in summer insolation during the last glacial-interglacial transition enhanced the thermal contrast between land and sea, with land masses heating up compared to the adjacent ocean surface. In North Africa, warmer land surfaces created a low-pressure zone, driving the northward penetration of monsoonal rains originating from the Atlantic Ocean. As a consequence, regions today among the driest of the world were covered by permanent and deep freshwater lakes, some of them being exceptionally large, such as the “Mega” Lake Chad, which covered some 400 000 square kilometers. A dense network of rivers developed.What were the consequences of this climate change on plant distribution and biodiversity? Pollen grains that accumulated over time in lake sediments are useful tools to reconstruct past vegetation assemblages since they are extremely resistant to decay and are produced in great quantities. In addition, their morphological character allows the determination of most plant families and genera.In response to the postglacial humidity increase, tropical taxa that survived as strongly reduced populations during the last glacial period spread widely, shifting latitudes or elevations, expanding population size, or both. In the Saharan desert, pollen of tropical trees (e.g., Celtis) were found in sites located at up to 25°N in southern Libya. In the Equatorial mountains, trees (e.g., Olea and Podocarpus) migrated to higher elevations to form the present-day Afro-montane forests. Patterns of migration were individualistic, with the entire range of some taxa displaced to higher latitudes or shifted from one elevation belt to another. New combinations of climate/environmental conditions allowed the cooccurrences of taxa growing today in separate regions. Such migrational processes and species-overlapping ranges led to a tremendous increase in biodiversity, particularly in the Saharan desert, where more humid-adapted taxa expanded along water courses, lakes, and wetlands, whereas xerophytic populations persisted in drier areas.At the end of the Holocene era, some 2,500 to 4,500 years ago, the majority of sites in tropical Africa recorded a shift to drier conditions, with many lakes and wetlands drying out. The vegetation response to this shift was the overall disruption of the forests and the wide expansion of open landscapes (wooded grasslands, grasslands, and steppes). This environmental crisis created favorable conditions for further plant exploitation and cereal cultivation in the Congo Basin.
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40

Nettai monsun Ajia no kokankyo ni kansuru yobiteki kenkyu =: Preliminary study on paleoenvironment of tropical monsoon Asia (Sogo Chishiken kenkyu sosho). Hiroshima Daigaku Sogo Chishi Kenkyu Shiryo Senta, 1992.

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41

Hameed, Saji N. The Indian Ocean Dipole. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.619.

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Discovered at the very end of the 20th century, the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a mode of natural climate variability that arises out of coupled ocean–atmosphere interaction in the Indian Ocean. It is associated with some of the largest changes of ocean–atmosphere state over the equatorial Indian Ocean on interannual time scales. IOD variability is prominent during the boreal summer and fall seasons, with its maximum intensity developing at the end of the boreal-fall season. Between the peaks of its negative and positive phases, IOD manifests a markedly zonal see-saw in anomalous sea surface temperature (SST) and rainfall—leading, in its positive phase, to a pronounced cooling of the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean, and a moderate warming of the western and central equatorial Indian Ocean; this is accompanied by deficit rainfall over the eastern Indian Ocean and surplus rainfall over the western Indian Ocean. Changes in midtropospheric heating accompanying the rainfall anomalies drive wind anomalies that anomalously lift the thermocline in the equatorial eastern Indian Ocean and anomalously deepen them in the central Indian Ocean. The thermocline anomalies further modulate coastal and open-ocean upwelling, thereby influencing biological productivity and fish catches across the Indian Ocean. The hydrometeorological anomalies that accompany IOD exacerbate forest fires in Indonesia and Australia and bring floods and infectious diseases to equatorial East Africa. The coupled ocean–atmosphere instability that is responsible for generating and sustaining IOD develops on a mean state that is strongly modulated by the seasonal cycle of the Austral-Asian monsoon; this setting gives the IOD its unique character and dynamics, including a strong phase-lock to the seasonal cycle. While IOD operates independently of the El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the proximity between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and the existence of oceanic and atmospheric pathways, facilitate mutual interactions between these tropical climate modes.
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42

Fletcher, Roland, Brendan M. Buckley, Christophe Pottier, and Shi-Yu Simon Wang. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries AD. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199329199.003.0010.

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Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, was the most extensive low-density agrarian-based urban complex in the world. The demise of this great city between the late 13th and the start of the 17th centuries AD has been a topic of ongoing debate, with explanations that range from the burden of excessive construction work to disease, geo-political change, and the development of new trade routes. In the 1970s Bernard-Phillipe Groslier argued for the adverse effects of land clearance and deteriorating rice yields. What can now be added to this ensemble of explanations is the role of the massive inertia of Angkor’s immense water management system, political dependence on a meticulously organized risk management system for ensuring rice production, and the impact of extreme climate anomalies from the 14th to the 16th centuries that brought intense, high-magnitude monsoons interspersed with decades-long drought. Evidence of this severe climatic instability is found in a seven-and-a-half century tree-ring record from tropical southern Vietnam. The climatic instability at the time of Angkor’s demise coincides with the abrupt transition from wetter, La Niña-like conditions over Indochina during the Medieval Warm Period to the more drought-dominated climate of the Little Ice Age, when El Niño appears to have dominated and the ITCZ migrated nearly five degrees southward. As this transition neared, Angkor was hit by the double impact of high-magnitude rains and crippling droughts, the former causing damage to water management infrastructure and the latter decreasing agricultural productivity. The Khmer state at Angkor was built on a human-engineered, artificial wetland fed by small rivers. The management of water was a massive undertaking, and the state potentially possessed the capacity to ride out drought, as it had done for the first half of the 13th century. Indeed, Angkor demonstrated just how powerful a water management system would be required and, conversely, how formidable a threat drought can be. The irony, then, is that extreme flooding destroyed Angkor’s water management capacity and removed a system that was designed to protect its population from climate anomalies.
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