Academic literature on the topic 'Monkeys motor cortex'

1. To clarify the generators of human short-latency somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) thought to arise in sensorimotor cortex, we studied the effects on SEPs of surgical excision of somatosensory or motor cortex in humans and monkeys. 2. Normal median nerve SEPs (P20-N30, N20-P30, and P25-N35) were recorded from the cortical surface of a patient (G13) undergoing a cortical excision for relief of focal seizures. All SEPs were abolished both acutely and chronically after excision of the hand area of somatosensory cortex. Similarly, excision of the hand area of somatosensory cortex abolished corresponding SEPs (P10-N20, N10-P20, and P12-N25) in monkeys. Excision of the crown of monkey somatosensory cortex abolished P12-N25 while leaving P10-N20 and N10-P20 relatively unaffected. 3. After excision of the hand area of motor cortex, all SEPs were present when recorded from the cortical surface of a patient (W1) undergoing a cortical excision for relief of focal seizures. Similarly, all SEPs were present in monkeys after excision of the hand area of motor cortex. 4. Although all SEPs were present after excision of motor cortex in monkeys, variable changes were observed in SEPs after the excisions. However, these changes were not larger than the changes observed after excision of parietal cortex posterior to somatosensory cortex. We concluded that the changes were not specific to motor cortex excision. 5. These results support two major conclusions. 1) Median nerve SEPs recorded from sensorimotor cortex are produced by generators in two adjacent regions of somatosensory cortex: a tangentially oriented generator in area 3b, which produces P20-N30 (human) and P10-N20 (monkey) [recorded anterior to the central sulcus (CS)] and N20-P30 (human) and N10-P20 (monkey) posterior to the CS; and a radially oriented generator in area 1, which produces P25-N35 (human) and P12-N25 (monkey) recorded from the postcentral gyrus near the CS. 2) Motor cortex makes little or no contribution to these potentials.

The digital dexterity seen in man and macaque monkeys but not present in other primates, such as the squirrel monkey, occurs without anatomical specialization of the hand. The central nervous system apparatus essential to such dexterity resides in the motor cortex and its outflow to lower centres. Areas other than the motor cortex are involved in the initiation and execution of complex sequential movements, including those of the fingers and hand. These include the supplementary motor and premotor areas of the cerebral cortex and the lateral parts of the cortex and the deep nuclei of the cerebellum.Key words: motor cortex, corticomotoneuronal projections, supplementary motor area, premotor area, cerebellum.

1. Intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and surface stimulation studies of primate face motor cortex have shown an extensive representation within face motor cortex devoted to movements of the tongue and face; only a very small representation for jaw-closing movements has ever been demonstrated. These data suggest that face motor cortex plays a critical role in the generation of tongue and facial movements but is less important in the generation of jaw-closing movements. Our aim was to determine whether disruption of primate face motor cortical function would indeed interfere with the generation of tongue movements but would not interfere with the generation of jaw-closing movements. 2. The face motor cortex was reversibly inactivated with the use of cooling in two monkeys that were trained to perform both a tongue-protrusion task and a biting task. Recording of single neuronal activity in the cortex beneath the thermode confirmed the reversible inactivation of the cortex. Each task involved a series of trials in which the monkey was required to produce a preset force level for a 0.5-s force holding period; the monkey received a fruit-juice reward if it successfully completed a task trial. Cooling of the ICMS-defined face motor cortex was achieved bilaterally or, in one experiment, unilaterally by circulating coolant through thermodes placed either on intact dura overlying face motor cortex in both monkeys or directly on the exposed pia in one of the monkeys;thermode temperature was lowered to 3-5 degrees C during cooling. Electromyographic (EMG) recordings were also made from masseter, genioglossus, and digastric muscles. 3. During bilateral cooling of the thermodes on the dura overlying the face motor cortex, there was a significant reduction in the success rates for the performance of the tongue-protrusion task in comparison with control series of trials (i.e., precool and postcool) in which the thermodes were kept at 37 degrees C. Quantitative analyses of force and EMG activity showed that the principal deficit was an inability of each monkey to exert sufficient force with its tongue for a sufficient length of time onto the tongue-protrusion task transducer; this deficit was paralleled by a reduction in the level of genioglossus and digastric EMG activity. At 4 min after commencement of rewarming, task performance had returned to control, precool levels.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The organization of primary motor cortex (M1) of adult macaque monkeys was examined years after therapeutic amputation of part of a limb or digits. For each case, a large number of sites in M1 were electrically stimulated with a penetrating microelectrode, and the evoked movements and levels of current needed to evoke the movements were recorded. Results from four monkeys with the loss of a forelimb near or above the elbow show that extensive regions of cortex formerly devoted to the missing hand evoked movements of the stump and the adjoining shoulder. Threshold current levels for stump movements were comparable to those for normal arm movements. Few or no sites in the estimated former territory of the hand evoked face movements. Similar patterns of reorganization were observed in all four cases, which included two monkeys injured as adults, one as a juvenile, and one as an infant. In a single monkey with a hindlimb amputation at the knee as an infant, stimulation of cortex in the region normally devoted to the foot moved the leg stump, again at thresholds in the range for normal movements. Finally, in a monkey that had lost digit 5 and the distal phalanges of digits 2–4 at 2 yr of age, much of the hand portion of M1 was devoted to movements of the digit stumps.

Widener, Gail L. and Paul D. Cheney. Effects on muscle activity from microstimuli applied to somatosensory and motor cortex during voluntary movement in the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 77: 2446–2465, 1997. It is well known that electrical stimulation of primary somatosensory cortex (SI) evokes movements that resemble those evoked from primary motor cortex. These findings have led to the concept that SI may possess motor capabilities paralleling those of motor cortex and speculation that SI could function as a robust relay mediating motor responses from central and peripheral inputs. The purpose of this study was to rigorously examine the motor output capabilities of SI areas with the use of the techniques of spike- and stimulus-triggered averaging of electromyographic (EMG) activity in awake monkeys. Unit recordings were obtained from primary motor cortex and SI areas 3a, 3b, 1, and 2 in three rhesus monkeys. Spike-triggered averaging was used to assess the output linkage between individual cells and motoneurons of the recorded muscles. Cells in motor cortex producing postspike facilitation (PSpF) in spike-triggered averages of rectified EMG activity were designated corticomotoneuronal (CM) cells. Motor output efficacy was also assessed by applying stimuli through the microelectrode and computing stimulus-triggered averages of rectified EMG activity. One hundred seventy-one sites in motor cortex and 68 sites in SI were characterized functionally and tested for motor output effects on muscle activity. The incidence, character, and magnitude of motor output effects from SI areas were in sharp contrast to effects from CM cell sites in primary motor cortex. Of 68 SI cells tested with spike-triggered averaging, only one area 3a cell produced significant PSpF in spike-triggered averages of EMG activity. In comparison, 20 of 171 (12%) motor cortex cells tested produced significant postspike effects. Single-pulse intracortical microstimulation produced effects at all CM cell sites in motor cortex but at only 14% of SI sites. The large fraction of SI effects that was inhibitory represented yet another marked difference between CM cell sites in motor cortex and SI sites (25% vs 93%). The fact that motor output effects from SI were frequently absent or very weak and predominantly inhibitory emphasizes the differing motor capabilities of SI compared with primary motor cortex.

1. Monkeys with large unilateral surgical ablations of striate cortex, sustained either in adulthood or at 5–6 wk of age, were trained on an oculomotor detection and localization task and tested with visual stimuli in the hemifields ipsilateral and contralateral to the lesion 2–5 yr after surgery. 2. Monkeys with lesions sustained in adulthood were largely unable to detect stimuli in the hemifield contralateral to the lesion, with only one monkey showing recovery toward the end of testing. Monkeys with lesions of striate cortex made in infancy, however, each showed residual detection capacity at the beginning of testing and improved to near normal by the end of testing. 3. Each of the monkeys showing a residual ability to detect within the contralateral hemifield was also able to localize visual targets with eye movements. 4. These findings demonstrate that the vision surviving striate cortex damage in primates is more robust after early damage as has been shown to be the case for primary somatosensory, motor, and association cortex.

Recent studies in both monkeys and humans indicate that the dorsal premotor cortex participates in spatial attention and working memory, in addition to its well known role in movement planning and execution. One important question is whether these functions overlap or are segregated within this frontal area. Single-cell recordings in monkeys suggest a relative specialization of the rostral portion of dorsal premotor cortex for attention and/or memory and of the caudal region for motor preparation. To test whether this possibility also holds true in humans, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare, in the same set of subjects, brain activation related to strong spatial attention and memory demands to that elicited by long motor preparatory periods. The behavioral protocol was based on a task that had proved effective for dissociating neuronal properties related to these two functions in the monkey brain. The principle of the monkey task was that a first cue guided the focus of spatial attention and memory, whereas a second one instructed an arm movement. Based on this principle, two tasks were developed. One maximized spatial attention and memory demands by presenting long series of stimuli (4, 8, or 12) before the motor instructional cue, whereas the other extended the motor preparation phase by imposing long and variable delays (1–5.5 s) between the onset of the instructional cue and movement execution. The two tasks and their respective control conditions were arranged in two blocked-design sequences. The results indicate that the brain networks underlying the two functional domains overlap in the caudate nucleus and presupplementary motor area, and possibly in lateral prefrontal cortex as well, but involve different dorsal premotor fields. Motor preparation primarily recruited a dorsal premotor area located caudally, within the precentral gyrus (together with the supplementary motor area), whereas spatial attention and memory preferentially activated a more rostral site, in and anterior to the precentral sulcus (in addition to the posterior parietal cortex). These findings strengthen the idea that the primate dorsal premotor cortex contributes to both motor and nonmotor processes. Moreover, they corroborate emerging evidence from monkey physiology suggesting a relative functional segregation within this cortex, with attention to short-term storage of visuospatial information engaging a more rostral region than motor preparation.

1. In the companion paper we reported that the predominant signal of the population of neurons in the lateral intraparietal area (area LIP) of the monkey's posterior parietal cortex (PPC) encode the next intended saccadic eye movement during the delay period of a memory-saccade task. This result predicts that, should be monkey change his intention of what the next saccade will be, LIP activity should change accordingly to reflect the new plan. We tested this prediction by training monkeys to change their saccadic plan on command and recording the activity of LIP neurons across plan changes. 2. We trained rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to maintain fixation on a light spot as long as this spot remained on. During this period we briefly presented one, two, or three peripheral visual stimuli in sequence, each followed by a delay (memory period, M). After the final delay the fixation spot was extinguished, and the monkey had to quickly make a saccade to the location of the last target to have appeared. The monkey could not predict which stimuli, nor how many, would appear on each trial. He thus had to plan a saccade to each stimulus as it appeared and change his saccade plan whenever a stimulus appeared at a different location. 3. We recorded the M period activity of 81 area LIP neurons (from 3 hemispheres of 2 monkeys) in this task. We predicted that, if a neuron's activity reflected the monkey's planned saccade, its activity should be high while the monkey planned a saccade in the neuron's motor field (MF), and low while the planned saccade was in the opposite direction. The activity of most of the neurons in our sample changed in accordance with our hypothesis as the monkey's planned saccade changed. 4. In one condition the monkey was instructed by visual stimuli to change his plan from a saccade in the neuron's preferred direction to a saccade planned in the opposite direction. In this condition activity decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in 65 (80%) of 81 neurons tested. These neurons' activity changed to reflect the new saccade plan even though the cue for this change was not presented in their RF. 5. As a control we randomly interleaved, among trials requiring a plan change, trials in which the monkey had to formulate two consecutive plans to make a saccade in the neuron's preferred direction. The activity remained unchanged (P < 0.05) in 22 of 31 neurons tested (79%), indicating that the neurons continued to encode the same saccade plan. 6. In a variant of the task, the cue to the location of the required saccade was either a light spot or a noise burst from a loudspeaker. Of 22 neurons tested in this task, 16 (73%) showed activity changes consistent with plan changes cued by visual or auditory stimuli. 7. Alterations in the monkey's intentions, even in the absence of overt behavior, are manifested in altered LIP activity. These activity changes could be induced whether visual or auditory cues were used to indicate the required plan changes. Most LIP neurons thus do not encode only the locations of visual stimuli, but also the intention to direct gaze to specific locations, independently of whether a gaze shift actually occurs.

Reacquisition deficits in prism adaptation after muscimol microinjection into the ventral premotor cortex of monkeys. A small amount of muscimol (1 μl; concentration, 5 μg/μl) was injected into the ventral and dorsal premotor cortex areas (PMv and PMd, respectively) of monkeys, which then were required to perform a visually guided reaching task. For the task, the monkeys were required to reach for a target soon after it was presented on a screen. While performing the task, the monkeys’ eyes were covered with left 10°, right 10°, or no wedge prisms, for a block of 50–100 trials. Without the prisms, the monkeys reached the targets accurately. When the prisms were placed, the monkeys initially misreached the targets because the prisms displaced the visual field. Before the muscimol injection, the monkeys adapted to the prisms in 10–20 trials, judging from the horizontal distance between the target location and the point where the monkey touched the screen. After muscimol injection into the PMv, the monkeys lost the ability to readapt and touched the screen closer to the location of the targets as seen through the prisms. This deficit was observed at selective target locations, only when the targets were shifted contralaterally to the injected hemisphere. When muscimol was injected into the PMd, no such deficits were observed. There were no changes in the reaction and movement times induced by muscimol injections in either area. The results suggest that the PMv plays an important role in motor learning, specifically in recalibrating visual and motor coordinates.

1. The projection from the somatosensory cortex to the primary motor cortex has been proposed to play an important role in learning novel motor skills. This hypothesis was examined by studying the effects of lesions to the sensory cortex on learning of new motor skills. 2. We used two experimental paradigms to reveal the effects of lesions on learning of new motor skills. One task was to catch a food pellet falling at various velocities. The other task was to catch a food pellet from a rotating level. Both tasks required acquisition of novel motor skills. 3. The training was started after a lesion of the hand area in the somatosensory cortex of one hemisphere. In both tasks, monkeys had severe difficulty in learning the new skills with the hand contralateral to the ablated somatosensory cortex, compared with the hand contralateral to the intact hemisphere. 4. After acquisition of the motor skill in the hand contralateral to intact hemisphere, lesion of the somatosensory cortex hand area did not abolish the learned motor skill. 5. In control experiments, monkeys were trained to pick up a food pellet from a rotating board. This task did not necessitate acquisition of new motor skills, but could be performed by utilizing existing motor skills. Lesion in the somatosensory cortex before or after the training did not affect the execution of this task by either hand. 6. It is concluded that the corticocortical projection from the somatosensory to the motor cortex plays an important role in learning new motor skills, but not in the execution of existing motor skills.

When we reach for and grasp an object, we must transport our hand to the correct location, shape it appropriately and subsequently grasp the object with an appropriate amount of force. This involves a complex series of neuronal computations to process the visual properties of the object, generate a desired action, and to finally relay instructions to the musculature of the hand and arm to execute the action. The premotor and primary motor cortices constitute an important part of this pathway. In the macaque monkey, the premotor cortex (F5) is known to receive visual and visuomotor information concerning the properties of graspable objects from the anterior intraparietal region (AIP). A strong reciprocal connection links F5 to the primary motor cortex (M1), from which the major descending output to the hand and arm muscles originates. This thesis is a study of local field potentials recorded in M1 and F5 during the performance of a reach to grasp task in the macaque monkey, and investigates their relationship to the task and to each other during two phases of the task; the observation of the object to be grasped, and the execution of the grasp. This study required the development of sophisticated techniques for the accurate localisation of recordings and for chronic recordings to be made with multiple electrodes in the two different cortical areas simultaneously. The use of MRI to aid localisation, and the use of an antimitotic solution that retards dural growth and thus allows long term multielectrode recordings are also described and validated.

Le contexte temporel influence profondément la façon dont nous nous comportons. De manière similaire, il donne forme à l'activité du cortex moteur (LFP et potentiels d'action), pendant la préparation motrice, mais aussi en absence de préparation d'un mouvement<br>The temporal context deeply shapes the motor cortical activity (spikes and LFPs), during movement preparation but also outside movement preparation

The study of motor cortex (dorsal premotor cortex and primary motor cortex) has been greatly aided by the development of a conceptual paradigm that has emerged over the past decade. In contrast to established frameworks, which view neural activity within motor cortex as a representation of particular movement parameters, the ‘dynamical systems paradigm’ posits that motor cortex is best understood via the low-dimensional neural processes that allow the generation of motor commands. This framework largely evolved from, and has been most successfully applied to, simple reaching tasks, where the sequential stages of movement generation are largely separated in time – motor cortex absorbs an input that specifies the identity of the upcoming reach, a second input initiates the movement, and strong, autonomous dynamics generate time-varying motor commands. However, while the dynamical systems paradigm has provided a useful scaffolding for interrogating motor cortex, our understanding of the mechanisms that generate movement is still evolving, and many questions remain unanswered. Prior work has established that the neural processes within motor cortex that generate descending commands are initiated by a large, condition-invariant input. But are movements made under different behavioral contexts initiated via the same mechanisms? Lesion studies suggest that the generation of so-called ‘self-initiated movements’ is uniquely dependent on the supplementary motor area (SMA), a premotor region immediately upstream of motor cortex. In contrast, SMA is thought to be less critical for generating externally-cued movements. To characterize the degree to which SMA is able to impact movement initiation across behavioral contexts, we trained two monkeys to make reaches that were either internally or externally cued. On a subset of trials, we disrupted activity within SMA via microstimulation and asked how this perturbation impacted the monkeys’ behavior. Surprisingly, we found that the effect of stimulation was largely preserved across contexts; the behavioral effects of stimulation could be explained by a simple model in which a context-invariant, time-varying kernel multiplicatively altered the odds of movement initiation. These results suggest that SMA is able to impact movement initiation across behavioral contexts. The question of how sequences of discrete actions are generated has been investigated for over one hundred years. It is commonly thought that once a given sequence (particularly a rapid sequence) becomes well-learned, individual actions that were once produced separately become ‘merged’, such that multiple actions are generated as a single, holistic unit. But what does it mean to generate multiple actions as a single unit? The dynamical systems paradigm offers the ability to translate this notion into specific predictions about the timing and structure of neural activity within motor cortex during sequence production. Importantly, it also offers predictions for the alternative hypothesis – that motor cortex generates the component actions of a sequence independently. To determine whether the production of rapid sequences requires motor cortex to merge multiple actions into a single ‘movement’, we trained monkeys to make sequences of two reaches. Surprisingly, we found that the same set of neural events are used to produce rapid sequences and isolated reaches. Rather than merging individual actions into a single unit, motor cortex generated rapid sequences by overlapping the neural activity related to reach preparation and execution. These results demonstrate that the performance of extremely fast, well-learned movement sequences does not require motor cortex to implement a sequence-specific strategy; the same neural motif that produces a simple reach can also generate movement sequences.

As theoretical neuroscience has grown as a field, machine learning techniques have played an increasingly important role in the development and evaluation of theories of neural computation. Today, machine learning is used in a variety of neuroscientific contexts from statistical inference to neural network training to normative modeling. This dissertation introduces machine learning techniques for use across the various domains of theoretical neuroscience, and the application of these techniques to build theories of neural circuits. First, we introduce a variety of optimization techniques for normative modeling of neural activity, which were used to evaluate theories of primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA). Specifically, neural responses during a cycling task performed by monkeys displayed distinctive dynamical geometries, which motivated hypotheses of how these geometries conferred computational properties necessary for the robust production of cyclic movements. By using normative optimization techniques to predict neural responses encoding muscle activity while ascribing to an “untangled” geometry, we found that minimal tangling was an accurate model of M1. Analyses with trajectory constrained RNNs showed that such an organization of M1 neural activity confers noise robustness, and that minimally “divergent” trajectories in SMA enable the tracking of contextual factors. In the remainder of the dissertation, we focus on the introduction and application of deep generative modeling techniques for theoretical neuroscience. Specifically, both techniques employ recent advancements in approaches to deep generative modeling -- normalizing flows -- to capture complex parametric structure in neural models. The first technique, which is designed for statistical generative models, enables look-up inference in intractable exponential family models. The efficiency of this technique is demonstrated by inferring neural firing rates in a log-gaussian poisson model of spiking responses to drift gratings in primary visual cortex. The second technique is designed for statistical inference in mechanistic models, where the inferred parameter distribution is constrained to produce emergent properties of computation. Once fit, the deep generative model confers analytic tools for quantifying the parametric structure giving rise to emergent properties. This technique was used for novel scientific insight into the nature of neuron-type variability in primary visual cortex and of distinct connectivity regimes of rapid task switching in superior colliculus.

Dans cette thèse, nous abordons le contrôle moteur du mouvement du coude à travers deux approches expérimentales : une première étude psychophysique a été effectuée chez les sujets humains, et une seconde implique des enregistrements neurophysiologiques chez le singe. Nous avons recensé plusieurs aspects non résolus jusqu’à présent dans l’apprentissage moteur, particulièrement concernant l’interférence survenant lors de l’adaptation à deux ou plusieurs champs de force anti-corrélés. Nous avons conçu un paradigme où des stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à prédire la nature du champ de force externe actuel avant qu’ils ne l’expérimentent physiquement durant des mouvements d’atteinte. Ces connaissances contextuelles faciliteraient l’adaptation à des champs de forces en diminuant l’interférence. Selon le modèle computationnel de l’apprentissage moteur MOSAIC (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control), les stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à former « un modèle interne » de chaque champ de forces, à s’en rappeler et à faire la transition entre deux champs de force différents, sans interférence. Dans l’expérience psychophysique, quatre groupes de sujets humains ont exécuté des mouvements de flexion/extension du coude contre deux champs de forces. Chaque force visqueuse était associée à une couleur de l’écran de l’ordinateur et les deux forces étaient anti-corrélées : une force résistante (Vr) a été associée à la couleur rouge de l’écran et l’autre, assistante (Va), à la couleur verte de l’écran. Les deux premiers groupes de sujets étaient des groupes témoins : la couleur de l’écran changeait à chaque bloc de 4 essais, tandis que le champ de force ne changeait pas. Les sujets du groupe témoin Va ne rencontraient que la force assistante Va et les sujets du groupe témoin Vr performaient leurs mouvements uniquement contre une force résistante Vr. Ainsi, dans ces deux groupes témoins, les stimuli de couleur n’étaient pas pertinents pour adapter le mouvement et les sujets ne s’adaptaient qu’à une seule force (Va ou Vr). Dans les deux groupes expérimentaux, cependant, les sujets expérimentaient deux champs de forces différents dans les différents blocs d’essais (4 par bloc), associés à ces couleurs. Dans le premier groupe expérimental (groupe « indice certain », IC), la relation entre le champ de force et le stimulus (couleur de l’écran) était constante. La couleur rouge signalait toujours la force Vr tandis que la force Va était signalée par la couleur verte. L’adaptation aux deux forces anti-corrélées pour le groupe IC s’est avérée significative au cours des 10 jours d’entraînement et leurs mouvements étaient presque aussi bien ajustés que ceux des deux groupes témoins qui n’avaient expérimenté qu’une seule des deux forces. De plus, les sujets du groupe IC ont rapidement démontré des changements adaptatifs prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices à chaque changement de couleur de l’écran, et ceci même durant leur première journée d’entraînement. Ceci démontre qu’ils pouvaient utiliser les stimuli de couleur afin de se rappeler de la commande motrice adéquate. Dans le deuxième groupe expérimental, la couleur de l’écran changeait régulièrement de vert à rouge à chaque transition de blocs d’essais, mais le changement des champs de forces était randomisé par rapport aux changements de couleur (groupe « indice-incertain », II). Ces sujets ont pris plus de temps à s’adapter aux champs de forces que les 3 autres groupes et ne pouvaient pas utiliser les stimuli de couleurs, qui n’étaient pas fiables puisque non systématiquement reliés aux champs de forces, pour faire des changements prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices. Toutefois, tous les sujets de ce groupe ont développé une stratégie ingénieuse leur permettant d’émettre une réponse motrice « par défaut » afin de palper ou de sentir le type de la force qu’ils allaient rencontrer dans le premier essai de chaque bloc, à chaque changement de couleur. En effet, ils utilisaient la rétroaction proprioceptive liée à la nature du champ de force afin de prédire la sortie motrice appropriée pour les essais qui suivent, jusqu’au prochain changement de couleur d’écran qui signifiait la possibilité de changement de force. Cette stratégie était efficace puisque la force demeurait la même dans chaque bloc, pendant lequel la couleur de l’écran restait inchangée. Cette étude a démontré que les sujets du groupe II étaient capables d’utiliser les stimuli de couleur pour extraire des informations implicites et explicites nécessaires à la réalisation des mouvements, et qu’ils pouvaient utiliser ces informations pour diminuer l’interférence lors de l’adaptation aux forces anti-corrélées. Les résultats de cette première étude nous ont encouragés à étudier les mécanismes permettant aux sujets de se rappeler d’habiletés motrices multiples jumelées à des stimuli contextuels de couleur. Dans le cadre de notre deuxième étude, nos expériences ont été effectuées au niveau neuronal chez le singe. Notre but était alors d’élucider à quel point les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1) peuvent contribuer à la compensation d’un large éventail de différentes forces externes durant un mouvement de flexion/extension du coude. Par cette étude, nous avons testé l’hypothèse liée au modèle MOSAIC, selon laquelle il existe plusieurs modules contrôleurs dans le cervelet qui peuvent prédire chaque contexte et produire un signal de sortie motrice approprié pour un nombre restreint de conditions. Selon ce modèle, les neurones de M1 recevraient des entrées de la part de plusieurs contrôleurs cérébelleux spécialisés et montreraient ensuite une modulation appropriée de la réponse pour une large variété de conditions. Nous avons entraîné deux singes à adapter leurs mouvements de flexion/extension du coude dans le cadre de 5 champs de force différents : un champ nul ne présentant aucune perturbation, deux forces visqueuses anti-corrélées (assistante et résistante) qui dépendaient de la vitesse du mouvement et qui ressemblaient à celles utilisées dans notre étude psychophysique chez l’homme, une force élastique résistante qui dépendait de la position de l’articulation du coude et, finalement, un champ viscoélastique comportant une sommation linéaire de la force élastique et de la force visqueuse. Chaque champ de force était couplé à une couleur d’écran de l’ordinateur, donc nous avions un total de 5 couleurs différentes associées chacune à un champ de force (relation fixe). Les singes étaient bien adaptés aux 5 conditions de champs de forces et utilisaient les stimuli contextuels de couleur pour se rappeler de la sortie motrice appropriée au contexte de forces associé à chaque couleur, prédisant ainsi leur sortie motrice avant de sentir les effets du champ de force. Les enregistrements d’EMG ont permis d’éliminer la possibilité de co-contractions sous-tendant ces adaptations, étant donné que le patron des EMG était approprié pour compenser chaque condition de champ de force. En parallèle, les neurones de M1 ont montré des changements systématiques dans leurs activités, sur le plan unitaire et populationnel, dans chaque condition de champ de force, signalant les changements requis dans la direction, l’amplitude et le décours temporel de la sortie de force musculaire nécessaire pour compenser les 5 conditions de champs de force. Les changements dans le patron de réponse pour chaque champ de force étaient assez cohérents entre les divers neurones de M1, ce qui suggère que la plupart des neurones de M1 contribuent à la compensation de toutes les conditions de champs de force, conformément aux prédictions du modèle MOSAIC. Aussi, cette modulation de l’activité neuronale ne supporte pas l’hypothèse d’une organisation fortement modulaire de M1.<br>In this thesis, we addressed motor control by two experimental approaches: psychophysical studies in human subjects and neurophysiological recordings in non-human primates. We identified unresolved issues concerning interference in motor learning during adaptation of subjects to two or more anti-correlated force fields. We designed paradigms in which arbitrary color stimuli provided contextual cues that allowed subjects to predict the nature of impending external force fields before encountering them physically during arm movements. This contextual knowledge helped to facilitate adaptation to the force fields by reducing this interference. According to one computational model of motor learning (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control; MOSAIC), the color context cues made it easier for subjects to build “internal models” of each force field, to recall them and to switch between them with minimal interference. In our first experiment, four groups of human subjects performed elbow flexion/extension movements against two anti-correlated viscous force fields. We combined two different colors for the computer monitor background with two forces: resistive (Vr) and assistive (Va). The first two groups were control subjects. In those subjects, the color of the computer monitor changed at regular intervals but the force field remained constant; Vr was presented to the first group while the second group only experienced Va. As a result, the color cues were irrelevant in the two control groups. All control subjects adapted well to the single experienced force field (Vr or Va). In the two experimental groups, in contrast, the anti-correlated force fields and the monitor colors changed repeatedly between short blocks of trials. In the first experimental group (Reliable-cue subjects), there was a consistent relationship between the force and the stimulus (color of the monitor) - the red colour always signalled the resistive force while the green colour always signalled the assistive force. Adaptation to the two anti-correlated forces for the Reliable-cue group was significant during 10 days of training and almost as good as in the Irrelevant-cue groups who only experienced one of the two force fields. Furthermore, the Reliable-cue subjects quickly demonstrated predictive adaptive changes in their motor output whenever the monitor color changed, even during their first day of training, showing that they could use the reliable color context cues to recall the appropriate motor skills. In contrast, the monitor color also changed regularly between red and green in the second experimental group, but the force fields were not consistently associated with the color cue (Unreliable-cue group). These subjects took longer to adapt to the two force fields than the other three groups, and could not use the unreliable color cue change to make predictive changes to their motor output. Nevertheless, all Unreliable-cue subjects developed an ingenious strategy of making a specific “default” arm movement to probe the type of force field they would encounter in the first trial after the monitor color changed and used the proprioceptive feedback about the nature of the field to make appropriate predictive changes to their motor output for the next few trials, until the monitor color changed again, signifying the possibility of a change in force fields. This strategy was effective since the force remained constant in each short block of trials while the monitor color remained unchanged. This showed that the Unreliable-cue subjects were able to extract implicit and explicit information about the structure of the task from the color stimuli and use that knowledge to reduce interference when adapting to anti-correlated forces. The results of this first study encouraged us to advance our understanding of how subjects can recall multiple motor skills coupled to color context stimuli can be recalled, and how this phenomenon can be reflected by the neuronal activity in monkeys. Our aim was to elucidate how neurons of primary motor cortex (M1) can contribute to adaptive compensation for a wide range of different external forces during single-joint elbow flexion/extension movements. At the same time, we aimed to test the hypothesis evoked in the MOSAIC model, whereby multiple controller modules located in the cerebellum may predict each context and produce appropriate adaptive output signals for a small range of task conditions. Also, according to this hypothesis, M1 neurons may receive inputs from many specialized cerebellar controllers and show appropriate response modulations for a wide range of task conditions. We trained two monkeys to adapt their flexion/extension elbow movements against 5 different force-field conditions: null field without any external force disturbance, two anti-correlated viscous forces (assistive and resistive), which depended on movement speed and resembled that used in the human psychophysical study, a resistive elastic force which depended on elbow-joint position and finally, a visco-elastic field that was the linear sum of the elastic and viscous forces field. Each force field was reliably coupled to 5 different computer monitor background colors. The monkeys properly adapted to the 5 different force-field conditions and used the color context cues to recall the corresponding motor skill for the force field associated with each color, so that they could make predictive changes to their motor output before they physically encountered the force fields. EMG recordings eliminated the possibility that a co-contraction strategy was used by the monkeys to adapt to the force fields, since the EMG patterns were appropriate to compensate for each force-field condition. In parallel, M1 neurons showed systematic changes in their activity at the single-neuron and population level in each force-field condition that could signal the required changes in the direction, magnitude and time course of muscle force output required to compensate for the 5 force-field conditions. The patterns of response changes in each force field were consistent enough across M1 neurons to suggest that most M1 neurons contributed to the compensation for all force field conditions, in line with the predictions of the MOSAIC model. Also, these response changes do not support a strongly modular organization for M1.

Une variété de modèles sur le processus de prise de décision dans divers contextes présume que les sujets accumulent les évidences sensorielles, échantillonnent et intègrent constamment les signaux pour et contre des hypothèses alternatives. L'intégration continue jusqu'à ce que les évidences en faveur de l'une des hypothèses dépassent un seuil de critère de décision (niveau de preuve exigé pour prendre une décision). De nouveaux modèles suggèrent que ce processus de décision est plutôt dynamique; les différents paramètres peuvent varier entre les essais et même pendant l’essai plutôt que d’être un processus statique avec des paramètres qui ne changent qu’entre les blocs d’essais. Ce projet de doctorat a pour but de démontrer que les décisions concernant les mouvements d’atteinte impliquent un mécanisme d’accumulation temporelle des informations sensorielles menant à un seuil de décision. Pour ce faire, nous avons élaboré un paradigme de prise de décision basée sur un stimulus ambigu afin de voir si les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1), prémoteur dorsal (PMd) et préfrontal (DLPFc) démontrent des corrélats neuronaux de ce processus d’accumulation temporelle. Nous avons tout d’abord testé différentes versions de la tâche avec l’aide de sujets humains afin de développer une tâche où l’on observe le comportement idéal des sujets pour nous permettre de vérifier l’hypothèse de travail. Les données comportementales chez l’humain et les singes des temps de réaction et du pourcentage d'erreurs montrent une augmentation systématique avec l'augmentation de l'ambigüité du stimulus. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec les prédictions des modèles de diffusion, tel que confirmé par une modélisation computationnelle des données. Nous avons, par la suite, enregistré des cellules dans M1, PMd et DLPFc de 2 singes pendant qu'ils s'exécutaient à la tâche. Les neurones de M1 ne semblent pas être influencés par l'ambiguïté des stimuli mais déchargent plutôt en corrélation avec le mouvement exécuté. Les neurones du PMd codent la direction du mouvement choisi par les singes, assez rapidement après la présentation du stimulus. De plus, l’activation de plusieurs cellules du PMd est plus lente lorsque l'ambiguïté du stimulus augmente et prend plus de temps à signaler la direction de mouvement. L’activité des neurones du PMd reflète le choix de l’animal, peu importe si c’est une bonne réponse ou une erreur. Ceci supporte un rôle du PMd dans la prise de décision concernant les mouvements d’atteinte. Finalement, nous avons débuté des enregistrements dans le cortex préfrontal et les résultats présentés sont préliminaires. Les neurones du DLPFc semblent beaucoup plus influencés par les combinaisons des facteurs de couleur et de position spatiale que les neurones du PMd. Notre conclusion est que le cortex PMd est impliqué dans l'évaluation des évidences pour ou contre la position spatiale de différentes cibles potentielles mais assez indépendamment de la couleur de celles-ci. Le cortex DLPFc serait plutôt responsable du traitement des informations pour la combinaison de la couleur et de la position des cibles spatiales et du stimulus ambigu nécessaire pour faire le lien entre le stimulus ambigu et la cible correspondante.<br>A variety of models of the decision-making process in many different contexts suggest that subjects sample, accumulate and integrate sensory evidence for and against different alternative choices, until one of those signals exceeds a decision criterion threshold. Early models assumed that this process is static and does not change during a trial or even between trials, but only between blocks of trials when task demands such as speed versus accuracy change. However, newer models suggest that the decision-making process is dynamic and factors that influence the evidence accumulation process might change both between trials in a block and even during a trial. This thesis project aims to demonstrate that decisions about reaching movements emerge from a mechanism of integration of sensory evidence to a decision criterion threshold. We developed a paradigm for decision-making about reach direction based on ambiguous sensory input to search for neural correlates of the decision-making process in primary motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMd) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFc). We first tested several versions of the task with human subjects before developing a task (“Choose and Go”) that showed ideal behavior from the subjects to test our hypothesis. The task required subjects to choose between two color-coded targets in different spatial locations by deciding the predominant color of a central “decision cue” that contained different amounts of colored squares of the two target colors. The strength of the evidence was manipulated by varying the relative numbers of squares of the two colors. The response times and error rates both increased in parallel as the strength of the sensory evidence in the decision cue (its color bias) became increasingly weaker. Computational modelling showed that the choice behaviour of the subjects could be captured by different variants of the drift-diffusion model for accumulation of sensory evidence to a decision threshold. We then recorded cells from M1, PMd and DLPFc in 2 macaques while they performed the task. Behavioral data showed that response times and error rates increased with the amount of ambiguity of the decision cues. M1 cells discharged in correlation with movement onset and were not influenced by the ambiguity of the decision cues. In contrast, the discharge of PMd cells increased more slowly with increased ambiguity of the decision cues and took increasingly more time to signal the movement direction chosen by the monkeys. The changes in activity reflected the monkeys’ reach choices. These data support a role for PMd in the choice of reach direction. DLPFc data are preliminary but reveal a stronger effect of the color-location conjunction rule in the neuronal discharge than in PMd. Our conclusion is that PMd is involved in the evaluation of evidence for and against different alternatives and about target spatial location independent of the color of the targets. DLPFC neurons play a greater role in processing information about the color and location of the spatial targets and decision cue to resolve the color-location conjunction rule required to decide on the reach target direction.

Inhibitory mechanisms are crucial for the integrated operation of the motor cortical circuit. Local inhibition is exerted by interneurons that are GABAergic, nonpyramidal cells with short, nonprojecting axons. Interneurons can be classified into at least two groups: fast-spiking (FS) neurons and instrinsic bursting (IB) neurons. In the primary motor cortex, FS cells may sculpe the tuning dispersion of directionally selective putative pyramidal cells during reaching in behaving monkeys. Analysis of putative interneuronal activity also allowed to discard the role of inhibition as a gating mechanism in motor control. The development of high-density, semichronic electrode systems for extracellular recordings in behaving primates will allow a closer investigation of the role of interneuronal inhibition in directional tuning and voluntary motor control. The results discussed in this chapter agree with the authors’ proposal that local inhibitory mechanisms may be intimately involved in controlling the directional accuracy and speed of the reaching movement.