Academic literature on the topic 'Monitoring training load in team sport'

Research describing load-monitoring techniques for team sport is plentiful. Much of this research is conducted retrospectively and typically involves recreational or semielite teams. Load-monitoring research conducted on professional team sports is largely observational. Challenges exist for the practitioner in implementing peer-reviewed research into the applied setting. These challenges include match scheduling, player adherence, manager/coach buy-in, sport traditions, and staff availability. External-load monitoring often attracts questions surrounding technology reliability and validity, while internal-load monitoring makes some assumptions about player adherence, as well as having some uncertainty around the impact these measures have on player performance This commentary outlines examples of load-monitoring research, discusses the issues associated with the application of this research in an elite team-sport setting, and suggests practical adjustments to the existing research where necessary.

Purpose:Investigating adolescent training loads might help us understand optimal training adaptations. GPS tracking devices and training diaries were used to quantify weekly sport and other physical activity demands placed on adolescent rugby union players and profile typical rugby training sessions.Methods:Participants were 75 males age 14 to 18 y who were recruited from rugby teams representing 3 levels of participation: schoolboy, national representative, and a selective sports school talent squad.Results:Schoolboy players covered a distance of (mean ± SD) 3511 ± 836 m, representative-squad players 3576 ± 956 m, and talent-squad players 2208 ± 637 m per rugby training session. The representative squad recorded the highest weekly duration of sport and physical activity (515 ± 222 min/wk), followed by the talent squad (421 ± 211 min/week) and schoolboy group (370 ± 135 min/wk). Profiles of individual players identified as group outliers showed participation in up to 3 games and up to 11 training sessions per week, with twice the weekly load of the team averages.Conclusion:Optimal participation and performance of adolescent rugby union players might be compromised by many high-load, high-impact training sessions and games and commitments to other sports and physical activities. An improved understanding of monitoring and quantifying load in adolescent athletes is needed to facilitate best-practice advice for player management and training prescription.

Traditional periodization has some characteristics that are the individualization of the training load, training load response based on biological laws and most of these models have the objective of the athlete archive the peak. The contemporary periodization has the following characteristics: individualized training load with monitoring of the physiological adaptation, training of the specific motor capacities of the modality, use of the evolution time and of the residual training effect for the coach prescribes the session, much attention with technical and tactical training and attention in the training with the injury level. Which periodization (traditional and contemporary) models are indicated to be used in contemporary sports? The objective of the review was to determining the types of periodization (traditional and contemporary) for each sport (individual, team, and combat). Traditional periodization has four types of periodization for the coach prescribes the training. The periodization models are the traditional periodization of Matveev, the pendular periodization of Arosiev and Kalinin, the high load system of Vorobiev and the periodization of the structural scheme of high-intensity loads of Tschiene. Contemporary periodization are for the individual sport (block periodization, individualized periodization and ATR periodization), a model for the individualized and collective sports (periodization of the structural bells), five periodization for the collective sports games (periodization of long-form state, microstructure periodization, tactical periodization, non-linear periodization and selective load periodization) and a model for the volleyball (specific periodization for the volleyball). In conclusion, the coach that knows the periodization has more probability of success during a championship.

Athlete monitoring enables sports science practitioners to collect information to determine how athletes respond to training loads (TL) and the demands of competition. To date, recommendations for females are often adapted from their male counterparts. There is currently limited information available on TL monitoring in female Gaelic team sports in Ireland. The collection and analysis of female athlete monitoring data can provide valuable information to support the development of female team sports. Athletic monitoring can also support practitioners to help minimize risk of excessive TL and optimize potential athletic performance. The aims of this narrative review are to provide: (i) an overview of TL athlete monitoring in female team sports, (ii) a discussion of the potential metrics and tools used to monitor external TL and internal TL, (iii) the advantages and disadvantages of TL modalities for use in Gaelic team sports, and (iv) practical considerations on how to monitor TL to aid in the determination of meaningful change with female Gaelic team sports athletes.

Training stress and adequate recovery have been identified as important factors to enhance performance in sports and to avoid overtraining. Research dealing with training monitoring and overtraining is mostly based on the Profile of Mood Stales (POMS). Recently, Kellmann and Kallus (2000, 2001) published the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), which assesses training effects from the perspective of stress and recovery. During a six-week training camp before and at the World Championships, 24 female and 30 male rowers of the German Junior National Rowing Team completed the RESTQ-Sport and the POMS six times. Results of selected MANOVA’s revealed significant increases of stress and decreases of recovery when training load expands, and vice versa. Changes in mood, creatine kinase, and ergometer performance reflect the alteration and success of training. These results suggest that the RESTQ-Sport is a potential alternative to the POMS in evaluating the impact of various training schedules.

Purpose:Load monitoring in Australian football (AF) has been widely adopted, yet team-sport periodization strategies are relatively unknown. The authors aimed to quantify training and competition load across a season in an elite AF team, using rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and GPS tracking.Methods:Weekly totals for RPE and GPS loads (including accelerometer data; PlayerLoad) were obtained for 44 players across a full season for each training modality and for competition. General linear mixed models compared mean weekly load between 3 preseason and 4 in-season blocks. Effects were assessed with inferences about magnitudes standardized with between-players SD.Results:Total RPE load was most likely greater during preseason, where the majority of load was obtained via skills and conditioning. There was a large reduction in RPE load in the last preseason block. During in-season, half the total load came from games and the remaining half from training, predominantly skills and upper-body weights. Total distance, high-intensity running, and PlayerLoad showed large to very large reductions from preseason to in-season, whereas changes in mean speed were trivial across all blocks. All these effects were clear at the 99% level.Conclusions:These data provide useful information about targeted periods of loading and unloading across different stages of a season. The study also provides a framework for further investigation of training periodization in AF teams.

AbstractThe main goal of this study was to present a review of current knowledge and modern trends in periodization of the training process in team sports. The research objectives were: an analysis of various aspects of periodization of the annual training cycle for elite athletes practicing team sport games, an attempt to determine both the examined and unexamined issues related with periodization of training as well as to indicate directions for further research, and finally, presentation of different training loads and competitions in micro-, meso- and macrocycles. The research consisted of the analysis and generalization of the bibliography, methods of monitoring training and competition loads of the Polish national U17 female soccer team in the seasons 2011/2012 and 2012/2013, as well as of the female basketball division one club in the season 2014/2015. Findings of the present study indicate resolved as well as unresolved aspects of annual training cycle periodization in team sport games and provide information on the types of training and competitive workload planning in micro-, meso- and macrocycles.

The study aimed to describe and compare the external training load, monitored using microtechnology, with the internal training load, expressed as the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), in elite male basketball training sessions. Thirteen professional basketball players participated in this study (age=25.7±3.3 years; body height=199.2±10.7 cm; body mass=96.6±9.4 kg). All players belonged to the same team, competing in two leagues, ACB and the Euroleague, in the 2016/2017 season. The variables assessed within the external motion analysis included: Player Load (PL), acceleration and deceleration (ACC/DEC), jumps (JUMP), and changes of direction (CoD). The internal demands were registered using the sRPE method. Pearson product-moment correlations were used to determine relationships between the variables. A significant correlation was observed between the external load variables and sRPE (range r=0.71–0.93). Additionally, the sRPE variable showed a high correlation with the total PL, ACC, DEC, and CoD. The contrary was observed with respect to the relationship between sRPE and JUMP variables: the correlation was higher for the high band and lower for the total number of jumps. With respect to the external load variables, a stronger correlation was found between PL and the total number of ACC, DEC and COD than the same variables within the high band. The only contrary finding was the correlation between PL and JUMP variables, which showed a stronger correlation for hJUMP. Tri-axial accelerometry technology and the sRPE method serve as valuable tools for monitoring the training load in basketball. Even though the two methods exhibit a strong correlation, some variation exists, likely due to frequent static movements (i.e., isometric muscle contractions) that accelerometers are not able to detect. Finally, it is suggested that both methods are to be used complementary, when possible, in order to design and control the training process as effectively as possible.

Background Single-item athlete self-report measures consist of a single question to assess a dimension of wellbeing. These methods are recommended and frequently used for athlete monitoring, yet their uniformity has not been well assessed, and we have a limited understanding of their relationship with measures of training load. Objective To investigate the applications and designs of single-item self-report measures used in monitoring team-sport athletes and present the relationship between these measures and measures of training load. Data Sources PubMed, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were searched between inception and March 2019. Study Selection Articles were included if they concerned adult athletes from field- or court-sport domains, if athlete well-being was measured using a single-item self-report, and if the relationship with a measure of modifiable training load was investigated over at least 7 days. Data Extraction Data related to participant characteristics, self-report measures, training load measures, and statistical analysis and outcomes were extracted by 2 authors (C.D. and C.D.). Data Synthesis A total of 21 studies were included in the analysis. A narrative synthesis was conducted. The measures used most frequently were muscle soreness, fatigue, sleep quality, stress, and mood. All measures presented various relationships with metrics of training load from no association to a very large association, and the associations were predominantly trivial to moderate in the studies with the largest numbers of observations. Relationships were largely negative associations. Conclusions The implications of this review should be considered by users in the application and clinical utility of single-item self-report measures in athlete monitoring. Great emphasis has been placed on examining the relationship between subjective and objective measures of training load. Although the relationship is still unclear, such an association may not be expected or useful. Researchers should consider the measurement properties of single-item self-report measures and seek to establish their relationship with clinically meaningful outcomes. As such, further study is required to inform practitioners on the appropriate objective application of data from single-item self-report measures.

Outdoor, field-based team sports have been a staple of American and international cultures throughout recorded history and are currently played by millions of athletes around the globe. In modern competition, it is critical for athletes and support staff such as coaches, strength and conditioning specialists, and medical personnel to cooperate to optimize competitive readiness and performance. Important variables that can enhance or reduce physiological adaptations related to these areas include the relationship between the prescribed training workload and potential injuries. Therefore, it is important to understand and modify these aspects to fit the unique needs of individual athletes and specific teams. Recent advancements in technology now allow aspects of performance to be monitored in real time via methods that are reliable, cost effective, and noninvasive. The purpose of this literature review is to summarize and elucidate the available information on the potential relationship between heart rate monitoring and training load and how it may be used to prevent, predict, or detect an injury among athletes who participate in field-based sports. Overall, results indicate that while such technology has been used to describe and prescribe training workload, little research has been done to monitor the relationship between these variables and proclivity for or recovery from injury. Future longitudinal studies that encapsulate and address the highly dynamic nature and relationship of these variables are needed to better understand how they interact. Such an understanding may allow personnel such as coaches and staff to better support athletes on and off the field.

The number of GPS devices brands, commercially available to football teams has risen significantly in the past two decades. As players continue to change between teams such as club, country, youth, professional, their activity may be tracked with two or more brands. Discrepancies between device brand reporting can affect the decisions to adjust individual training load and place players at a higher risk of injury when multiple brands are being used. This project of research has investigated discrepancies between commercial GPS brands and provided a correction tool to be used when comparing GPS derived data between different brands.

In any competitive sporting environment, it is crucial to a team's success to have the maximum number of their players free from injury and illness and available for selection in as many games as possible throughout the season. The training programme of the club, and therefore training load, can have an impact on the incidence of injury and illness amongst the players. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the training load and the incidence of injury and illness over an entire pre-season at an Australian Football League (AFL) club. Sixteen players were subjects; all full time professional male AFL players (mean + or - standard deviation; age 23.8 + or - 5.1 years; height 188.9 + or - 7.4 m; weight 90.9 + or - 9.2 kg). A longitudinal research design was employed, where training load, injury and illness were monitored over a 15 week pre-season and Pearson Correlation Coefficients were used to examine relationships.

In any competitive sporting environment, it is crucial to a team's success to have the maximum number of their players free from injury and illness and available for selection in as many games as possible throughout the season. The training programme of the club, and therefore training load, can have an impact on the incidence of injury and illness amongst the players. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the training load and the incidence of injury and illness over an entire pre-season at an Australian Football League (AFL) club. Sixteen players were subjects; all full time professional male AFL players (mean + or - standard deviation; age 23.8 + or - 5.1 years; height 188.9 + or - 7.4 m; weight 90.9 + or - 9.2 kg). A longitudinal research design was employed, where training load, injury and illness were monitored over a 15 week pre-season and Pearson Correlation Coefficients were used to examine relationships.

Despite the known restorative effects of sleep and the important role it may play in minimising fatigue and optimising adaptation from training, it has been suggested that athletes exhibit poorer sleep characteristics when compared to the general population. Whilst there have been investigations of the sleep characteristics exhibited during competition, analysis of the objective sleep characteristics of team sport athletes prior to and during important competition is limited, particularly in elite female athletes. In addition to the competition itself, there are a number of factors that may influence an athlete’s sleep. These include the training and competition schedule, phases of training and competition, internal and external training load, the athlete’s sleep environment, and domestic and international travel. However, the impact of a combination of these factors on objective sleep has rarely been explored in elite team sport athletes. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to investigate the objective sleep characteristics of elite male and female team sport athletes during competition. Three studies were conducted in a high performance sport environments to assess: (1) the impact of match start time and days relative to a match on sleep; (2) the relationships between sleep, training load and well-being; and (3) the impact of the quality and quantity of sleep obtained during a long-haul flight on competition sleep and perceptual measures including well-being and jetlag. Study 1 assessed the objective sleep characteristics, via wrist worn actigraphy, of 45 elite male Australian Football (AF) players during the pre-season (habitual) and across four home matches during the competitive season. For each match start time, the 22 participants who were selected to play were assigned an activity monitor to be worn the night before (-1), night of (0), one night after (+1), and two nights after (+2) each match. Differences observed in sleep onset latency (ES=0.11 ± 0.16), sleep rating (ES=0.08 ± 0.14) and sleep duration (ES=0.08 ± 0.01) between competition and habitual periods were trivial. Sleep efficiency (%) was almost certainly higher during competition than habitual, however this was not reflected in the subjective rating of sleep quality. In many cases, the differences between match start times were trivial or unclear. The evening match start time, compared to all other start times, resulted in the clearest differences (e.g., evening matches had a likely longer sleep latency and almost certainly lower sleep efficiency). The differences in sleep characteristics based on days relative to the match were primarily trivial, however there were almost certain decreases in sleep duration for the night of the match compared to +1 and +2 nights post-match. The findings of this study indicated that, in general, elite AF competition does not appear to cause substantial disruption to sleep characteristics when compared to habitual sleep. Whilst the match start time had some impact on sleep variables, it appears that any match, regardless of match start time, may cause disruption to players’ sleep characteristics. The clearest disruption to AF players’ sleep occurred in the nights (+1 and +2) immediately following a match, which provides an ideal opportunity for intervention to optimise sleep and recovery. Importantly, the subjective ratings of sleep from shortened well-being questionnaires, used routinely in the high performance environment appear limited in their ability to accurately provide an indication of sleep quality. It is recognised that numerous factors may influence the sleep characteristics of AF players, including player well-being and training and match day load. Nevertheless, the relationships between load, well-being and sleep prior to and following training and matches are not well understood.1 Study 2 assessed the association between objective sleep characteristics, self-reported measures of well-being and external load of 38 elite male AF players over a 15-day pre-season training period. External load was assessed during main field sessions and self-ratings of well-being were collected daily. Canonical correlations were moderate between pre training sleep and training load (r range = 0.32–0.49), pre training sleep and well-being (r = 0.32), and well-being and post training sleep (r = 0.36). Moderate-to-strong canonical correlations were observed between dimensions representing training load and post training sleep (r range = 0.31 to 0.67). Player Load TM (PL) and Player Load TM 2D (PL2D) showed the greatest association to pre and post training objective sleep characteristics and well-being. External load metrics PL and PL2D showed the greatest association between both objective sleep characteristics and well-being measures in AF players. This association was observed both prior to and following main AF training sessions. Fragmented sleep was associated with players completing the following training session with a higher PL2D, and increased wake bouts were associated with lower mood and higher soreness ratings. Our findings highlight that the relationship between objective sleep characteristics, training load and well-being are not defined by one measure (e.g., sleep duration). Instead, a complex interaction of sleep variables may influence both external load and the well-being of AF players. These findings have implications for practitioners, particularly when choosing variables to monitor AF players’ sleep to assist in the planning and evaluation of training. The sleep characteristics for both Study 1 and 2 were assessed in players’ habitual sleep environments, however it is often a requirement for an elite team sport athlete to travel both domestically and internationally for competition.2-5 In order to investigate the impact of international travel on the sleep characteristics, well-being and performance of elite team sport athletes,6 the participant group for Study 3 was extended to elite female cricket players, as players are required to travel both domestically and internationally for competition. There have been no assessments of the objective in-flight sleep characteristics when athletes have the ability to lie flat whilst travelling in business class, however the difficulties of obtaining good quantity and quantity of sleep during long-haul travel are well documented,4,7 Study 3 assessed the impact of the quality and quantity of sleep during an international flight on subsequent objective sleep characteristics, training and match day load, self-reported well-being, and perceptions of jetlag in 11 elite female cricketers during an International Cricket Council T20 Women’s World Cup. To our knowledge, Study 3 is the first objective assessment of the in-flight sleep of elite team sport athletes seated in business class during an international flight. The results of Study 3 indicate that maximising the opportunity for in-flight sleep quality and quantity by planning the team departure time and business class seat selection appear to benefit elite female cricket players’ recovery and sleep exhibited during competition. The quality of sleep obtained in-flight had an impact on the self-reported measures of fatigue during the tournament. Players with a lower in-flight sleep efficiency reported higher levels of fatigue during the tournament. Study 2 highlighted that fragmented sleep prior to a main training session was associated with lower ratings of mood and increased ratings of soreness. This further supports that the quality and quantity of in-flight sleep may have had a positive impact on an athlete’s overall well-being and readiness to train upon arrival at the international competition destination. The preservation of both the sleep quality and quantity during long-haul travel may also be an important strategy to manage jetlag.3,8 Players that slept for longer during the flight presented with minimal perceptions of jetlag and this was maintained across the monitoring period. In contrast, players with lower in-flight sleep duration reported some perceptions of jetlag, which improved two days after arrival at the destination. It is acknowledged that the financial constraints of travelling business class may be a limitation for elite team sporting organisations, however the investment to achieve sleep quality and quantity similar to habitual values prior to an important international competition may outweigh the costs associated with the alternative approach of an arriving days earlier (e.g., accommodation) to facilitate recovery from travel. In summary, the three studies in this thesis add to the knowledge of the objective sleep characteristics of elite male and female team sport athletes exhibited during competition. Our findings demonstrate that the sleep characteristics during competition are not compromised when compared to habitual. However, the habitual characteristics were not optimal, providing the greatest opportunity for intervention. The findings provide high performance practitioners and coaches with information to assist with the implementation of individualised and team strategies to optimise the sleep, well-being and performance of elite team sport athletes. Furthermore, preserving the sleep quality and quantity during international travel should be considered when planning travel and training upon arrival at the international competition destination.

The congested fixture schedules in elite soccer leagues around the world has bought the issue of recovery between games and subsequent performance to the fore in soccer related research. Studies have described the time-course of recovery for numerous biochemical and physiological measures of performance, fatigue and recovery from match-play. However, the research also suggests that there is individual variation in the external load both between players and between matches. The external load measured as distance in match-play has been shown to vary by ~30% between games. However it is the internal training load that will determine the magnitude of the physiological responses on an individual basis. Therefore the major aim of this thesis was to examine the dose-response relationships between measures of training load and the physiological and biochemical responses used as markers of recovery from match-play. The thesis also assessed the relationships between these proposed markers of recovery and soccer specific performance. In meeting the aims of the thesis a number of preliminary studies were conducted. The study in section 3 assesses the extent of fixture congestion in the English Premier League. The results showed over 30% of games for the most successful teams are played with 3 days recovery time, justifying the need for investigating recovery from soccer match-play. Given the variation in soccer match-play section 4 examines the reliability and validity of the modified BEAST90 soccer simulation. A measure of performance with less variance would allow changes in soccer specific performance to be identified with greater certainty in section 7. Section 5 assesses the influence of intermittent exercise on the blood lactate response. Given that the new iTRIMP method of measuring internal training load weights exertion with the blood lactate response it was important to assess the influence exercise mode may have on the calculation of internal training load. The results showed that at higher intensities intermittent exercise produced significantly higher blood lactate responses. Section 6 assesses the dose-response relationships between training and fitness using numerous measures of internal training load over a 6 week training period. The results showed only the iTRIMP method showed a significant relationship with changes in fitness. Section 7 assesses the dose-response relationships between exertion in soccer match-play and various physiological measures of fatigue and recovery. The relationships between these measures and changes in soccer specific performance were also assessed. Finally the internal and external load were integrated and the relationships of this ratio assessed with measures of fitness and performance. The results showed that changes in any of the physiological and biochemical measures used to assess recovery did not relate to changes in performance with the exception of testosterone which showed significant positive relationships with changes in distance covered from the 1st trial of the modified BEAST protocol to 2nd. Testosterone also was the only measure to show a significant relationship during the recovery period with any measure of training load (sRPE). Finally, the novel findings of this thesis is the relationships between the integrated ratio’s of internal and external training load with measures of aerobic fitness is also presented in section 7. The studies provided in this thesis have made a major contribution in demonstrating how data that is routinely collected at elite levels of soccer can be used more appropriately. It has also shown limitations of some the methods currently employed to measure training load. Furthermore changes in many of the markers used to assess recovery of soccer players do not seem to relate to changes in soccer specific performance. This may point to a change in paradigm which is required in both research and practice.

Study 1: The intraday reliability of the reactive strength index (RSI) calculated from a drop jump in professional men’s basketball. Purpose: To evaluate the reliability of the reactive strength index (RSI) and jump height (JH) performance from multiple drop heights with elite basketball players. Methods: Thirteen professional basketball players (mean ±SD: age 25.8 ± 3.5 y, height 1.96 ± 0.07 m, mass 94.8 ± 8.2 kg) completed 3 maximal drop jump attempts on to a jump mat at 4 randomly assigned box heights and 3 counter movement jump (CMJ) trials. Results: No statistical difference was observed between three trials for both the RSI and JH variable at all the tested drop heights. The RSI for drop jump heights from 20 cm resulted in a coefficient of variation (CV) = 3.1% and an intraclass correlation (ICCα) =0.96, 40 cm resulted in a CV = 3.0% and an ICCα = 0.95, 50 cm resulted in a CV = 2.1% and an ICCα = 0.99. The JH variable at the 40 cm drop jump height resulted in the highest reliability CV = 2.8% and an ICCα = 0.98. Conclusion: When assessing the RSI the 20, 40 and 50 cm drop heights are recommended with this population. When assessing large groups it appears that only one tria Study 2: Does session RPE relate with reactive strength qualities? A case study investigation within the National Basketball League This investigation aimed to establish the relationship between training loads derived from the sessional rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and the reactive strength index (RSI) over a 27-week competitive season in elite basketball players. Fourteen professional male basketball players (26 ± 3.6 years; 95.8 ± 9.0 kg; 197.3 ± 7.3 cm) participated in this study. Training load data were modeled against the RSI over a 27-week competitive season with the use of a linear mixed model. The relationship between RSI and training load was only significantly different from baseline (Week 1) at Week 24 (p < 0.05) and Week 26 (p < 0.01). These primarily findings suggest that sRPE and RSI have a weak relationship, whilst the RSI does not appear to accurately reflect the changes in training load that occur during an in-season periodized training program in professional male basketball.

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the best predictor of training and/or match load using session RPE. Design and Methods: 20 NCAA DI male soccer players participated in the study during the 2014 and 2015 competitive seasons. Players completed 15.20 ± 1.05 matches for a total of 304 individual data points and 29.90 ± 1.89. training sessions for a total of 598 individual data points. GPS variables (total distance, High-intensity running distance, and Player load) were analyzed with session RPE using Pearson product-moment correlations. To evaluate various methods of session RPE, “match duration” was recorded using eight different definitions: total match duration including warm-up and half-time, total match duration and warm-up, total match duration and half-time, total match duration only, minutes played including warm-up and half-time, minutes played and warm-up, minutes played and half-time, and minutes played only. A one-way ANOVA with repeated measures was used to determine if differences existed between the eight session RPE calculations. Results: Results from the ANOVA showed that all session RPE measures were significantly different from one another (P < 0.05). Very large correlations were reported between session RPE calculated using minutes played and total distance (0.81), while session RPE calculated using match duration showed less magnitude (0.57). Conclusions: Minutes played should be used to calculate session RPE as it was found to most closely reflect the actual workloads incurred during competitive matches.

Purpose: To determine if jumping-performance changes during a peaking phase differed among returners and new players on a female collegiate volleyball team and to determine which variables best explained the variation in performance changes. Methods: Fourteen volleyball players were divided into 2 groups—returners (n = 7) and new players (n = 7)—who completed a 5-wk peaking phase prior to conference championships. Players were tested at baseline before the preseason on measures of the vastus lateralis cross-sectional area using ultrasonography, estimated back-squat 1-repetition maximum, countermovement jump height (JH), and relative peak power on a force platform. Jumping performance, rating of perceived exertion training load, and sets played were recorded weekly during the peaking phase. Results: There were moderate to very large (P < .01, Glass Δ = 1.74) and trivial to very large (P = .07, Δ = 1.09) differences in JH and relative peak power changes in favor of returners over new players, respectively, during the peaking phase. Irrespective of group, 7 of 14 players achieved peak JH 2 wk after the initial overreach. The number of sets played (r = .78, P < .01) and the athlete’s preseason relative 1-repetition maximum (r = .54, P = .05) were the strongest correlates of JH changes during the peaking phase. Conclusions: Returners achieved greater improvements in jumping performance during the peaking phase compared with new players, which may be explained by the returners’ greater relative maximal strength, time spent competing, and training experience. Thus, volleyball and strength coaches should consider these factors when prescribing training during a peaking phase to ensure their players are prepared for important competitions.

碩士
中國文化大學
體育學系運動教練碩博士班
102
Purpose：The purpose of this study was to investigate the different of training load changes on psychological stress and recovery in senior high women basketball team. Methods：There were 15 players from Tamshui vocational high school women basketball team as subjects in the study. In the preparation stage, pre-competition stage, competition stage and transitional stage, the RESTQ-52 Sport questionnaire was applied as research tool which included general stress and recovery social stress and recovery, psychological stress and recovery and physiological stress and recovery. And collect data and observe the players in different training period the recovery and stress scenarios. One-way ANOVA was applied to analyze collected data and α level was set at .05. Result：Players in different training load period, its pressure and recovery stated psychological pressure dimensions vary. Conclusion：Athletes got stress, anxiety, and nervous in pre-competitive and main competitive because competition was getting close and they did high exercise intensity. So their general stress and recovery, psychological stress and recovery, physiological stress and recovery were higher than other training phase. This study was to investigate the relationship between stress and recovery, hoping that coaches and athletes attach importance to the problem of overtraining as they are monitoring stress and recovery in training.

Aerobic fitness and repeated high-intensity efforts have been shown to be a determinant in the performance of team sports, especially in the ability to finish a match, to cover a distance, to repeat and recover between sprints and explosive movements (e.g. accelerations, changes of direction; COD) and to reduce the deterioration in some technical skill. Due to this, coaches must appropriately develop these capacities to adequately prepare athletes for match-play demands. High-intensity interval training is considered an effective and time efficient means to optimise individual physiological adaptation. However, the best processes which examine these qualities (physical testing protocols), prescribe training and monitor the response of this training requires attention, particularly in team sport athletes that possess heterogenous physical attributes. Therefore, this thesis aimed to examine a valid and reliable approach to assess the training outcome as well as prescribe and monitor the training process in rugby league athletes.

This work presents the main concepts related to training loads and physical recovery in athletes. This material is the result of a collection of two master's dissertations linked to the Graduate Program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal Technological University of Paraná, Campus Curitiba. Our main goal is to bring to sports professionals, essential concepts for those who want to improve their load control strategies and the physical recovery of their athletes. The content was organized in two parts: the first addresses the classic concepts and the main strategies on the control of monitoring of training loads and physical recovery of athletes. In the second part, the authors present a brief summary of the literature on the technologies available in the market, for monitoring the training loads and physical recovery of athletes, and finally, the authors present a tool specially developed to evaluate and monitor the loads of training and physical recovery of athletes, the e-Trimp application. This app is available free of charge for use in sport. It is expected that this content can contribute to the specialized literature, especially, assist, athletes, coaches, and physical trainers in improving strategies to evaluate and monitor load indicators and physical recovery.

ABSTRACT Long-term motivation, perceived motivational climate, and leadership style are factors related to the endurance of load, resistance to stress and sports results. The aim of this study was to reveal the relationships between leadership style, motivational climate, and long-term motivation of athletes differentiated by sex, kind of sport, and sports results. The research was done among 101 athletes practicing team sports (70 men, 31 women) with mean age 20.3 years (±5.4). We used the following questionnaires: Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS), Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ - 2), and the Test for the study of long-term motivation assessing the long-term goals and prospects. The mastery of motivational climate is strengthened by applying democratic behavior (β=.229*) and structuring of team actions through training and instruction (β=.435**). The performance motivational climate is strengthened by using autocratic behavior (β=.426***) and avoiding: democratic behavior (β=-.459**), and giving positive feedback (β=-.236*). Long-term motivation increases with the dominance of the mastery motivational climate (β=.310**) and decreases with the performance motivational climate (β=-.202*). The obtained results give grounds to assume that the coach’s leadership style plays a significant role in shaping the perceived motivational climate, which determines the level of athletes’ long-term motivation.

ABSTRACT After several years of investigations of the training load in rhythmic gymnastics unification of testing in the field is need-ed. The aim is to implement a protocol for monitoring the physiological parameters. Two high-level rhythmic gymnasts aged 17 (Seniors) took part in this study. The physiological changes of the gymnasts were followed by measuring HR and blood lactate. At first, we tested the minute at which the peak of the blood lactate concentration appeared in order to take only one sample after the routines. In the literature different minutes are given to assess the peak value. Heart rate was recorded during each training for the duration of one micro cycle (a week) and the heart rate and the blood lactate were tested on a certain day of the week (Wednesday) for the duration of one mesocycle (month). The testing was carried out at the end of the preparatory and the beginning of the competitive period. The aim was to check the reliability of the testing with high-level athletes and to implement it into practice. The peak values of the heart rate and blood lactate were taken a few times during the training – before the start of the training; after the warm-up; before 1st routine (specific warm-up with apparatus); after the first, middle, and last routine of the day. The aim was to reduce the number of blood samples taken for each gymnast during the training sessions and also to optimize and simplify the procedure of the testing. With the implementation of this protocol in practice, it will be much more accurate to make a comparison among gymnasts or between the periods of the preparation for the same athlete. However, pilot studies should not be used to test hypotheses. Since the appropriate level in elite sport is measured we consider carrying on with further testing with a bigger number of gymnasts to prove the results.

Review question / Objective: This systematic review aims to compile and order all the training load measures, all fatigue assessments, and all well-being questionnaires used in volleyball training/match monitoring, systematizing them. Condition being studied: Training load: cumulative amount of stress placed on an individual from multiple sessions and games over a period of time. Neuromuscular fatigue: A response that is less than the expected or anticipated contractile response, for a given stimulation. Well-being: A continuous, active process, which is geared towards balancing one’s physical, emotional, social, intellectual and spiritual wellness in order to enhance one’s life quality.5 In sport science the subjective measurement of the response to training and competition are used through the athlete self-report measures (ASRMs). In practice, these often comprise brief, single-item checklists derived from validated questionnaires that are intended to be completed daily.

Review question / Objective: The present systematic mini review aim to provide an overview about external and internal load during training sessions in elite women’s soccer, with special focus on fatigue, training adaptions and injuries. Condition being studied: Continuous training load monitoring in the context of the regular team routine. Eligibility criteria: To investigate continuous monitoring, we include articles with a minimum of one week of monitoring, irrespective of gender and study focus (e.g. studies reporting descriptive data of training load without studying its effects will be included). Articles will be excluded if: the participants are not all elite women’s soccer players (e.g. mixed samples including elite and non-elite players); the participants are aged under 18; the participants are not monitored longitudinally over a minimum of a 1-week period or five sessions (if the duration is not stated; friendly matches are considered training sessions) to consider continuous monitoring practices; no GPS-derived training load data are reported; the articles do not report any training load indicators; single drills are monitored rather than the entire training session, or the article focuses on the comparison between a specific drill and match demands; data from training sessions are not reported; and the articles are editorials or reviews.