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Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Components, Philips. Monochrome monitor tubes and deflection units: Data handbook. London: Philips Components Ltd, 1991.

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2

Thornton, Judith. ICU nursing monitor: an audit of the quality of nursing care for patients in intensive care units. Loughton: Gale Centre, 1992.

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3

Swinden, D. R. Human resource support unit to monitor the effectiveness of human resources within a police organisation. London: North East London Polytechnic, 1986.

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4

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation. Programmatic environmental impact statement related to decontamination and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from March 28, 1979 accident, Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2, docket no. 50-320: Final supplement dealing with post-defueling monitored storage and subsequent cleanup. Washington, DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, 1989.

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5

Regulation, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Office of Nuclear Reactor. Programmatic environmental impact statement related to decontamination and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from March 28, 1979 accident, Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2, docket no. 50-320: Draft supplement dealing with post-defueling monitored storage and subsequent cleanup. Washington, DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, 1989.

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6

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research. Division of Regulatory Applications. and K.E.M.P. Corporation., eds. Large area self-powered gamma ray detector: Phase II development of a source position monitor for use on industrial radiographic units. Washington, DC: Division of Regulatory Applications, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1994.

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7

Large area self-powered gamma ray detector: Phase II development of a source position monitor for use on industrial radiographic units. Washington, DC: Division of Regulatory Applications, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1994.

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8

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research. Division of Regulatory Applications. and K.E.M.P. Corporation., eds. Large area self-powered gamma ray detector: Phase II development of a source position monitor for use on industrial radiographic units. Washington, DC: Division of Regulatory Applications, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1994.

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9

de Carvalho, Mamede, and Michael Swash. Neurophysiology in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other motor degenerations. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0022.

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Electromyography is critical for the diagnosis of motor neuron disease, as its findings exclude mimicking disorders, and confirm signs of widespread motor unit loss and reinnervation. In chronic conditions the slow disease course allows giant, stable motor unit potentials to appear. In contrast, in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the rapid degenerative process is characterized by signs of denervation and unstable motor unit potentials, where motor units become dysfunctional before having time to sustain very large reinnervated motor unit potentials. Fasciculation potentials are observed in both conditions. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis fasciculation potentials are important supporting electrodiagnostic evidence, permitting earlier diagnosis. Many methods have been developed to quantify and monitor the lower motor neuron pool, but few have been used in clinical trials. Their role as tools to follow interventions or to interpret pathogenesis remains incompletely explored. Electromyography is a sensitive and reliable test in the diagnosis and assessment of motor neuron diseases.
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10

Press, Peter Diabeter. Diabetes Log Book: Monitor Your Daily BLOOD GLUCOSE INSULIN UNITS . Diabetes Tracking Notebook. Weekly Diabetes Tracker and Record Book. Daily Blood Sugar . 100 Pages. 6x9. Independently Published, 2020.

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11

Walker, Frances. Blood Glucose Blood Pressure Log Book: For Diabetes and Hypertension, Monitor Your Daily BLOOD GLUCOSE INSULIN UNITS BLOOD PRESSURE MEDICINES BODY WEIGHT, 120 Week Size 6x9 Inch. Independently Published, 2019.

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12

Gaddam, Samson Sujit Kumar, and Claudia S. Robertson. Cerebral blood flow and perfusion monitoring in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0222.

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Prevention of secondary cerebral ischaemic insults is an important management strategy in acute neurological conditions. Monitoring of cerebral perfusion may aid in early identification of ischaemic insults and help with management. A number of tools are available for this purpose. Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is the simplest assessment of cerebral perfusion, but in some cases ischaemia can be present even with a normal CPP. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) imaging, either with computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging techniques, can provide quantitative regional CBF measurement, but only at a single instance in time. Such studies are valuable in the diagnosis of ischaemia, but are difficult for the management of critically-ill patients. CBF can also be measured within the intensive care unit (ICU), either directly or indirectly through the measurement of cerebral oxygenation. These monitors provide a more continuous measure of CBF, and are more useful in assessing response to treatment. Some of the ICU tools monitor global perfusion and some assess perfusion only in a local area of brain surrounding the monitor. With local monitors, the location of the probe is important for interpretation of the findings.
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13

Andrée, Dutreix, and European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology, eds. Monitor unit calculation for high energy photon beams. Leuven: Garant Publishers, 1997.

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14

Monitor unit calculations for external photon and electron beam. Madison, WI: Advanced Medical Publishing, 2000.

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15

John, P. Ph D. Gibbons. Monitor Unit Calculations for External Photon and Electron Beams. Advanced Medical Publishing, Inc., 2000.

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16

1949/1989. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON DIVISION AND UNITY IN EAST AND WEST. (German Monitor 50) (German Monitor). Editions Rodopi B.V., 2000.

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17

(Editor), Clare Flanagan, and Stuart Taberner (Editor), eds. 1949/1989. CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON DIVISION AND UNITY IN EAST AND WEST. (German Monitor 50) (German Monitor). Editions Rodopi B.V., 2000.

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18

Nuhanovic-Ribic, Samira, Ermanno C. Tortia, and Vladislav Valentinov. Agricultural Co-operatives. Edited by Jonathan Michie, Joseph R. Blasi, and Carlo Borzaga. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199684977.013.11.

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Over the last decades, agricultural co-operatives grew substantially in most developed and developing countries, often reaching dominant market positions. We inquire into the economic mechanism behind this growth, by elaborating on the relation between co-operative identity and co-operative benefits. We highlight the ability of agricultural co-operatives to co-ordinate large-scale production, to monitor work contributions and product quality, and to ensure economic independence of farmer members. Following the two principal streams in the economic literature, we distinguish between the conceptions of agricultural co-operatives as units of vertical integration and as firms characterized by common governance of collective entrepreneurial action and ability to reduce transaction costs and economic risk. We describe the financial and governance limitations of agricultural co-operatives while taking account of new co-operative models presenting institutional tools introduced to overcome these limitations. We conclude by suggesting directions for enhancing the role of co-operatives in agricultural and rural development.
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19

Vieillard-Baron, Antoine. Right ventricular function in the ICU. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0135.

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Under normal conditions, the right ventricle (RV) virtually acts as a passive conduit. In critically-ill patients many situations induce uncoupling between the right ventricle and pulmonary circulation, leading to RV systolic dysfunction, then failure. Mechanical ventilation has a major impact by decreasing RV preload, but also significantly increasing RV afterload. RV function should thus always be interpreted and re-evaluated in the light of respiratory mechanics and ventilator settings. RV systolic function is key to the patient’s haemodynamic profile and must be monitored to achieve optimal haemodynamic management. Echocardiography is the best compromise between clinical effectiveness and invasiveness to monitor RV function. A limitation is its inability to monitor haemodynamics continuously. Acute cor pulmonale is defined by the combination of RV dilatation with paradoxical septal motion during systole. In conclusion, RV function monitoring is strongly recommended in many situations encountered in the intensive care unit, such as ARDS, septic shock, and pulmonary embolism. Many devices are available, but echocardiography constitutes the best compromise between accuracy and invasiveness.
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20

Ben, Mijnheer, ed. Monitor unit calculation for high energy photon beams: Practical examples. Brussels: Estro, 2001.

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21

Waterton, Jennifer. Strathclyde Police Red Light Initiative: Accident Monitor (Central Research Unit Papers). The Stationery Office Books (Agencies), 1992.

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22

Kevin Luk, K. H., and Deepak Sharma. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Edited by David E. Traul and Irene P. Osborn. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190850036.003.0024.

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Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is commonly caused by rupture of an intracranial aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, or due to trauma. Prompt diagnosis and intervention are required to control intracranial pressure, maintain cerebral perfusion, and prevent rebleeding. Clinical grading of the bleed predicts morbidity and mortality, whereas imaging grading predicts risk of cerebral vasospasm. Hydrocephalus can occur as a result of SAH, which requires treatment with an external ventricular drain. Endovascular and open microsurgical procedures are available for securing the vascular abnormalities. Patients are typically monitored in a neurocritical care unit for up to 21 days post-bleed to monitor for the development of cerebral vasospasm/delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI). Mainstay of treatment for DCI includes induced hypertension, balloon angioplasty, and intraarterial vasodilator therapy. In addition, patient may experience significant derangement in their cardiac, pulmonary, and endocrine systems, requiring inotropic support, mechanical ventilation, or insulin infusion therapy.
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23

Fye, W. Bruce. Creating Coronary Care Units and Empowering Nurses. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199982356.003.0013.

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The coronary care unit (CCU) concept was proposed in 1961 as a strategy to save the lives of patients hospitalized after an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). The notion was to place vulnerable patients in an area where their heartbeats were monitored continuously and where specially trained nurses could initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if a patient had a cardiac arrest. Cardiac defibrillators and temporary pacemakers, technologies developed in the 1950s to treat life-threatening heart rhythms, were combined with CPR in 1960 in an attempt save patients’ lives. Nurses played a vital role in CCUs, and the new care model transformed the traditional nurse-doctor relationship. Nurses were trained to initiate life-saving treatments without a physician being present. The resulting empowerment of nurses had significant implications for their status as health care providers. The CCU movement also contributed to the development of cardiac arrest teams and paramedic-staffed, defibrillator-equipped ambulances.
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24

Vincent, Laura, and Carl Waldmann. Rehabilitation from critical illness after hospital discharge. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0386.

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The majority of patients admitted to intensive care units survive to hospital discharge, but then face a long and challenging functional recovery, due to the physical and psychological sequelae of their critical illness. There is associated physical, emotional, and financial strain on families and care-givers, in addition to the ongoing impact on patients themselves. The optimization of post-ICU morbidity and ‘health-related quality of life’ have thus become key components of the critical care treatment pathway. Structured exercise rehabilitation programmes, tailored to the specific needs of individual patients can enhance the long-term recovery from critical illness, but the practical implementation of such programmes remains inconsistent and non-standardized. Validated screening and assessment tools are being developed to identify those patients who would benefit from post-ICU rehabilitation programmes, target the specific needs of individuals and monitor the response to treatment. Ongoing research aims to determine the features of a successful post-ICU rehabilitation programme, with respect to the location and supervision of the regime, and the actual content of the intervention. Rehabilitation commenced as soon as possible after hospital discharge is likely to be most effective, but further evidence is required to identify the timing of treatment that would achieve the optimal therapeutic impact. The National Institute of Clinical Excellence have issued a post-ICU rehabilitation guideline. As well as providing a framework for implementation of such a programme, this further endorses the understanding that exercise rehabilitation can no longer be considered an afterthought and should be fully incorporated into the critical care treatment pathway.
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25

Nuwer, Marc R., Ronald G. Emerson, and Cecil D. Hahn. Principles and Techniques for Long-Term EEG Recording (Epilepsy Monitoring Unit, Intensive Care Unit, Ambulatory). Edited by Donald L. Schomer and Fernando H. Lopes da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228484.003.0031.

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Long-term monitoring is a set of methods for recording electroencephalographic (EEG) signals over a period of 24 hours or longer. Patient video recording is often synchronized to the EEG. Interpretation aids help physicians to identify events, which include automated spike and seizure detection and various trending displays of frequency EEG content. These techniques are used in epilepsy monitoring units for presurgical evaluations and differential diagnosis of seizures versus nonepileptic events. They are used in intensive care units to identify nonconvulsive seizures, to measure the effectiveness of therapy, to assess depth and prognosis in coma, and other applications. The patient can be monitored at home with ambulatory monitoring equipment. Specialized training is needed for competent interpretation of long-term monitoring EEGs. Problems include false-positive events flagged by automated spike and seizure detection software, and muscle and movement artifact contamination during seizures.
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26

Ivanova, Iskra I., and Lynn D. Martin. Sedation and Analgesia. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199918027.003.0010.

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This chapter on sedation and analgesia provides essential information on how to achieve and monitor the comfort of patients safely in the pediatric intensive care unit. Included is succinct information about dosing, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of benzodiazepines, opiates, and other sedatives (propofol, etomidate, ketamine, dexmedetomidine, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents), as well as the antagonists naloxone and flumazenil. Information is also provided about the use and dosage of both depolarizing and nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents (muscle relaxants) and American Society of Anesthesiologists guidelines for fasting (i.e., nothing by mouth) times before elective endotracheal intubation. The chapter also includes key information regarding the recognition and treatment of malignant hyperthermia.
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27

de Bie, Robertus M. A. An Iatrogenic Catatonia. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190607555.003.0030.

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Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is an iatrogenic movement disorders emergency characterized by rigidity, altered consciousness, and autonomic instability of varying degrees of severity. In severe cases this can be a fatal syndrome, so recognition and withdrawal of potentially causative medications is the priority. Management is otherwise supportive, and some patients will require admission to an intensive care unit. Creatine phosphokinase can be used to monitor the disease course; a decreasing creatine phosphokinase level with an increasing temperature may indicate an infection. The incidence of neuroleptic malignant syndrome has declined considerably with the increased use of atypical neuroleptics with greater D2 receptor blockade compared to older agents.
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28

Wijdicks, Eelco F. M., and Sarah L. Clark. Neurocritical Care Pharmacotherapy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190684747.001.0001.

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Drugs are used to treat, salvage, and protect the brain. This book provides information on how to prescribe and monitor the drugs most frequently used in the emergency department and the neurosciences critical care unit. Each drug is discussed in great detail to allow for its efficient use and to allow the recognition of drug-related problems. The book explains how these drugs work and what the body does with the drug in the acutely ill neurologic patient. It provides guidance on how these drugs are best administered and revisits how we can most effectively practice medication reconciliation. This manual has multiple useful concise tables and graphs summarizing over 150 drugs.
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29

Coleman, William L., and R. Michael Burger. Extracellular Single-Unit Recording and Neuropharmacological Methods. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199939800.003.0003.

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Small biogenic changes in voltage such as action potentials in neurons can be monitored using extracellular single unit recording techniques. This technique allows for investigation of neuronal electrical activity in a manner that is not disruptive to the cell membrane, and individual neurons can be recorded from for extended periods of time. This chapter discusses the basic requirements for an extracellular recording setup, including different types of electrodes, apparatus for controlling electrode position and placement, recording equipment, signal output, data analysis, and the histological confirmation of recording sites usually required for in vivo recordings. A more advanced extracellular recording technique using piggy-back style multibarrel electrodes that allows for localized pharmacological manipulation of neuronal properties is described in detail. Strategies for successful signal isolation, troubleshooting advice such as noise reduction, and suggestions for general laboratory equipment are also discussed.
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30

Spoletini, Giulia, and Nicholas S. Hill. Non-invasive positive-pressure ventilation. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0090.

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Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) has been increasingly used over the past decades to avoid endotracheal intubation (ETI) in critical care settings. In selected patients with acute respiratory failure, NIV improves the overall clinical status more rapidly than standard oxygen therapy, avoids ETI and its complications, reduces length of hospital stay, and improves survival. NIV is primarily indicated in respiratory failure due to acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiogenic pulmonary oedema and associated with immunocompromised states. Weaker evidence supports its use in other forms of acute hypercapnic and hypoxaemic respiratory failure. Candidates for NIV should be carefully selected taking into consideration the risk factors for NIV failure. Patients on NIV who are unstable or have risk factors for NIV failure should be monitored in an intensive or intermediate care units by experienced personnel to avoid delay when intubation is needed. Stable NIV patients can be monitored on regular wards.
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31

Halpern, Neil A. Design of the ICU. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0001.

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This chapter on intensive care unit (ICU) design looks at the ICU from three perspectives—concept to occupancy, the patient room, and supportive services, and advanced informatics. The design process is complex and time-consuming, and relies upon a design team composed of the main users, architects, and hospital administrative representatives; they must develop a vision for the new unit, which includes its purpose, bed number, staffing, workflow and healing environment. The team must then balance innovation with practicality, disparate technologies with standardization and timely purchase, and desires for the best of everything with physical, space, and fiscal limitations. The ICU patient room is the core of the ICU patient, family member, and staff experiences and should be similarly designed and equipped. Supportive spaces fully integrated with the patient rooms and hospital logistic areas and systems help optimize throughput. Informatics systems that electronically integrate the patient room with all aspects of care should be deployed to intelligently utilize and smartly present and display data, manage alarms, monitor the ICU environment, develop virtual device communities, provide real time locating systems, and address local or remote telemedicine requirements.
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32

Pitt, Matthew. Needle EMG findings in different pathologies. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754596.003.0007.

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In this chapter, the inability of electromyography (EMG) to be able to further progress the diagnosis of myopathy on its own—requiring muscle biopsy and other modalities such as genetics to complete this process—is emphasized. The role of EMG particularly in the era of genetics is discussed. Findings in neurogenic abnormality are next described and the important hereditary conditions such as spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), distal SMA, Brown–Vialetto–Van Laere syndrome, segmental anterior horn cell disease, conditions with progressive bulbar palsy, SMARD1, and pontocerebellar hypoplasia with spinal muscle are discussed in detail. The differential diagnosis of 5q SMA type 1 is specifically outlined. Acquired forms of anterior horn disease, including Hirayama disease, poliomyelitis and enteropathic motor neuropathy, Hopkins syndrome, tumours, and vascular lesions are covered. There is discussion of the use of physiological tests to monitor progress in SMA, with tests including compound muscle action potential amplitude and motor unit number estimation. Finally, the important correlation between muscle biopsy and EMG is highlighted.
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33

Colville, Gillian. Supporting Pediatric Patients and Their Families during and after Intensive Care Treatment. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199398690.003.0007.

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This chapter shows how the observations and recommendations in the adult intensive care unit (ICU) literature are relevant to the provision of services for pediatric intensive care patients and their families. Two relevant models of service currently in use in pediatric settings are presented, illustrated with clinical examples. Models of care in pediatrics have traditionally been more family-focused than those in adult settings. In the acute stage of medical treatment in the pediatric ICU, the emphasis, from a psychological perspective, is primarily preventative and initially focused on parental reactions at a time when the child is usually too unwell or sedated to communicate with directly. As the child’s condition stabilizes, delirium and associated frightening experiences should be addressed. Children may cope better if provided an age-appropriate storybook explaining what has happened. In the longer term, it is important to speak to children directly about their critical illness experiences, and to monitor children’s and parents’ emotional reactions over time. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral and narrative therapies may be helpful.
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34

Svrakic, Dragan M., and Mirjana Divac Jovanovic. The Fragmented Personality. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190884574.001.0001.

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This book pioneers a new model of personality disorder primarily intended to serve mental health professionals, those already in practice and equally those in training. In contrast to the static concepts of mental normalcy and pathology, the presented nosology is dynamic (accounts for the reversibility of mental functioning) and personalized, context- and time sensitive. In a 3D diagnostic cylinder, the coordinates cross match the person’s common level of mental functioning (vertical diagnosis) with his or her behavior style (horizontal diagnosis) at a point in space and a unit of time, giving the clinician precise milestones to monitor changes in diagnosis and progress in therapy. The central problem with persons suffering from personality disorder does not rest in their extreme behaviors but rather underneath the surface, in the fragmented substrate of personality (a core deficit sine qua non shared by all individual variants), while extreme behaviors merely represent variable compensatory strategies. Based on this model, mechanism-based treatments are outlined: reconstructive interpersonal psychotherapy (a novel, integrative, transtheoretical approach which relies on psychoanalytic and humanist traditions) and mechanism-based pharmacotherapy of neurobiological vulnerabilities associated with excessive temperament traits.
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35

Pollard, Brian J. Muscle relaxants in critical illness. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0047.

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The place of neuromuscular blocking agents in the intensive care unit (ICU) has changed markedly over the last 20 years. Originally regarded as a mainstay of the process of ‘sedation’, they are now only used for specific indications. The principal disadvantage is probably the difficulty in neurological assessment when a muscle relaxant is used coupled with the increased risk of awareness, because inadequate sedation will be masked. Of the available agents, the intermediate acting ones are the most popular. The degree of relaxation can be readily controlled and they have few side effects. In the presence of renal and/or hepatic disease atracurium or cisatracurium are preferred. Succinylcholine is only used for securing the airway due to its very rapid onset of action. Rocuronium given in a higher dose also possesses a rapid onset in situations when succinylcholine might be contraindicated. When using a muscle relaxant, its effect should always be monitored with a simple train of four pattern of stimulation from a hand-held nerve stimulator. This will ensure that an adequate and not excessive block is secured. If a more rapid reversal is required then a dose of neostigmine with glycopyrrolate may be used. Alternatively, if rocuronium is the relaxant in use then the new agent sugammadex is effective.
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