Journal articles: 'Money – Maine – 19th Century'

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Vollmers, Gloria, and Darlene Bay. "SMALL-TIME ACCOUNTING: A 19TH CENTURY MEAT MERCHANT IN MAINE." Accounting Historians Journal 28, no. 1 (June 1, 2001): 43–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.28.1.43.

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The journal of Amos K. Hersey, a 19th century meat merchant from Pembroke, Maine is examined in this paper. The accounting system used by Hersey is analyzed and compared with contemporary prescriptions for account keeping. The paper seeks to contribute to the emerging literature on the history of accounting among ordinary people. It shows how the accounts kept by Hersey reflect and illuminate several features of a local economy and society.

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Albano Leoni, Federico, and Francesca M. Dovetto. "From Maine de Biran to the ‘Motor Theory’ of speech." Historiographia Linguistica 23, no. 3 (January 1, 1996): 347–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.23.3.06alb.

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Summary The basic idea of the modern Motor Theory of Speech Perception (Liberman et al. 1963) is that “the perception of speech is tightly linked to the feedback from the speaker’s own articulatory movements”. In this paper we try to show how the same idea was already formulated by the French philosopher Maine de Biran (1805) and taken up in the second half of the 19th century by psychologists (like Steinthal) and linguists (like Kruszewski and Paul). However, whereas in the 19th century the articulatory point of view was not only dominant, but also the only one incorporated in a general theory of language, in the 20th century the articulatory perspective is supplemented by the acoustic one (cf. Malmberg 1967). This was only hinted at by Ferdinand de Saussure in the Cours, but fully expressed in Jakobson & Halle (1956). In this respect, Liberman’s Motor Theory is to be considered much less original than it has been claimed.

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Engl, Rob. "Where there's muck there's money." Scottish Archaeological Internet Reports, no. 67 (2017): 1–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/issn.2056-7421.2017.67.1-68.

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In 2012 excavation works undertaken along the western frontage of Advocate's Close, Edinburgh (NGR: NT 25700 73671) revealed the remains of a 16th-century tenement, owned in turn by the Cants, Hamiltons and Raes, all burgesses or merchants of the city. The tenement remains consisted of wall foundations, cellar floor surfaces and other substantial architectural features including a turnpike stair and corbelled roof. The tenement was demolished and back-filled with rubble during the late 19th century, after which it was replaced by a formal, terraced garden. The excavations within this area revealed a series of associated midden deposits, pits and structural features located to the immediate rear of the tenement. These deposits have provided a stratified sequence of occupation ranging from the initial settlement of Edinburgh's Old Town in the 12th/13th century to the clearing and landscaping of the tenement area in the late 19th century. A large artefactual assemblage was recovered from the midden deposits, including important animal and fish bone, glass, clay pipe, tile and ceramic evidence. The ceramic assemblage included substantial amounts of imported material from England and the Continent. The consumption patterns revealed by the artefactual and ecofactual evidence appear to directly reflect the changing fortunes of post-medieval Edinburgh. The high status of many of the Close's inhabitants is illustrated throughout the expansion of the 16th and 17th centuries, as is the decline undergone during the later 17th and early 18th centuries. The stratified midden deposits at Advocate's Close reveal the changing attitudes of the Old Town inhabitants towards the issue of midden management and general waste disposal, which in turn reflects the development and growth taking place in Edinburgh during the late 16th to 19th centuries.

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Simha, S. L. N. "Dr. Brahmananda on “Money Income Prices in 19th Century India”." Indian Economic Journal 49, no. 3 (March 2002): 86–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0019466220020311.

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Rutterford, Janette, and Josephine Maltby. "FRANK MUST MARRY MONEY: MEN, WOMEN, AND PROPERTY IN TROLLOPE'S NOVELS." Accounting Historians Journal 33, no. 2 (December 1, 2006): 169–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.33.2.169.

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There is a continuing debate about the extent to which women in the 19th century were involved in economic life. The paper uses a reading of a number of novels by the English author Anthony Trollope to explore the impact of primogeniture, entail, and the marriage settlement on the relationship between men and women and the extent to which women were involved in the ownership, transmission, and management of property in England in the mid-19th century.

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Vasudevan, Ramaa. "Shadow Money in the 19th Century: Is Marx Relevant for Understanding Contemporary Shadow Money?" Review of Political Economy 30, no. 3 (July 3, 2018): 461–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2018.1478509.

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Gilbert, Emily. "‘Ornamenting the Facade of Hell’: Iconographies of 19th-Century Canadian Paper Money." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 16, no. 1 (February 1998): 57–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/d160057.

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In this paper I explore the iconographies on 19th-century Canadian paper money. Drawing upon the recent debates regarding the intersection of culture, society, and economy, it is argued that the form of paper money conveys not only economic but social and cultural values. The paper is divided into three parts. The first section situates Canadian paper currency in terms of the consolidation of paper monies more generally in the 18th and 19th centuries, but with particular reference to Britain and the United States. I then turn to a more specific analysis of the design and production of paper money, illustrating how monetary images were transferred among artistic media. A third section focuses on some of the spatial aspects of paper money by exploring national and imperial monetary narratives which are in turn related to specific monetary practices. In a brief conclusion the importance of an historical analysis to our contemporary understanding of paper and other kinds of monies is outlined and points to our complicity in economic, social, and cultural networks.

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Boiko-Haharin, A. "THE MONEY COUNTERFEITERS IN KYIV REGION IN THE 19th – EARLY 20th CENTURY." Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. History, no. 145 (2020): 10–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/1728-2640.2020.145.2.

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The article deals with the processes of counterfeiting and the attempts to sell the forgery coins and banknotes during the 19th – early 20th centuries in the Kyiv region, which were analyzed basing on files of historical archival funds and materials of the press of that time. The peculiarities of counterfeiters activity in the specified region were determined, the main centers and areas of counterfeiters manufacturing were established, as well as the places and conditions of their sale. Most of the sources cited in this article are published for the first time. There were also periods of increase in counterfeiters activity in Kyiv and in the provinces. In addition to the data over the circulating money counterfeits (coins, assignations and credit notes), we also provide the data on the revealed facts of counterfeiting of treasury bills, tax stamps and money surrogates. The conclusions obtained in the article allow us to imagine the extent of the problem of counterfeiting money in the Kyiv region and to make the topography of the main areas of counterfeiting detection. The research is highly relevant and has high scientific significance not only for the history of money circulation and numismatics, but also for the history of criminalistics and jurisprudence.

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Dubyansky, A. "Parallel Money in the Russian Economic Literature of the XIX—XX centuries." Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 7 (July 20, 2013): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2013-7-111-123.

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The paper shows the role played by the concept of parallel money in understanding the evolution of the monetary circulation in Russia in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. As evidenced by historical investigations, the experience of parallel money circulation is both theoretically relevant and useful for the contemporary monetary practice.

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Jaukovic, Gordana, and Nevenka Knezevic-Lukic. "Methods for identifying counterfeit money in the territory of the Principality/Kingdom of Serbia in the 19th century." Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, no. 171 (2019): 341–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1971341j.

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Counterfeiting is one of the oldest and most persistent criminal offences. Scientific and technological development has enabled the emergence of a more modern money manufacturing technology and improvement of money protection systems, though at the same time it broadened the possibilities for criminal offences, notably the production of counterfeits. In the mid-1860s, the money in circulation in the Principality/Kingdom of Serbia was of foreign origin, comprising 43 types of different metal coins and one type of paper money. Gold and silver money of European origin was deemed by the people to be better and ?purer? than Turkish money. In an effort to establish control over the technological process of manufacturing the national currency and at the same time prevent the counterfeiting of money of different types and origin, the Principality of Serbia appointed chemists Mihajlo Raskovic and later Sima Lozanic, as ?examiners of ores and false money?. Almost all counterfeit currencies appeared immediately in circulation in the territory of the Principality/Kingdom of Serbia. This paper presents the methods used in the process of identifying false/suspect money, methods used to determine the nominal value of money, the importance of introduction of those scientific methods in the criminal and legal sphere of the Principality/Kingdom of Serbia, which can be considered the beginning of the forensic chemistry in Serbia.

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Sholihin, Muhammad. "A SET ASPECT OF PAPER MONEY: A Reading on Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabawi's Thought." Indonesian Journal of Interdisciplinary Islamic Studies 5, no. 1 (September 29, 2021): 107–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.20885/ijiis.vol.5.iss1.art5.

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This article aims to identify Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabauwi's initial concept of Paper Money, which in the early 19th century wrote Raf'ul Iltibas. Through a qualitative approach, with critical extraction analysis, several things can be revealed related to the thoughts of Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabauwi about paper money. From a careful reading of Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabauwi, several significant findings can be formulated: First, in his work, Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabauwi applies two methods lead to his critical thinking about Paper money, namely the comparative law method and Qiyas. Second, Sheikh Ahmad Khatib believes that paper money has similarities with dinars and dirhams in several aspects, namely the function of its nominal value. It is just that the existence of these values is different. The value of paper money is politico-economic. Meanwhile, the nominal value of dirhams and dinars is intrinsic and natural. Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabau's work related to Paper Money is written heavily from the perspective of fiqh. Briefly, it is challenging to describe economic assumptions from work. As a result, articles are also thicker with fiqh analysis. Sheikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Minangkabauwi's view regarding Paper Money becomes the foundation for the theory of the value of money in Islam. However, it is rarely disclosed, so that this paper can serve as the foundation of the value for money offered by scholars from Indonesia in the early 19th century. Strengthening the idea that money is not suitable as a commodity must be positioned as capital to be productive and finally becomes why trade is compelling and becomes the most practical reason for removing Zakat from it. There are not many, not even articles that attempt to reveal the concept of classical ulama from Indonesia relating to Paper Money. This article manages to identify that, and at the same time, becomes a novelty.

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Ivanov, E. P. "Development of commodity-money relations in Steppe region in the 19th century in the reflection of Russian periodical." Omsk Scientific Bulletin. Series Society. History. Modernity 5, no. 4 (2020): 25–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.25206/2542-0488-2020-5-4-25-30.

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The article is devoted to the formation and development of commodity-money relations between the inhabitants of the Russian Empire and the indigenous population of the Steppe Territory. The purpose of the article is to consider the transformation of the image of the region, in the framework of the development of commodity-money relations of the XIX century. As the main source of research are used periodicals of the XIX century. It is shown that the reflection in the press of commodity-money relations is the most important factor in the integration and development of the region, and also is one of the foundations for the formation of the image of the Steppe region in the eyes of Russian inhabitants

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13

Eves, Jamie H. ""Shrunk to a Comparative Rivulet": Deforestation, Stream Flow, and Rural Milling in 19th-Century Maine." Technology and Culture 33, no. 1 (January 1992): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3105808.

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Litvak, Meir. "MONEY, RELIGION, AND POLITICS: THE OUDH BEQUEST IN NAJAF AND KARBALA[ham], 1850–1903." International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, no. 1 (February 2001): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743801001015.

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“Money was the life blood of Najaf.” Thus observed the Shi[ayn]i author, [ayn]Ali Khaqani.1The story of the Oudh Bequest, which channeled more than 6 million rupees from the Shi[ayn]i kingdom of Awadh2in India to the two Shi[ayn]i shrine cities of Najaf and Karbala[ham] in Iraq during the second half of the 19th century is a fine example of Khaqani's assessment. These [ayn]Ataba¯t-i [ayn]a¯liya¯t (“sublime thresholds”) were the most important centers of learning in Shi[ayn]ism during the 19th century. For this reason, a study of the bequest provides important insights into the internal workings of a leading community of ulama during a period of change, as well as into the role of European players in the life of such communities.

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Kuleshov, Serhii, and Andrii Boiko-Haharin. "Expertise of authenticity of money in Russian Empire in 19th - early 20th century." Rukopisna ta knižkova spadŝina Ukraïni, no. 25 (October 27, 2020): 178–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/rksu.25.178.

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Surya, Riza Afita, and Rif'atul Fikriya. "Chinese Merchants Role of Java Trade in 19th Century." Historia: Jurnal Pendidik dan Peneliti Sejarah 4, no. 1 (December 7, 2020): 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/historia.v4i1.27167.

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Chinese arrival in Java was encouraged with significant factors both internal and external. Chinese in Java eventually brought shifting in economical, social, and political aspect of Java under Dutch realm. In 19th century, Chinese in Java were differed into two clusters, known as peranakan and totok. These two terms possed different languange, culture, economical conditions. This study aimed to determine the role of Chinese merchants of Java during 19th century. The study engaged literature study which includes planning, selection, extraction, and excution. Literature review tries to review several books, scholarly articles, and other relevant sources which focused on particular area. Under Dutch realm, Chinese in Java portrayed many different roles, such as moneylenders, middlemen, kapitan, opium traders, and etec. Chinese were considered active in and around Java as the settled in Netherland Indies trade withi coastal shipping. Chinese possess priviledge spot under Dutch colonial policy, due to their advance skill in business and their independency of local rulers. In term of trade, the Chinese were ubiquitous and essential, since everyone commited trade in Java had to do business with Chinese. Java’s Chinese men and unknown number of peranakan and native Javanese women whom they married or related were almost all participated in the money economy.

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17

Korneeva, Julia Vasilievna, and Natalia Viktorovna Makarova. "Health culture of the Central Volga area population in the XIX century." Samara Journal of Science 5, no. 4 (December 15, 2016): 114–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv20164208.

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The following paper considers the health culture of the Central Volga area population in the 19th century and its influence on the region economy. The authors compare necessary medical assistance at the beginning and at the end of the century and using various sources including the archival ones come to the conclusion that the state didnt pay much attention to the organization of health care in the region economy at the beginning of the 19th century: lack of health culture which could include the necessary number of medical institutions, lack of professionally trained medical staff, rules and recommendations about a healthy lifestyle. However by the end of the century the situation had undergone positive changes - there were medical institutions with beds and rooms available enough for patients, there were charity societies with medical care for people in need; the state spent money to ensure personnel functioning and hospital equipment, as well as injections that were free for the population. At the end of the 19th century the health culture of the population became an integral part of Central Volga area economy and the country in general. It increased the standard of life as well as its quality.

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QUYNH, NGUYEN THE, TRUONG THI AN, TRAN DUC THIEP, NGUYEN DINH CHIEN, DAO TRAN CAO, and NGUYEN QUANG LIEM. "ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE ANCIENT BRONZE COINS BY X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TECHNIQUE USING SIMULTANEOUSLY RADIOISOTOPE SOURCE AND X-RAY TUBE." Communications in Physics 14, no. 1 (April 16, 2007): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15625/0868-3166/19.

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The results on elemental analysis of the vietnamese ancient bronze coins during the time of the Nguyen dynasty (19th century) are presented. The samples were provided by the Vietnam National Historical Museum and the elemental analysis was performed on the home-made model EDS-XT-99-01 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer in the Institute of Materials Science, NCST of Vietnam. The samples exited simultaneously by radioisotope source and X-ray tube. The analytical results show the similarity in the elemental composition of the coins issued by different kings of the Nguyen dynasty, but there is the difference in the concentration of the used elements. Another interesting point is that all the coins have zinc (Zn) in their composition, which shows clearly the influence of the occidental metallurgical technology on the money-making technique in Vietnam during the 19th century.

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Caudill, Edward. "E. L. Godkin and His (Special and Influential) View of 19th Century Journalism." Journalism Quarterly 69, no. 4 (December 1992): 1039–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107769909206900422.

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E. L. Godkin was the influential editor of both the Nation (1865–1899) and the New York Evening Post (1881–1899). This study concentrates on Godkin's attitude toward journalism, which was multi-dimensional; he saw journalism as having power to change for good but he also saw much pandering to popular audiences in the era of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. Godkin himself wanted to make money and to change society, and he was successful in both ways. But he assailed editors and reporters for grubbing after facts and sensationalizing them. Godkin, like some others in this period between centuries, had mixed feelings about journalism, but he defended freedom of expression and the role of the press in democracy.

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20

Álvarez, Andrés. "Léon Walras and Augustin Cournot on the Regulation of Paper Money: Rules vs. Discretion at the End of the 19th Century." Iberian Journal of the History of Economic Thought 7, no. 1 (May 12, 2020): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.5209/ijhe.69402.

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This paper compares Léon Walras’ and Augustin Cournot’s views on monetary regulation. It shows that whereas Cournot believed discretionary monetary regulation to be convenient and acceptable, Walras held that the only acceptable monetary system is based exclusively on the stability of the value of money under a monetary rule following a strict equivalence between metallic reserves and a pure medium of exchange form of money. The paper also advances Cournot understood more clearly than Walras the evolution of the monetary system of their days because Walras was trying to guarantee the coherence of his pure theory with his applied theory, which made him unable to accept the evolution toward a monetary system based on fiat money.

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Baldasty, Gerald J., and Jeffrey B. Rutenbeck. "Money, Politics and Newspapers: The Business Environment of Press Partisanship in the Late 19th Century." Journalism History 15, no. 2-3 (July 1988): 60–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00947679.1988.12066664.

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22

Guseva, Tatyana M. "Traditions of Guardianship and Charity through Organization of District Libraries." Bibliotekovedenie [Library and Information Science (Russia)], no. 3 (May 24, 2010): 94–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.25281/0869-608x-2010-0-3-94-98.

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The article deals with not well studied problem of the class societies’ participation in the development of librarianship in the chief towns of the Middle Volga Region. In the second half of the 19th century the initiative of libraries’ opening often come from the citizens. They created the trustee committees, whose members served the librarianship for free, donated books, money, and actively participated in the organizing of charitable performances.

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23

QUYNH, NGUYEN THE, TRUONG THI AN, TRAN DUC THIEP, NGUYEN DINH CHIEN, DAO TRAN CAO, and NGUYEN QUANG LIEM. "ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE ANCIENT BRONZE COINS BY X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TECHNIQUE USING SIMULTANEOUSLY RADIOISOTOPE SOURCE AND X-RAY TUBE." Communications in Physics 14, no. 1 (April 16, 2007): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15625/0868-3166/14/1/19.

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The results on elemental analysis of the vietnamese ancient bronze coins during the time of the Nguyen dynasty (19th century) are presented. The samples were provided by the Vietnam National Historical Museum and the elemental analysis was performed on the home-made model EDS-XT-99-01 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer in the Institute of Materials Science, NCST of Vietnam. The samples exited simultaneously by radioisotope source and X-ray tube. The analytical results show the similarity in the elemental composition of the coins issued by different kings of the Nguyen dynasty, but there is the difference in the concentration of the used elements. Another interesting point is that all the coins have zinc (Zn) in their composition, which shows clearly the influence of the occidental metallurgical technology on the money-making technique in Vietnam during the 19th century.

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Trajkovski, Miroslava. "The inverse law of habit: Psychology of passions and emotions." Theoria, Beograd 56, no. 4 (2013): 21–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/theo1304021t.

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The beginning of the 19th century, especially in France, is marked by a focus on the philosophical investigation of habit. A classic work is Influence de l?habitude sur la facult? de penser by Pierre Maine de Biran. This had been instigated by the physiological research of Marie Fran?ois Xavier Bichat, who stated the inverse law of habit: feeling (sentiment) is blunted by habit, whereas judgment owes to it its perfection. So the question is whether the inverse law implies that habituation has a negative influence on emotions, that it blunts them. In the paper I argue that the answer is negative if Maine de Biran?s version of the inverse law of habit is taken in the context of perceptual view of emotions. According to Maine de Biran sensation is blunted by habit, while perception is perfected. If emotion is a kind of perception of bodily reactions, then although due to habit there is a decrease of these reactions, the perception of them will in turn be sharpened. If we note that the general law behind the inverse law of habit is that there is an inverse ratio between passive and active experiences, then we may conclude that habit blunts passions, and perfects emotions.

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Craig, Béatrice. "Farm transmission and the commercialization of agriculture in northern Maine in the second half of the 19th century." History of the Family 10, no. 3 (January 2005): 327–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hisfam.2005.03.003.

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Anderson, R. Scott, H. W. Borns Jr., D. C. Smith, and C. Race. "Implications of rapid sediment accumulation in a small New England salt marsh." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 29, no. 9 (September 1, 1992): 2013–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e92-157.

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The sediment accumulation rate within a small Spartina alterniflora marsh in Maine has been determined by measuring the amount of peat accretion on top of human-produced boards protruding from an exposed face of the marsh. Boards are at depths of 50–140 cm, suggesting sediment accumulation rates of 6.2–7.0 mm/year. Based on these data and a review of other relevant studies, aggradation in small marshes such as Shipyard Cove should be able to keep pace marginally with the anticipated sea-level rise due to "greenhouse" warming, given sufficient sediment supply. Local 19th century land clearance and subsequent erosion, activities that are greatly reduced today, probably supplied the bulk of the inorganic marsh sediment.

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Долинникова, О. В. "Girls in Industrial Workers’ Families in St. Petersburg in the Second Half of the 19th Century — Early 20th Century." Вестник Рязанского государственного университета имени С.А. Есенина, no. 4(73) (February 7, 2022): 34–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.37724/rsu.2021.73.4.004.

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Пореформенный период является одним из неоднозначных и противоречивых эпох в истории России. Перемены, происходившие в российском обществе второй половины XIX — начале XX века, затрагивали все слои населения. Дети, являясь одной из самых незащищенных социальных групп, нуждались в помощи, защите, поддержке взрослых. Однако взрослые сами часто не находили место в быстро меняющемся окружающем мире, и дети становились для них либо обузой, либо средством для заработка. Уже в конце XIX века многие рабочие осознали все перемены, происходившие в российском обществе. Родители, работавшие на фабриках и заводах столицы, стали больше внимания уделять как воспитанию, так и образованию детей, в том числе девочек. Новые подходы в воспитании и образовании девочек в рабочих семьях открывали для них новые жизненные горизонты, увеличивали их жизненные ожидания. The post-reform period is one of the most controversial eras in Russian history. In the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries, Russian society experienced changes which concerned all social layers. Being one of the least protected social groups, children needed adult support and protection. Adults, however, often felt lost in the rapidly changing world and children became a burden or a means to earn extra money. In the late 19th century, many Russian workers recognized social change. St. Petersburg factory workers recognized the importance of educating their children, both male and female. New approaches to female education in working families encouraged girls to explore new opportunities and widened their aspirations.

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Fabris, Nikola. "The History of Money in Montenegro." Journal of Central Banking Theory and Practice 4, no. 1 (January 1, 2015): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jcbtp-2015-0001.

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Abstract The paper depicts the history of using money in Montenegro covering the period before the Christ until nowadays. Montenegro mostly used foreign currencies throughout its long history, these being Roman, Austro-Hungarian, Turkish, Venetian, and even the Napoleon (French gold coin) money. The first ideas for Montenegro’s own money came from the Bishop Petar Petrovic Njegoš in the 19th century. The first Montenegrin money, the Perper, was minted in 1906. The King Nikola`s Decree as of 11 April 1906 authorized the Ministry of Finance to mint the nickel and bronze coins. Silver and gold coins were minted later. The Perper disappeared from the scene with Montenegro’s joining the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, putting into circulation the Dinar, a currency of the newly established state. Montenegro, being a part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, used the Dinar as its currency after World War II until 1999. Dual currency system consisting of the German Mark and the Dinar was introduced in late 1999, whereby the German Mark became the only legal tender in 2001. With the introduction of the Euro the German Mark was replaced and the Euro became the official means of payment.

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Zelenin, Alexandr V., and Dmitry V. Rudnev. "Let’s think, and all we four ...” (Reasoning as a linguo-pedagogical method and an element of poetics in the story of L.A. Yartsova “The Inexhaustible Purse”)." Philological Sciences. Scientific Essays of Higher Education, no. 1 (January 2022): 44–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.20339/phs.1-22.044.

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Heated debates about the methods of teaching children their native language, about understanding the differences between the types of texts as a mechanism and a product of mental activity were inextricably linked with the deep transformation of Russian society in the second half of the 19th century. A significant strengthening of monetary and financial relations in a changing society, and, as a result, the penetration of money into family communication became an urgent educational issue for children’s literature. L.A. Yartsova in her story “The Inexhaustible Purse” (1861) innovatively revealed the theme of money in the life of a child, using the functional-semantic type of speech “reasoning”. Different types of reasoning (refutation, inference, confirmation, justification) are used in the story as a tool of poetics and didactics. The story is structured as a cycle of meaningfully unrelated stories-reasoning, in which a mother and her three children of different ages independently seek rational-logical and lexical-syntactic arguments to reveal the metaphor-task “inexhaustible purse”. The linguo-didactic aspect of Yartsova’s story lies in the fact that in the process of writing stories-reasoning (the function of writing in literature lessons), children master the method of constructing reasoning and linguistic forms for its implementation (educational-target function). The stories represent a gradational-hierarchical ascent to the concept of money: from the limited by age and personality (the reasoning of children) to the socially significant, synthesized in the reasoning of the mother. Yartsova’s use of reasoning as a way of constructing a children’s story testifies to the penetration in the 19th century of elements of scientific speech into other speech systems, including the language of children’s fiction.

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Feldman, Germán D. "Early marginalist ideas on money: some neglected exceptions to the quantity theory." Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics 6, no. 1 (May 20, 2013): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.23941/ejpe.v6i1.118.

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The quantity theory of money (QTM) is an important building block of neoclassical economics. This has led scholars to believe that all monetary accounts proposed by marginalist economists are inherently based on the QTM. However, within the bimetallic controversy of the last quarter of the 19th century, there were some neoclassical proposals which departed from the framework of the QTM. In this article, I analyse three of these accounts: Alfred Marshall's symmetallism, Irving Fisher's compensated dollar plan, and Knut Wicksell's inconvertible paper standard. These monetary arrangements—especially the first two of them—have rarely been studied in the literature. Still, their relevance should not be neglected in current times in which the economics profession—both orthodox and heterodox approaches—has moved towards an endogenous money view. The proposals studied also show that the neutrality of money does not necessarily imply the QTM, as it is often suggested.

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CHATTERJEE, ABHISHEK. "Financial property rights under colonialism: some counterfactual possibilities." Journal of Institutional Economics 12, no. 4 (February 10, 2016): 797–824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1744137416000023.

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AbstractThis article seeks to explain the lack of the development of contemporaneously ‘modern’ money and credit markets in the 18th to 19th century economy of India. Borrowing from the literature on property rights, it demonstrates that the emergence of ‘modern’, and state-connected money markets was the result of a certain kind of power relationship between rulers and financial capital holders where the two were forced to mutually cooperate; financial systems represented the institutionalization of this mutual cooperation. Specific kinds of ‘colonialism’ represent just one special case of a relationship where the latter did not obtain. The article thus proposes a mechanism though which the spread of European capital could have retarded financial market formation in now-developing areas with otherwise considerable concentration of ‘native’ mercantile capital.

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Vernengo, Matías, and David Fields. "DisORIENT." Review of Radical Political Economics 48, no. 4 (September 24, 2016): 562–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0486613416656072.

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An extensive and important literature has shown that the Rise of the West occurred considerably later than often thought, only in the 19th century, and that the main advantages of the West prior to that period were essentially military. However, this revisionist literature fails to incorporate the insights of radical political economics, both regarding money and the role of demand in technological progress, in ways that distort their conclusions. This paper suggests that both revisionists and radical political economists would benefit from each other’s insights.

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Chmura, Gail L., Laurie L. Helmer, C. Beth Beecher, and Elsie M. Sunderland. "Historical rates of salt marsh accretion on the outer Bay of Fundy." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 38, no. 7 (July 1, 2001): 1081–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e01-002.

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We examine rates of salt marsh accumulation in three marshes of the outer Bay of Fundy. At each marsh we selected a site in the high marsh with similar vegetation, and thus similar elevation. Accretion rates were estimated by 137Cs, 210Pb, and pollen stratigraphy to estimate rates of change over periods of 30, 100, and ~170 years, respectively. These rates are compared with records from the two closest tide gauges (Saint John, New Brunswick, and Eastport, Maine) to assess the balance of recent marsh accretion and sea-level change. Averaged marsh accretion rates have ranged from 1.3 ± 0.4 to 4.4 ± 1.6 mm·year1 over the last two centuries. Recent rates are similar to the rate of sea-level change recorded at Eastport, Maine, suggesting that they are in step with recent sea-level change but very sensitive to short-term variation in relative sea level. Based on the pollen stratigraphy in the marsh sediments, the marsh accretion rate was higher during the late 18th to early 19th century. Higher rates probably were due to local increases in relative sea level as a result of neotectonic activity and may have been enhanced by increased sediment deposition through ice rafting.

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Buist, M. G. "J. Jonker, Merchants, bankers, middlemen. The Amsterdam money market during the first half of the 19th century." BMGN - Low Countries Historical Review 113, no. 4 (January 1, 1998): 562. http://dx.doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.4844.

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Kotsur, Viktor, and Andrii Boiko-Haharin. "The state policy against counterfeiting in the Russian Empire in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries." Universum Historiae et Archeologiae 2, no. 2 (October 3, 2020): 108. http://dx.doi.org/10.15421/26190208.

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The purpose of the article is the analysis of the main parts of the state protecting politics over the process of the coins and banknotes counterfeiting in Russian Empire. Research methods: analytical, synthetic, logical, retrospective, mathematical and illustrative. Main results. The article reveals the processes of coins and banknote counterfeiting in the Russian Empire referred to the material from state historical archives, official government laws and pre-Soviet periodicals (newspapers). The authors paid main attention to the question of state policy against money counterfeiting that includes legislative analyses of that time, in particular Conclusion of Criminal Punishment and Penitentiary, issues of 1845s and 1866s, Monetary Statute, issue of 1857 as well as nominal imperial edicts, regulations and manifestos of Senate as to forgery counteractions and coins protection, published in Complete Edition of Collected Laws in the Russian Empire. Practical significance. The material presented in the article will allow a thorough analysis of the aspect of counterfeiting money in Ukraine in the imperial period. Originality. The corpus of analyzed sources allowed us to form conclusions as to efficiency state in fighting politics against money forgery in Russian Empire in the 19th and the beginning of 20th century. The perspective of the further research we see in the widening of sources base that will help us to conduct deeper aspect analyses on money forgery in Ukraine as part of Russian Empire. Scientific novelty. The basic constituents of public policy are considered in relation to a fight against forgery counteractions, which is population informing of imitations appearance with the list of their signs; implementation of investigation features based upon population encouragement to the malefactors’ exposure; state expert assessment implementation of suspicious and forged money extracted during the investigation; legal procedure and punishment for committed crimes in money and banknotes counterfeiting; in investigation cases of State Archives Fund some unknown before facts within state fight against money counterfeiting have been found and a new stamp on physical evidence has been implemented into the scientific circulation, the absence reasons for money and loan-bills forgery in the Fund of State Museums have been estimated. The research is based upon unknown sources, most of which have been implemented into the scientific circulation for the first time. Analyses of legislative system of that time against money forgery, peculiarities of investigation, trial and sentence helped us to find out some misconceptions in factual decisions from those, fixed in laws and layouts. Article type: analytical.

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Arlukevich, Aliaksandr B. "The military apartment fee in Belarus (second half of the 19th – early 20th century)." Journal of the Belarusian State University. History, no. 3 (August 10, 2021): 52–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.33581/2520-6338-2021-3-52-70.

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The article reveals the influence of the military housing tax on the socio-economic development of municipal centers and the processes of urbanisation in Belarus in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century. On the basis of a wide range of sources, it is proved that during the period under review, the amount of funds collected by the population in cities and towns with the active mediation of local self-government institutions for the rental of army headquarters, infirmaries, warehouses, officers’ apartments, rent and construction of soldiers’ barracks was comparable to the total income of magistrates and thus deprived them of the necessary reserve for saving and developing public utilities and infrastructure. On this basis, the collection of apartment money can be considered one of the key economic factors that determined the specifics of the development of the Belarusian city during the modernisation period. Until now the collection of funds in the framework of post-conscription in the territory of the Belarusian provinces has not become the subject of special research. Most of the facts presented in the work are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.

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Boiko-Gagarin, Andrii. "The gold coins counterfeiting in Ukraine in XIX – the beginning of XX centuries." Ethnic History of European Nations, no. 62 (2020): 93–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2518-1270.2020.62.09.

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The problem of the money counterfeiting in Russian Empire has long been out of sight of the scientists, in Ukraine doesn’t exist any single comprehensive work devoted to the study of this problem. In the period of the Russian Empire rule in Ukraine, the counterfeiting of gold coins acquires its own features and tendencies. This article introduces into the scientific circulation the materials of the state historical archives criminal cases, newspapers and museum collections related to the falsification of the gold coins in Ukraine. During the XVIII century the gold coins were little known to the public, that’s why the cases of falsification of them through the historical sources are unknown. Before the middle of the XIX century the counterfeiting of the foreign gold coins was widespread. The traditional crime was clipping of the gold and silver coins, which was also fixed in the studied period. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, due to the small number of Russian gold coins in the circulation, the counterfeiters used foreign Holland ducats and Ottoman mahmudis as a model. Counterfeiting of the Russian gold coins has been known since the middle of the 19th century. False semi-imperials are known from Ukrainian finds, although analysis of the sources indicates their potential importation from the Baltic provinces, where they were probably manufactured. With the introduction of the gold standard in Russian Empire, the new coins are rapidly gaining a high popularity. Extensive use of the new gold coins leads to the falsification of almost the entire line of the denominations. Even the rarest gold coin of 7 rubles and 50 kopecks, minted only in 1897, was identified in Zhytomyr. Counterfeits of the gold coins also came to the Ukrainian provinces from the neighboring regions, as in 1911 the fact of importation of the counterfeit imperials was revealed from Nakhichevan. The First World War has radically changed the principles of the money circulation in Ukraine. The huge was expenses and the financial crisis led to a «coin hunger», the use of money substitutes and speculation with small coins. The gold coins were purposefully withdrawn from the population in exchange for paper banknotes. We suggest that the known today specimens of the counterfeit coins made for the loss of the money circulation could have been made during the financial crisis of the WWI.

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Menšík, Josef. "The Origins of the Income Theory of Money." Review of Economic Perspectives 14, no. 4 (January 29, 2015): 373–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/revecp-2015-0005.

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Abstract The income theory of money was conceived in the 19th century, and in the first half of the 20th century it formed the backbone of all the main monetary approaches of the time. Yet, since it did so mostly implicitly rather than explicitly, and since the later developments moved economic theory in a different direction, the income theory of money is hardly remembered at present. While mainly accounting for the origins of the approach, I am also offering a brief comparison with the present mainstream economics and I shortly address the question of the possible future of the theory too. The income theory of money explains how nominal prices are formed by interaction of nominal expenditures streams with real streams of goods sold. While various ideas leading to this theory were expressed already by John Law, Richard Cantillon, and Jean-Baptiste Say, it is perhaps only Thomas Tooke whom we might want to call the originator of the theory. Within the Classical School of Political Economy, Tooke's ideas were further elaborated by John Stuart Mill. The theory reached a momentous formulation in the works of Knut Wicksell, in many respects a similar exposition was delivered also by Friedrich Wieser. The recognition of the theory was impaired by a change of the main-stream paradigm as well as by a surge in emphasis laid on the quantitative modelling in economics. Yet, there are certain fundamental questions of the monetary theory which the general equilibrium style models cannot cope with, while the income theory of money can, at least to a certain degree. This might give the theory some hope for the future.

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Novikova, Yu O. "The Formation of Organizational and Legal Regulation of Credit Cooperation in the Russian Empire of the Late 19th — Early 20th Century (A Case Study of the Vladimirskaya Province)." Actual Problems of Russian Law, no. 7 (August 25, 2019): 11–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.17803/1994-1471.2019.104.7.011-020.

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The article deals with the peculiarities of formation and development of credit cooperation in the Russian Empire at the end of 19th — early 20th centuries. For a long time credit cooperation had been turning into a very developed system. The cooperative movement had gradually embraced vast masses of the population and contributed not only to their engagement into goods/money relationships but it also became the means of economic modernization, social structuring and formation of the civil society.

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ALYAMKIN, ANDREY, and ALEXANDER KUZNETSOV. "SCIENTIFIC DETECTIVE: OR HOW ENGLAND COUNTERFEITED RUSSIAN MONEY WITH SOMEONE ELSE'S HANDS." History and Modern Perspectives 3, no. 4 (December 30, 2021): 98–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2658-4654-2021-3-4-98-109.

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The article is devoted to the historical events of the second half of the 19th century. The purpose of this article, in addition to the consecration of important historical events and our research, is to show the importance of studying money circulation. The system of monetary circulation is a clear marker of its time. Its changes reflect historical events conditionally from the «other side». And such a reaction often goes unnoticed for ordinary historians, and even more so for bonists. Special attention is paid to this only during the period of cataclysms, revolutions and upheavals, and even then, most often «in general», as an addition or argument. This article is direct and vivid, as through the history of monetary circulation, one can reach the most important general historical events of the global level, which could have remained a secret.

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Rodnov, M. I. "Economic ties between Ufa and Siberia in the late 19th and early 20th century." Bulletin of Nizhnevartovsk State University, no. 4 (December 20, 2020): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.36906/2311-4444/20-4/11.

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After the railroad had been built through the mountains of the Southern Urals in 18881892, the economic ties between Ufa and Siberian regions began to develop rapidly. Loads of Siberian grain poured westward to the European Russia markets through Ufa, and even the Chelyabinsk tariff wall could not hold it back. Ufa is located west of the Southern Urals, and the Trans-Ural cereals and the Siberian flour, produced by the mills in Chelyabinsk and Miass, entered the Ufa market without hindrance, creating competition for local producers. At the same time, starting from the early 1890s, caravans with Kyakhta (Chinese) tea, which used to have travelled to Irbit, went to the nearest railway station. From there tea was exported to Ufa that turned into a large centre of tea trade in Imperial Russia. The network of branches of the Volga-Kama Commercial Bank, established by the early 20th century, provided fast money transfers from Ufa to the main economic centres of Siberia and the Far East. The scope of transfers exceeded one million roubles in the 1900s. The main trading partners of Ufa in Siberia were Irkutsk, Kurgan, Omsk, and Tyumen. The last round of establishing the economic ties between Ufa and Siberia and the Far East took place during World War I. Provand for Ufa was purchased there.

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Abdrakhmanov, Konstantin A. "ATTACKS OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN NOMADS ON RUSSIAN TRADING CARAVANS IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY." Ural Historical Journal 71, no. 2 (2021): 146–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.30759/1728-9718-2021-2(71)-146-153.

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Based on archival materials (reports of the Orenburg border and customs departments, orders of the military governors of the Orenburg region, letters from the injured merchants, etc.), the article considers cases of attacks of the Central Asian nomads on the merchant caravans in the early 19th century. The main means of trade and transport communication between the Russian Empire, Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand were caravans, their size sometimes reached several thousand loaded camels. At that time, the steppes that separated the Russian border from the main trading cities of Central Asia were insufficiently explored, difficult to traverse, and very unsafe. Armed nomadic groups moving along the imperial border and deep in the Kazakh steppe were a direct threat to slow-moving and poorly guarded caravans. Steppe raiders were attracted by a diverse range of valuable goods and a large number of working animals, so valued by nomadic cultures. Merchants, their clerks, and hired workers were often killed in clashes with raiders. Those Russian merchants who were robbed of their money and property sought support from the leadership of the Orenburg province and even sent messages to the central Russian government.

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Huret, Romain. "The contested state: Revenue agents, resistance, and popular consent in the United States from the early republic to the end of the nineteenth century." Tocqueville Review 33, no. 2 (January 2012): 87–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/ttr.33.2.87.

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In Ohio, during the Civil War, one Thomas H. Hanner imposed himself upon a Revenue Officer of the 19th district as a special agent of the Bureau of Internal Revenue and made “decisions as to the effect of the law, giving directions as to the management of cases involving large amounts and borrowing money upon the strength of his alleged position.”1 Another usurpation of identity occurred in Philadelphia where a person named Gillepsie collected taxes in the city. In many States, an impostor under the name of Thomas Glanner also sought to collect federal taxes.

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Saetgaraeva, L. R., and G. Kh Gilazetdinova. "Structural Organization of the English Cooking Recipes Dating Back to the Second Half of the 19th Century." Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Universiteta. Seriya Gumanitarnye Nauki 163, no. 1 (2021): 101–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.26907/2541-7738.2021.1.101-108.

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The compositional characteristics of the English cooking recipes dating back to the second half of the 19th century were analyzed in detail using the Book of Household Management compiled by Isabella Mary Beeton (also known as Mrs Beeton), a famous Englishwoman, and published in 1861. Owing to the growing interest in the gastronomic discourse, this research is of particular relevance – although the language of cooking is rich, its specifics and evolution have been still understudied. It was found that the soup recipes from the book under consideration have such structural elements as titles, ingredients list, main bodies, and, in some cases, optional elements. All of these elements were described. A classification of the obligatory and optional elements was introduced. All recipe parts (in accordance with P.P. Burkova’s classification) were divided into introductory (title, list of ingredients), instructive (recipe body), and concluding blocks (time and money required for cooking, seasonality of ingredients, number of portions, information about the history of a particular ingredient). It was concluded that the structure of the English cooking recipes of the second half of the 19th century is stereotyped, which can be explained by the author’s ambition to make it easy for young and unskilled housewives to master the art of culinary and housekeeping.

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Husain, Fazal. "P. R. Brahmananda. Money, Income, Prices in 19th Century India. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House, 2001. 744 pages. Hardbound. Indian Rs 1800.00." Pakistan Development Review 40, no. 3 (September 1, 2001): 239–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v40i3pp.239-241.

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Money, income, and prices are important macroeconomic variables that play a crucial roles in an economy. The trends in money supply, movements in prices, changes in nominal and real income, as well as their interrelationships affect the economic life and well-being of a nation. The compilation of data on these magnitudes over long periods of time along with the supporting analysis is what constitutes monetary history. The present book by P. R. Brahmananda has carried out such an exercise for India. In presenting the monetary history of India, the author has kept the pioneering work of Milton Friedman and Anna Shwartz as a model for his work, and has comprehensively treated the 19th century events and experiences of the then Indian Subcontinent in the monetary and related areas. In the process, more than 200 time series of different variables have been brought together. The book not only contains a narrative account including the summary of the various viewpoints before the currency committees, and a detailed chronology of the period, but also examines the pros and cons of the various controversies of that period. Moreover, it subjects the empirical evidence to econometric testing of several important hypotheses of the modern-day monetary theory.

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Lopes, Luciana Suarez, and Anne Gerard Hanley. "Alice in Accounting Land: The Adventure of Two Economic Historians in Accounting Records of the 19th Century." Revista Contabilidade & Finanças 25, spe (December 2014): 355–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1808-057x201411540.

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This article aims to share our experience of working with São Paulo's municipal budgets published during the 19th century and discuss the difficulties of using this kind of source to analyze the municipal public finance from a historical perspective. The budget laws published draw the researcher's attention because they are abundant and relatively easy to work with, providing a huge documentary set that may be used as a means for studies in the fields of economic history, political history, and cultural history within the imperial period. These laws are printed, therefore, readable, and easily accessible through the digital web portal Acervo Histórico da Assembleia Legislativa do Estado de São Paulo Historical Collection of the São Paulo State Legislative Assembly]. They detail the origins and destinations of public resources, municipality by municipality, allowing the researcher to reconstruct the financial life of municipalities, identifying changes in time and space of the fortunes of the 19th-century São Paulo state communities. However, may we really trust these budgets? Conversations and collaborations between two researchers showed that these accessible, readable, and abundant sources are not as appropriate as they seem at first glance. This article reports our troubled and even contradictory journey into the world of municipal public accounting, in order to detail our findings and provide a warning on these sources. A comparative methodology between budget laws and handwritten balance sheets was used at time intervals of 1, 2, and 3 years, in search of correlations and adjustment patterns between budgeted and spent amounts of money. Our experience has shown that budget laws do not have much in common with the actual financial experience of municipalities within the imperial period, therefore, they are not the most appropriate sources to know the financial daily life in the 19th-century São Paulo state villages.

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leewook. "The Development and Character of Commodity Money Economy in the Jeju Area in the 18th and Mid 19th Century." Korean Studies 1, no. 12 (June 2008): 501–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.36093/ks.2008.1.12.014.

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Dzuganov, T. A. "ON THE ROLE OF MONEY IN THE EVERYDAY LIFE OF BALKAR SOCIETIES AT THE END OF THE 19TH CENTURY." BULLETIN of the Kabardian-Balkarian Institute for the Humanities Research 4-2, no. 55 (2022): 50–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.31007/2306-5826-2022-4-2-55-50-57.

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Sugema, Iman, and Iskandar Simorangkir. "PERANAN THE LENDER OF LAST RESORT (LOLR) TERHADAP PEREKONOMIAN: Suatu Kajian Empiris Terhadap Bantuan Likuiditas Bank Indonesia (BLBI)." Buletin Ekonomi Moneter dan Perbankan 7, no. 1 (December 15, 2004): 53–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.21098/bemp.v7i1.98.

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The role of central bank as the lender of last resort (LOLR) has been well known since 19th century. LOLR is a lending facility to non liquid bank to avoid systemic financial crisis on banking. In Indonesia Central Bank of Indonesia provides this facility, namely Bantuan Likuiditas Bank Indonesia (BLBI). Using macro-econometric model to run two simulations; with and without BLBI, we find that BLBI can avoid national output fall while the existence of BLBI, the cost of liquidity crisis will be less. Our result also shows that BLBI tend to overshoot exchange rate by money printing to support non liquid bank which in turn increase the probability of systemic crisis.

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Abdrakhmanov, Konstantin A. "Caravan trade of Central Asian merchants with Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century." RUDN Journal of Russian History 20, no. 3 (December 15, 2021): 399–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8674-2021-20-3-399-410.

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The article analyzes the everyday business activity of Asian entrepreneurs who participated in caravan trade with the Russian Empire through the cities of Orenburg region in the first quarter of the 19th century. The specifics of foreign trade operations of merchants from Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand during this period were almost completely ignored by Russian historians in the pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern periods. The source base of this article consists of unpublished archival documents that shed light on the details of the business activities of merchants from Asia. Letters to the regional and Imperial administration made by Asian entrepreneurs, as well as personal letters from foreign merchants are particularly valuable in this regard. Traders had to deal with a long list of tasks. Before the caravan could go along the required route, it was necessary to hire responsible guides, which was not always possible (guides often turned out to be unreliable, which led to additional expenses for the cargo owners), acquire pack animals, take care of security and prepare a considerable amount of money for various road tolls for travelling through the Kazakh steppe. The merchants who were successful in the caravan trade were characterized by moral and psychological stability, the ability to restrain themselves, not succumbing to momentary desires, and even the skills of using cold weapons and firearms. To resolve issues that were exclusively within the competence of representatives of the Russian regional or central administration, Asian merchants had to possess certain communication skills.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Money – Maine – 19th Century'

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