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Journal articles on the topic 'Molecular typing'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 10 March 2023

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1

Müller, F. M. C., A. Lischewski, D. Harmsen, and J. Hacker. "Standardized molecular typing." Mycoses 42 (December 1999): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.1999.tb00016.x.

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2

de Valk, H. A., C. H. W. Klaassen, and J. F. G. M. Meis. "Molecular typing ofAspergillusspecies." Mycoses 51, no. 6 (November 2008): 463–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01538.x.

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3

Wu, Fann, and Phyllis Della-Latta. "Molecular typing strategies." Seminars in Perinatology 26, no. 5 (October 2002): 357–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/sper.2002.36269.

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4

Milford, Edgar L. "HLA molecular typing." Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension 2, no. 6 (November 1993): 892–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00041552-199311000-00006.

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5

Park, Eun-Hee, Mi-Hee Kim, Joung-A. Kim, Nan-Sook Han, Ju Hyeoun Lee, Sang Gi Min, Yon Koung Park, Seong Hyun Jin, Gu Young Jeong, and Jae Hun Bin. "Molecular Typing of Legionella pneumophila Isolated in Busan, Using PFGE." Journal of Life Science 15, no. 2 (April 1, 2005): 161–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5352/jls.2005.15.2.161.

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6

Pitt, T. L. "Molecular typing in practice." Journal of Hospital Infection 43 (December 1999): S85—S88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6701(99)90069-5.

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7

Jeršek, Barbara. "Molecular typing ofListeria Monocytogenes." Acta Microbiologica et Immunologica Hungarica 49, no. 1 (March 2002): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/amicr.49.2002.1.8.

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8

Kobayashi, N., K. Taniguchi, K. Kojima, S. Urasawa, N. Uehara, Y. Omizu, Y. Kishi, A. Yagihashi, and I. Kurokawa. "Analysis of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptibleStaphylococcus aureusby a molecular typing method based on coagulase gene polymorphisms." Epidemiology and Infection 115, no. 3 (December 1995): 419–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095026880005857x.

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SummaryA molecular typing method forStaphylococcus aureusbased on coagulase gene polymorphisms (coagulase gene typing) was evaluated by examining a total of 240 isolates which comprised 210 methicillin-resistantS. aureus(MRSA) and 30 methicillin-susceptibleS. aureus(MSSA) collected from a single hospital. ByAlulrestriction enzyme digestion of the PCR-amplified 3′-end region of the coagulase gene including 81-bp repeated units, the MRSA and MSSA isolates examined were divided into 6 and 12 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns, respectively, whereas five patterns were commonly detected in MRSA and MSSA. MRSA isolates that showed a particular RFLP pattern were considered to be predominant in the hospital. Coagulase typing with type-specific antisera was also performed for allS. aureusisolates for comparison. Coagulase types II and VII were most frequently detected and included isolates with four and five differentAluIRFLP patterns, respectively, whereas each of the other coagulase types corresponded to a single RFLP pattern. These results indicated that RFLP typing was more discriminatory than serological typing, for typingS. aureusand demonstrated its utility in epidemiologic investigation ofS. aureusinfection in hospitals.
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9

Gerlach, John A. "Human Lymphocyte Antigen Molecular Typing." Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 126, no. 3 (March 1, 2002): 281–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5858/2002-126-0281-hlamt.

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Abstract The human lymphocyte antigen (HLA) typing community was one of the early groups to adopt molecular testing. This action was borne out of the need to identify the many alleles of the highly polymorphic HLA system. Early paradigms used restriction fragment length polymorphism regimes, but the polymerase chain reaction method of amplification quickly replaced that less-than-discriminating choice. Methods currently in use for HLA typing, with commercial kits available, are sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe (both dot blot and the reverse blot dot), sequence-specific primer amplification, restriction fragment length polymorphism of amplified products, double-stranded sequence conformation polymorphism (with and without reference strand), sequence-based typing, and microarray technologies. More than 1250 alleles are recognized by the World Health Organization and meet their criteria for assignment. These alleles can be identified by molecular methods and represent alleles present at class I and class II loci of the HLA complex. On occasion, ambiguous results still persist, even with the best molecular typing methods. Therefore, it is clear to the HLA typing community that a combination of the above methods may be needed to allow true discrimination of the possible alleles an individual carries in their genetic makeup. It is also clear that a typing laboratory may need to resort to nonmolecular serology to understand the significance and impact of the type generated by the HLA molecular typing laboratory.
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10

Pfaller, Michael A. "Molecular Epidemiology in the Care of Patients." Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 123, no. 11 (November 1, 1999): 1007–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.5858/1999-123-1007-meitco.

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Abstract Several different epidemiologic typing methods have been applied in studies of microbial pathogens. These methods include the more traditional nonmolecular approaches as well as the more sophisticated molecular typing methods. Application of traditional epidemiologic typing methods, such as antibiogram, serotyping, biotyping, and phage typing, have occasionally been useful in describing the epidemiology of infectious diseases. However, these methods have generally been considered to be too variable, labor intensive, and slow to be of practical value in epidemiologic investigations. In response to these limitations, several techniques have been adopted from the molecular biology field for use as epidemiologic typing methods and have been applied in studies of bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. The most widely used molecular typing methods are the DNA-based methods, such as plasmid profiling, restriction endonuclease analysis of plasmid and genomic DNA, Southern hybridization analysis using specific DNA probes, and chromosomal DNA profiling using either pulsed-field gel electrophoresis or polymerase chain reaction–based methods. The various molecular typing methods may be applied to the investigation of outbreaks of infections or may be used in the context of epidemiologic surveillance. For outbreak investigation, typing methods are used to compare isolates from a suspected outbreak to delineate clonally related and unrelated strains with the goal of short-term control of transmission. In the context of epidemiologic surveillance, molecular typing methods may be used to monitor geographic spread and prevalence shifts of epidemic and endemic clones with the goal of long-term evaluation of preventive strategies or for the detection and monitoring of emerging and reemerging infections. The specific typing method selected may vary with the task at hand; however, the typing studies must always be used to supplement, rather than replace, careful epidemiologic investigation.
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11

Platonov, M. E., V. V. Evseeva, S. V. Dentovskaya, and A. P. Anisimov. "Molecular typing of Yersinia pestis." Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Virology 28, no. 2 (April 2013): 41–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3103/s0891416813020067.

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12

Svetoch, T. E., S. V. Dentovskaya, and E. A. Svetoch. "Molecular typing of Shigella strains." Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Virology 32, no. 1 (January 2017): 6–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3103/s0891416817010104.

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13

Eremeeva, M. E., M. M. Sturgeon, J. K. Willard, S. E. Karpathy, A. Madan, and G. A. Dasch. "Molecular typing of Rickettsia akari." Russian Journal of Infection and Immunity 10, no. 3 (August 7, 2020): 497–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.15789/2220-7619-mto-1295.

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Rickettsia akari, an obligately intracellular bacterium, is the causative agent of the cosmopolitan urban disease rickettsialpox. R. akari is an atypical representative of spotted fever group rickettsiae (SFG) as it is associated with rodent mites rather than ticks or fleas; however, only limited information is available about the degree of genetic variability found among isolates of R. akari. We examined 13 isolates of R. akari from humans, rodents and mites in the USA, the former Soviet Union, and the former Yugoslavia made between 1946 and 2003 for diversity in their tandem repeat regions (TR) and intergenic regions (IGR). The 1.23 Mb genome of R. akari strain Hartford CWPP was analyzed using Tandem Repeat Finder software (http://tandem.bu.edu) and 374 different TRs were identified, with size variation from 1 to 483 bp and with TR copy numbers ranging between 21 and 1.9, respectively. No size polymorphisms were detected among the 11 TR regions examined from 5 open reading frames and 6 IGR. Eighteen non-TR IGR’s were amplified and sequenced for the same isolates comprising a total of 5.995 bp (0.49%) of the Hartford CWPP strain chromosome. Three single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) sites were detected in two IGR’s which permitted separation of the five R. akari isolates from Ukraine SSR from the other eight isolates. In conclusion, this is the first study reporting genetic heterogeneity among R. akari isolates of different geographic origins. Further exploration of this genetic diversity is needed to understand better the geographic distribution of R. akari and the epidemiology of rickettsialpox. The potential of mites as hosts for other rickettsial agents also needs further investigation.
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14

Svetoch, T. E., S. V. Dentovskaya, and E. A. Svetoch. "Molecular typing of Shigella strains." Molecular Genetics Microbiology and Virology (Russian version) 35, no. 1 (2017): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0208-0613-2017-35-1-7-11.

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15

McEwen, J. G., J. W. Taylor, D. Carter, J. Xu, M. S. S. Felipe, R. Vilgalys, T. G. Mitchell, et al. "Molecular typing of pathogenic fungi." Medical Mycology 38, no. 1 (January 2000): 189–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/mmy.38.1.189.197.

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16

McEwen, J. G., J. W. Taylor, D. Carter, J. Xu, M. S. S. Felipe, R. Vilgalys, T. G. Mitchell, et al. "Molecular typing of pathogenic fungi." Medical Mycology 38, s1 (January 2000): 189–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/mmy.38.s1.189.197.

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17

Windsor, J. J., C. G. Clark, and L. Macfarlane. "Molecular typing of Dientamoeba fragilis." British Journal of Biomedical Science 61, no. 3 (January 2004): 153–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09674845.2004.11978138.

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18

Oberste, M. Steven, and Mark A. Pallansch. "Enterovirus molecular detection and typing." Reviews in Medical Microbiology 16, no. 4 (October 2005): 163–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.revmedmi.0000184741.90926.35.

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19

Lischewski, A., D. Harmsen, J. Hacker, and J. Morschhäuser. "Standardized molecular typing ofCandida albicansstrains." Mycoses 40, no. 9-10 (December 1997): 369–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.1997.tb00252.x.

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20

Mechergui, Arij, Wafa Achour, Dario Giorgini, Rekaya Baaboura, Muhamed-Kheir Taha, and Assia Ben Hassen. "Molecular typing ofNeisseria perflavaclinical isolates." APMIS 121, no. 9 (December 26, 2012): 843–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apm.12042.

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21

Kerouanton, A., A. Brisabois, J. Grout, and B. Picard. "Molecular epidemiological tools forSalmonellaDublin typing." FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 14, no. 1 (May 1996): 25–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-695x.1996.tb00263.x.

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22

Fanoy, E., and A. De Neeling. "Molecular Typing: Use with Care." Public Health Ethics 5, no. 3 (November 1, 2012): 313–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/phe/phs029.

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23

Tian, Hongqing, Zhen Li, Zhongwei Li, Jianling Hou, Rongtao Zheng, Furong Li, Ruyuan Liu, Bing Liu, Chuan Wang, and Furen Zhang. "Molecular Typing of Treponema pallidum." Sexually Transmitted Diseases 41, no. 9 (September 2014): 551. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/olq.0000000000000155.

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24

&NA;. "Molecular Typing of Treponema pallidum." Sexually Transmitted Diseases 42, no. 2 (February 2015): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/olq.0000000000000239.

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25

Bonora, Stefano, Giovanni Di Perri, Giuseppino Loi, Stefania Zanetti, and Ercole Concia. "Molecular typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis." Lancet 353, no. 9162 (April 1999): 1442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(05)75966-3.

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26

Poh, Chit Laa. "Molecular typing of Neisseria gonorrhoeae." Reviews in Medical Microbiology 9, no. 1 (January 1998): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00013542-199801000-00001.

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27

Meyer, Wieland, Alexandra Castañeda, Stuart Jackson, Matthew Huynh, and Elizabeth Castañeda. "Molecular Typing of IberoAmericanCryptococcus neoformansIsolates." Emerging Infectious Diseases 9, no. 2 (February 2003): 189–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid0902.020246.

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28

MURASE, Toshiyuki, Rieko SUZUKI, and Shiro YAMAI. "Molecular Typing of Streptococcus pyogenes." Nippon Saikingaku Zasshi 54, no. 3 (1999): 617–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3412/jsb.54.617.

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29

Birch, M., M. J. Anderson, and D. W. Denning. "Molecular typing of Aspergillus species." Journal of Hospital Infection 30 (June 1995): 339–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0195-6701(95)90037-3.

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30

FARBER, J. M. "An Introduction to the Hows and Whys of Molecular Typing†." Journal of Food Protection 59, no. 10 (October 1, 1996): 1091–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-59.10.1091.

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Until recently, the relatedness of bacterial isolates has been determined solely by testing for one or several phenotypic markers, using methods such as serotyping, phage typing, biotyping, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and bacteriocin typing. However, there are problems in the use of many of these phenotype-based methods. For example, phage and bacteriocin typing systems are not available for all bacterial species and serotyping can be labor-intensive and costly. In addition, phenotypic markers may not be stably expressed under certain environmental or culture conditions. In contrast, some of the newer molecular typing methods involving the analysis of DNA offer many advantages over traditional techniques. One of the more important advantages is that since DNA can always be extracted from bacteria, all bacteria should be typeable. Another is that the discriminatory power of DNA-based methods is greater than that of phenotypic procedures. This review focuses on the basics of molecular typing along with the advantages and disadvantages of several of the newer genotypic typing techniques. This includes methods such as plasmid typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, ribotyping and its variations, and polymerase chain reaction-based methods such as random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. Molecular typing of microorganisms has made great strides in the last decade, and many food microbiology laboratories have become more knowledgeable and better equipped to carry out these new molecular techniques. Molecular typing procedures can be broadly defined as methods used to differentiate bacteria, based on the composition of biological molecules such as proteins, fatty acids, carbohydrates, etc., or nucleic acids. The latter can also be more specifically defined as genotyping, and is the subject of this review.
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31

Kidd, Sarah E., Li Min Ling, Wieland Meyer, C. Orla Morrissey, Sharon C. A. Chen, and Monica A. Slavin. "Molecular Epidemiology of Invasive Aspergillosis: Lessons Learned from an Outbreak Investigation in an Australian Hematology Unit." Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 30, no. 12 (December 2009): 1223–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/648452.

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Suspected nosocomial Aspergillus fumigatus infections in an Australian hematology unit were investigated by molecular typing of clinical and environmental isolates using polymerase chain reaction fingerprinting, CSP typing, and multilocus microsatellite typing. Only multilocus microsatellite typing revealed that all isolates were genetically distinct. The selection of an appropriate typing method is essential for effective outbreak investigations.
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32

Roellig, Dawn M., Emily L. Brown, Christian Barnabé, Michel Tibayrenc, Frank J. Steurer, and Michael J. Yabsley. "Molecular Typing ofTrypanosoma cruziIsolates, United States." Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, no. 7 (July 2008): 1123–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1407.080175.

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33

Shokoohizadeh, Leili. "Molecular Methods for Bacterial Strain Typing." Medical Laboratory Journal 10, no. 2 (April 1, 2016): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.18869/acadpub.mlj.10.2.1.

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34

YAKUBU, DAVIS E., FARIBORZ J. R. ABADI, and T. HUGH PENNINGTON. "Molecular typing methods for Neisseria meningitidis." Journal of Medical Microbiology 48, no. 12 (December 1, 1999): 1055–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/00222615-48-12-1055.

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35

Williamson, L. M., D. Bruce, A. Lubenko, H. J. Chana, and W. H. Ouwehand. "Molecular biology for platelet alloantigen typing." Transfusion Medicine 2, no. 4 (December 1992): 255–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3148.1992.tb00167.x.

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36

Grossman, Tamar, Shifra Ken-Dror, Elsa Pavlotzky, Julia Vainer, Yael Glazer, Orli Sagi, Avi Peretz, Vered Agmon, Esther Marva, and Lea Valinsky. "Molecular typing of Cryptosporidium in Israel." PLOS ONE 14, no. 9 (September 3, 2019): e0219977. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219977.

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37

Bubela, T., and S. Yanow. "Molecular Typing Technology: a Legal Perspective." Public Health Ethics 5, no. 3 (November 1, 2012): 317–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/phe/phs030.

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38

Hänni, Catherine, Agnès Begue, Vincent Laudet, Dominique Stéhelin, Thierry Brousseau, Philippe Amouyel, and Henri Duday. "Molecular typing of neolithic human bones." Journal of Archaeological Science 22, no. 5 (September 1995): 649–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0305-4403(95)80150-2.

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39

Jackson, K., R. Edwards, D. E. Leslie, and J. Hayman. "Molecular method for typing Mycobacterium ulcerans." Journal of clinical microbiology 33, no. 9 (1995): 2250–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.33.9.2250-2253.1995.

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40

Guérin-Faublée, Véronique, Dominique Decoret, Angeli Kodjo, Bruno Tilly, Arnaud Carlotti, Jean Freney, and Odile Barsotti. "Molecular typing of actinomyces pyogenes isolates." Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie 281, no. 2 (August 1994): 174–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0934-8840(11)80567-0.

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41

Li, A. X., L. Mao, S. Wang, M. Seul, J. Garcia-Gomez, S. Musa, J. Cicciarelli, and Y. Iwaki. "Bead microarray for HLA molecular typing." Human Immunology 63, no. 10 (October 2002): S9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0198-8859(02)00480-9.

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42

Helmuth, R., and A. Schroeter. "Molecular typing methods for S. enteridis." International Journal of Food Microbiology 21, no. 1-2 (January 1994): 69–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1605(94)90201-1.

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43

Edlund, Hanna, and Marie Allen. "SNP typing using molecular inversion probes." Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series 1, no. 1 (August 2008): 473–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigss.2007.11.014.

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44

Bronson, Sandra Rosen. "Tissue typing in the molecular era." Clinical Immunology Newsletter 13, no. 12 (December 1993): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0197-1859(93)90001-z.

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45

Boers, Stefan A., Wil A. van der Reijden, and Ruud Jansen. "High-Throughput Multilocus Sequence Typing: Bringing Molecular Typing to the Next Level." PLoS ONE 7, no. 7 (July 18, 2012): e39630. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039630.

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46

SIDORENKO, S. V., V. S. SOLOMKA, O. S. KOZhUShNAYa, N. V. FRIGO, S. V. Sidorenko, V. S. Solomka, O. S. Kozhushnaya, and N. V. Frigo. "Methods for typing std pathogens (N. Gonorrhoeae, C. Trachomatis, T. Pallidum)." Vestnik dermatologii i venerologii 86, no. 3 (June 15, 2010): 12–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.25208/vdv781.

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Phenotypic methods were initially used for bacterial typing yet they have a number of drawbacks limiting their use. Methods of molecular and genetic typing have become wide-spread today. Among these methods, bacterial typing based on multilocus sequence typing (Multilocus Sequence Typing - MLST) has been developing at the fastest rate. However, schemes of molecular and genetic typing of STD pathogens as compared to other bacteria are insufficiently developed, which considerably complicates the planning of measures aimed at the reduction of their spread.
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47

Barg, Neil L. "An Introduction to Molecular Hospital Epidemiology." Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 14, no. 7 (July 1993): 395–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/646768.

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One of the primary goals of the hospital epidemiologist is the identification and characterization of nosocomial outbreaks. Outbreaks usually are identified by the recovery of a unique strain from a cluster of patients infected with a nosocomially acquired pathogen. Until recently, the microbiologic tools available to any hospital epidemiologist permitted identification of novel strains by speciation and antibiogram. Thus, most outbreak descriptions consisted of the identification of an unusual species or the appearance of a new antibiotic resistance phenotype in a recognized nosocomial pathogen. The emergence of enterococci in this decade or the emergence of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) in the 1970s am notable examples. Where resources have existed, additional methods have been used for further discrimination. Outbreak and endemic strains have been compared by phage typing, serologic typing, and capsular typing. For example, beta-hemolytic streptococci may be grouped by Lancefield antisera, andStaphylococcus aureusmay be grouped by phage typing. However, certain Lancefield groups and certain phage groups are common among epidemic and endemic isolates, which may prevent identification of a specific epidemic strain.
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48

Touati, A., Y. Blouin, P. Sirand-Pugnet, H. Renaudin, T. Oishi, G. Vergnaud, C. Bébéar, and S. Pereyre. "Molecular Epidemiology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Genotyping Using Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms and SNaPshot Technology." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 53, no. 10 (July 22, 2015): 3182–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.01156-15.

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Molecular typing ofMycoplasma pneumoniaeis an important tool for identifying grouped cases and investigating outbreaks. In the present study, we developed a new genotyping method based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) selected from the whole-genome sequencing of eightM. pneumoniaestrains, using the SNaPshot minisequencing assay. Eight SNPs, localized in housekeeping genes, predicted lipoproteins, and adhesin P1 genes were selected for genotyping. These SNPs were evaluated on 140M. pneumoniaeclinical isolates previously genotyped by multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA-5) and adhesin P1 typing. This method was also adapted for direct use with clinical samples and evaluated on 51 clinical specimens. The analysis of the clinical isolates using the SNP typing method showed nine distinct SNP types with a Hunter and Gaston diversity index (HGDI) of 0.836, which is higher than the HGDI of 0.583 retrieved for the MLVA-4 typing method, where the nonstable Mpn1 marker was removed. A strong correlation with the P1 adhesin gene typing results was observed. The congruence was poor between MLVA-5 and SNP typing, indicating distinct genotyping schemes. Combining the results increased the discriminatory power. This new typing method based on SNPs and the SNaPshot technology is a method for rapidM. pneumoniaetyping directly from clinical specimens, which does not require any sequencing step. This method is based on stable markers and provides information distinct from but complementary to MLVA typing. The combined use of SNPs and MLVA typing provides powerful discrimination of strains.
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49

Muir, Peter, Ulrike Kämmerer, Klaus Korn, Mick N. Mulders, Tuija Pöyry, Benedikt Weissbrich, Reinhard Kandolf, Graham M. Cleator, and Anton M. van Loon. "Molecular Typing of Enteroviruses: Current Status and Future Requirements." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 11, no. 1 (January 1, 1998): 202–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.11.1.202.

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Human enteroviruses have traditionally been typed according to neutralization serotype. This procedure is limited by the difficulty in culturing some enteroviruses, the availability of antisera for serotyping, and the cost and technical complexity of serotyping procedures. Furthermore, the impact of information derived from enterovirus serotyping is generally perceived to be low. Enteroviruses are now increasingly being detected by PCR rather than by culture. Classical typing methods will therefore no longer be possible in most instances. An alternative means of enterovirus typing, employing PCR in conjunction with molecular genetic techniques such as nucleotide sequencing or nucleic acid hybridization, would complement molecular diagnosis, may overcome some of the problems associated with serotyping, and would provide additional information regarding the epidemiology and biological properties of enteroviruses. We argue the case for developing a molecular typing system, discuss the genetic basis of such a system, review the literature describing attempts to identify or classify enteroviruses by molecular methods, and suggest ways in which the goal of molecular typing may be realized.
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50

Khaki, Pejvak, Preena Bhalla, Ahmad Mir Fayaz, Sohiela Moradi Bidhendi, Majid Esmailzadeh, and Pawan Sharma. "Molecular Typing ofNeisseria gonorrhoeaeIsolates by Opa-Typing and Ribotyping in New Delhi, India." International Journal of Microbiology 2009 (2009): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/934823.

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Abstract:
Control and preventive measures for gonococcal infections are based on precise epidemiological characteristics ofN. gonorrhoeaeisolates. In the present study the potential utility of opa-typing and ribotyping for molecular epidemiological study of consecutive gonococcal strains was determined. Sixty gonococcal isolates were subjected to ribotyping with two restriction enzymes,AvaII andHincII, and opa-typing withTaqI andHpaII for epidemiological characterization of gonococcal population. Ribotyping withAvaII yielded 6 ribotype patterns while twelve RFLP patterns were observed withHincII. Opa-typing of the 60 isolates revealed a total 54 opa-types, which 48 were unique and 6 formed clusters. Fifty-two opa-types were observed withTaqI-digested PCR product while opa-typing withHpaII demonstrated 54 opa-types. The opa-types from isolates that were epidemiologically unrelated were distinct, whereas those from the sexual contacts were identical. The results showed that opa-typing is highly useful for characterizing gonococcal strains from sexual contacts and has more discriminatory than ribotyping that could differentiate between gonococci of the same ribotype. The technique even with a single restriction enzyme has a high level of discrimination (99.9%) between epidemiologically unrelated isolates. In conclusion, the molecular methods such as opa-typing and ribotyping can be used for epidemiological characterization of gonococcal strains.
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