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Journal articles on the topic 'Molecular receptors'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 27 April 2022

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1

Brown, Michael, Michael Webb, Elsa Phillips, Elizabeth Skidmore, and Peter McIntyre. "Molecular studies on kinin receptors." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 73, no. 7 (July 1, 1995): 780–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y95-105.

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We describe the results of functional studies on DNA clones encoding functional bradykinin receptors derived from human, rat, and mouse sources and including both genomic and complementary DNA clones. In both the Xenopus oocyte and the COS cell expression systems, the receptors from human and rat showed the pharmacological properties of B2 receptors, but receptors from mouse displayed both B1- and B2-like pharmacological properties. We further investigated the molecular relationship between the B1 and B2 receptor subtypes expressed by a human fibroblast cell line, and we demonstrate that these two receptor subtypes are encoded by distinct mRNA species.Key words: B1 receptor, antisense, Xenopus oocyte.
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2

Szybowska, Patrycja, Ellen Margrethe Haugsten, and Antoni Wiedlocha. "The canonical FGF-FGFR signaling system at the molecular level." Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej 75, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 711–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ahem-2021-0024.

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Abstract Extracellular signaling molecules, among them the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), enable cells to communicate with neighboring cells. Such signaling molecules that receive and transmit a signal require specific tyrosine kinase receptors located at the cell surface (fibroblast growth factor receptors, FGFRs). The binding of a signaling molecule to its specific receptor results in receptor dimerization and conformational changes in the cytoplasmic part of the receptor. The conformational changes lead to trans-autophosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase domains of the receptors and subsequently to induction of several downstream signaling pathways and expression of appropriate genes. The signaling pathways activated by FGFs control and coordinate cell behaviors such as cell division, migration, differentiation, and cell death. FGFs and their transmembrane receptors are widely distributed in different tissues and participate in fundamental processes during embryonic, fetal, and adult human life. The human FGF/FGFR family comprises 22 ligands and 4 high affinity receptors. In addition, FGFs bind to low affinity receptors, heparan sulfate proteoglycans at the cell surface. The availability of appropriate ligand/receptor pair, combined with the co-receptor, initiates signaling. Inappropriate FGF/FGFR signaling can cause skeletal disorders, primarily dwarfism, craniofacial malformation syndromes, mood disorders, metabolic disorders, and Kallman syndrome. In addition, aberrations in FGF/FGFR signaling have already been reported in several types of malignant diseases. Knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of FGF/FGFR activation and signaling is necessary to understand the basis of these diseases.
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3

Hay, D. L., G. Christopoulos, A. Christopoulos, and P. M. Sexton. "Amylin receptors: molecular composition and pharmacology." Biochemical Society Transactions 32, no. 5 (October 26, 2004): 865–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bst0320865.

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Several receptors which bind the hormone AMY (amylin) with high affinity have now been identified. The minimum binding unit is composed of the CT (calcitonin) receptor at its core, plus a RAMP (receptor activity modifying protein). The receptors have been named AMY1(a), AMY2(a) and AMY3(a) in accordance with the association of the CT receptor (CT(a)) with RAMP1, RAMP2 and RAMP3 respectively. The challenge is now to determine the localization and pharmacological nature of each of these receptors. Recent attempts to achieve these aims will be briefly discussed.
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Alfimov, Michael V., Olga A. Fedorova, and Sergey P. Gromov. "Photoswitchable molecular receptors." Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 158, no. 2-3 (June 2003): 183–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1010-6030(03)00033-9.

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Xie, Peng, Junjie Zhang, Baiyu Chen, Xinwei Li, Wenbo Zhang, Mengdan Zhu, Wei Li, Jianqi Li, and Wei Fu. "Computational Methods for Understanding the Selectivity and Signal Transduction Mechanism of Aminomethyl Tetrahydronaphthalene to Opioid Receptors." Molecules 27, no. 7 (March 28, 2022): 2173. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27072173.

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Opioid receptors are members of the group of G protein-couple receptors, which have been proven to be effective targets for treating severe pain. The interactions between the opioid receptors and corresponding ligands and the receptor’s activation by different agonists have been among the most important fields in opioid research. In this study, with compound M1, an active metabolite of tramadol, as the clue compound, several aminomethyl tetrahydronaphthalenes were designed, synthesized and assayed upon opioid receptors. With the resultant compounds FW-AII-OH-1 (Ki = 141.2 nM for the κ opioid receptor), FW-AII-OH-2 (Ki = 4.64 nM for the δ opioid receptor), FW-DI-OH-2 (Ki = 8.65 nM for the δ opioid receptor) and FW-DIII-OH-2 (Ki = 228.45 nM for the δ opioid receptor) as probe molecules, the structural determinants responsible for the subtype selectivity and activation mechanisms were further investigated by molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations. It was shown that Y7.43 was a key residue in determining the selectivity of the three opioid receptors, and W6.58 was essential for the selectivity of the δ opioid receptor. A detailed stepwise discovered agonist-induced signal transduction mechanism of three opioid receptors by aminomethyl tetrahydronaphthalene compounds was proposed: the 3–7 lock between TM3 and TM7, the DRG lock between TM3 and TM6 and rearrangement of I3.40, P5.50 and F6.44, which resulted in the cooperative movement in 7 TMs. Then, the structural relaxation left room for the binding of the G protein at the intracellular site, and finally the opioid receptors were activated.
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6

Breyer, M. D., H. R. Jacobson, and R. M. Breyer. "Functional and molecular aspects of renal prostaglandin receptors." Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 7, no. 1 (January 1996): 8–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/asn.v718.

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The diverse intrarenal effects of the prostaglandins (PG) are mediated by distinct guanine nucleotide regulatory protein (G-protein)-coupled receptors. The cDNA for these receptors have been cloned, their signal transduction mechanisms determined, and their intrarenal distribution mapped. PGE2, the major intrarenal prostaglandin, interacts with at least three distinct E-prostanoid (EP) receptors that are highly expressed in specific regions of the kidney. Each EP receptor not only selectively binds PGE2, but also preferentially couples to different signal transduction pathways, including: stimulation of cAMP generation, via Gq (EP2 and EP4 receptors); inhibition of cAMP generation, via Gi (EP3 receptors); and activation of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis (EP1 receptor), via one of the Gq family members. Activation of each these EP receptors is responsible for a distinct renal effect of PGE2, including its well-described renal hemodynamic and transport effects along the nephron. Other intrarenal prostanoid receptors include the PGF2 alpha receptor (FP), the thromboxane A2 receptor (TP) and the prostacyclin receptor (IP). Knowledge about localization of these receptors and their affinities for receptor-selective agonists and antagonists should aid in the understanding of renal disease and the development of therapeutic strategies for the use of these prostaglandin analogs in select renal diseases.
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7

North, R. Alan. "Molecular Physiology of P2X Receptors." Physiological Reviews 82, no. 4 (January 10, 2002): 1013–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00015.2002.

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P2X receptors are membrane ion channels that open in response to the binding of extracellular ATP. Seven genes in vertebrates encode P2X receptor subunits, which are 40–50% identical in amino acid sequence. Each subunit has two transmembrane domains, separated by an extracellular domain (∼280 amino acids). Channels form as multimers of several subunits. Homomeric P2X1, P2X2, P2X3, P2X4, P2X5, and P2X7channels and heteromeric P2X2/3and P2X1/5channels have been most fully characterized following heterologous expression. Some agonists (e.g., αβ-methylene ATP) and antagonists [e.g., 2′,3′- O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)-ATP] are strongly selective for receptors containing P2X1and P2X3subunits. All P2X receptors are permeable to small monovalent cations; some have significant calcium or anion permeability. In many cells, activation of homomeric P2X7receptors induces a permeability increase to larger organic cations including some fluorescent dyes and also signals to the cytoskeleton; these changes probably involve additional interacting proteins. P2X receptors are abundantly distributed, and functional responses are seen in neurons, glia, epithelia, endothelia, bone, muscle, and hemopoietic tissues. The molecular composition of native receptors is becoming understood, and some cells express more than one type of P2X receptor. On smooth muscles, P2X receptors respond to ATP released from sympathetic motor nerves (e.g., in ejaculation). On sensory nerves, they are involved in the initiation of afferent signals in several viscera (e.g., bladder, intestine) and play a key role in sensing tissue-damaging and inflammatory stimuli. Paracrine roles for ATP signaling through P2X receptors are likely in neurohypophysis, ducted glands, airway epithelia, kidney, bone, and hemopoietic tissues. In the last case, P2X7receptor activation stimulates cytokine release by engaging intracellular signaling pathways.
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8

Livingstone, C. D., P. G. Strange, and L. H. Naylor. "Molecular modelling of D2-like dopamine receptors." Biochemical Journal 287, no. 1 (October 1, 1992): 277–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2870277.

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Three-dimensional computer models of the rat D2, D3 and D4 dopamine receptor subtypes have been constructed based on the diffraction co-ordinates for bacteriorhodopsin, another membrane-bound protein containing seven transmembrane domains presumed to be arranged in a similar spatial orientation. Models were assembled by aligning the putative transmembrane domains of the dopamine receptors with those of bacteriorhodopsin using sequence similarities, and then superimposing these modelled alpha-helices on to the bacteriorhodopsin-derived co-ordinates. These models explore the potential hydrogen bonding, electrostatic and stacking interactions within the receptor which may be important for maintaining the conformation of these receptors, and thereby provide target sites for agonist binding. Proposed interactions between the catecholamine ligands and these receptors appear to account for the affinity, although not the specificity, of these agonist ligands for the different dopamine receptor subtypes. Such models will be useful for establishing structure-function relationships between ligands and the dopamine receptors, and may ultimately provide a template for the design of receptor-specific drugs.
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9

Behzadi, Payam, Herney Andrés García-Perdomo, and Tomasz M. Karpiński. "Toll-Like Receptors: General Molecular and Structural Biology." Journal of Immunology Research 2021 (May 29, 2021): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/9914854.

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Background/Aim. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pivotal biomolecules in the immune system. Today, we are all aware of the importance of TLRs in bridging innate and adaptive immune system to each other. The TLRs are activated through binding to damage/danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), microbial/microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and xenobiotic-associated molecular patterns (XAMPs). The immunogenetic molecules of TLRs have their own functions, structures, coreceptors, and ligands which make them unique. These properties of TLRs give us an opportunity to find out how we can employ this knowledge for ligand-drug discovery strategies to control TLRs functions and contribution, signaling pathways, and indirect activities. Hence, the authors of this paper have a deep observation on the molecular and structural biology of human TLRs (hTLRs). Methods and Materials. To prepare this paper and fulfill our goals, different search engines (e.g., GOOGLE SCHOLAR), Databases (e.g., MEDLINE), and websites (e.g., SCOPUS) were recruited to search and find effective papers and investigations. To reach this purpose, we tried with papers published in the English language with no limitation in time. The iCite bibliometrics was exploited to check the quality of the collected publications. Results. Each TLR molecule has its own molecular and structural biology, coreceptor(s), and abilities which make them unique or a complementary portion of the others. These immunogenetic molecules have remarkable roles and are much more important in different sections of immune and nonimmune systems rather than that we understand to date. Conclusion. TLRs are suitable targets for ligand-drug discovery strategies to establish new therapeutics in the fields of infectious and autoimmune diseases, cancers, and other inflammatory diseases and disorders.
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10

Bettler, Bernhard, Klemens Kaupmann, Johannes Mosbacher, and Martin Gassmann. "Molecular Structure and Physiological Functions of GABAB Receptors." Physiological Reviews 84, no. 3 (July 2004): 835–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00036.2003.

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GABAB receptors are broadly expressed in the nervous system and have been implicated in a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. The cloning of the first GABAB receptor cDNAs in 1997 revived interest in these receptors and their potential as therapeutic targets. With the availability of molecular tools, rapid progress was made in our understanding of the GABAB system. This led to the surprising discovery that GABAB receptors need to assemble from distinct subunits to function and provided exciting new insights into the structure of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in general. As a consequence of this discovery, it is now widely accepted that GPCRs can exist as heterodimers. The cloning of GABAB receptors allowed some important questions in the field to be answered. It is now clear that molecular studies do not support the existence of pharmacologically distinct GABAB receptors, as predicted by work on native receptors. Advances were also made in clarifying the relationship between GABAB receptors and the receptors for γ-hydroxybutyrate, an emerging drug of abuse. There are now the first indications linking GABAB receptor polymorphisms to epilepsy. Significantly, the cloning of GABAB receptors enabled identification of the first allosteric GABAB receptor compounds, which is expected to broaden the spectrum of therapeutic applications. Here we review current concepts on the molecular composition and function of GABAB receptors and discuss ongoing drug-discovery efforts.
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11

Brown, E. J., and J. L. Goodwin. "Fibronectin receptors of phagocytes. Characterization of the Arg-Gly-Asp binding proteins of human monocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes." Journal of Experimental Medicine 167, no. 3 (March 1, 1988): 777–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.167.3.777.

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We have defined the cell surface molecules of human monocytes and PMN that bind to the chymotryptic cell binding domain of Fn and to a synthetic peptide, KYAVTGRGDS, based on the sequence of Fn, by affinity chromatography. Monocytes express two receptors that differ in their affinity for CBD-Sepharose and peptide-Sepharose, but that both recognize the RGD sequence. Only a single receptor is purified from PMN, which resembles the monocyte surface molecule that binds to peptide-Sepharose. These receptors are not part of the Mac-1, LFA-1, p(150,95) family, but do have homology to the platelet Fn receptor, gpIIb/IIIa. Interestingly, the antigenic crossreactivity between gpIIb/IIIa and the phagocyte receptors purified on peptide-Sepharose is largely in the beta chain of the receptors. The alpha chains appear to be distinct, based on molecular weight, antigenic analysis, and ligand specificity. This receptor also seems to be the surface molecule on monocytes that is critical for phagocytosis enhancement by Fn. Thus, we have defined the phagocyte Fn receptor that transduces the signal for increased phagocytosis by monocytes; it may be a third member of a family of adhesion molecules that includes the gpIIb/IIIa of platelets and the vitronectin receptor of fibroblasts.
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12

Mahmod Al-Qattan, Mohammed Nooraldeen, and Mohd Nizam Mordi. "Molecular Basis of Modulating Adenosine Receptors Activities." Current Pharmaceutical Design 25, no. 7 (June 17, 2019): 817–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612825666190304122624.

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Modulating cellular processes through extracellular chemical stimuli is medicinally an attractive approach to control disease conditions. GPCRs are the most important group of transmembranal receptors that produce different patterns of activations using intracellular mediators (such as G-proteins and Beta-arrestins). Adenosine receptors (ARs) belong to GPCR class and are divided into A1AR, A2AAR, A2BAR and A3AR. ARs control different physiological activities thus considered valuable target to control neural, heart, inflammatory and other metabolic disorders. Targeting ARs using small molecules essentially works by binding orthosteric and/or allosteric sites of the receptors. Although targeting orthosteric site is considered typical to modulate receptor activity, allosteric sites provide better subtype selectivity, saturable modulation of activity and variable activation patterns. Each receptor exists in dynamical equilibrium between conformational ensembles. The equilibrium is affected by receptor interaction with other molecules. Changing the population of conformational ensembles of the receptor is the method by which orthosteric, allosteric and other cellular components control receptor signaling. Herein, the interactions of ARs with orthosteric, allosteric ligands as well as intracellular mediators are described. A quinary interaction model for the receptor is proposed and energy wells for major conformational ensembles are retrieved.
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13

Thomas, Lance R., Ronald L. Johnson, John C. Reed, and Andrew Thorburn. "The C-terminal Tails of Tumor Necrosis Factor-related Apoptosis-inducing Ligand (TRAIL) and Fas Receptors Have Opposing Functions in Fas-associated Death Domain (FADD) Recruitment and Can Regulate Agonist-specific Mechanisms of Receptor Activation." Journal of Biological Chemistry 279, no. 50 (September 27, 2004): 52479–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m409578200.

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Members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily of receptors such as Fas/CD95 and the TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptors DR4 and DR5 induce apoptosis by recruiting adaptor molecules and caspases. The central adaptor molecule for these receptors is a death domain-containing protein, FADD, which binds to the activated receptor via death domain-death domain interactions. Here, we show that in addition to the death domain, the C-terminal tails of DR4 and DR5 positively regulate FADD binding, caspase activation and apoptosis. In contrast, the corresponding region in the Fas receptor has the opposite effect and inhibits binding to the receptor death domain. Replacement of wild-type or mutant DR5 molecules into DR5-deficient BJAB cells indicates that some agonistic antibodies display an absolute requirement for the C-terminal tail for FADD binding and signaling while other antibodies can function in the absence of this mechanism. These data demonstrate that regions outside the death domains of DR4 and DR5 have opposite effects to that of Fas in regulating FADD recruitment and show that different death receptor agonists can use distinct molecular mechanisms to activate signaling from the same receptor.
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14

HRUBY, VICTOR J., HENRY I. YAMAMURA, and FRANK PORRECA. "Molecular Organization of Receptors." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 757, no. 1 (May 1995): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.tb17461.x.

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15

Al-Hasani, Ream, and Michael R. Bruchas. "Molecular Mechanisms of Opioid Receptor-dependent Signaling and Behavior." Anesthesiology 115, no. 6 (December 1, 2011): 1363–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/aln.0b013e318238bba6.

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Opioid receptors have been targeted for the treatment of pain and related disorders for thousands of years and remain the most widely used analgesics in the clinic. Mu (μ), kappa (κ), and delta (δ) opioid receptors represent the originally classified receptor subtypes, with opioid receptor like-1 (ORL1) being the least characterized. All four receptors are G-protein coupled and activate inhibitory G proteins. These receptors form homo- and heterodimeric complexes and signal to kinase cascades and scaffold a variety of proteins.The authors discuss classic mechanisms and developments in understanding opioid tolerance and opioid receptor signaling and highlight advances in opioid molecular pharmacology, behavioral pharmacology, and human genetics. The authors put into context how opioid receptor signaling leads to the modulation of behavior with the potential for therapeutic intervention. Finally, the authors conclude there is a continued need for more translational work on opioid receptors in vivo.
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16

Kazantseva, Z. I. "Phosphorylated thiacalixarenes as molecular receptors for QCM sensors of volatile compounds." Functional materials 24, no. 4 (December 18, 2017): 599–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/fm24.04.599.

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17

Hirose, Shigehisa, Hiromi Hagiwara, and Yoshio Takei. "Comparative molecular biology of natriuretic peptide receptors." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 79, no. 8 (August 1, 2001): 665–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y01-034.

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Analysis of the mammalian natriuretic peptide system has established the presence of three types of receptors with distinct structural and functional features and tissue distributions. To clarify the physiological role of each subtype, we studied the natriuretic peptide system in animals with specialized anatomical and physiological features. In this review, following a brief description of the comparative and evolutionary aspects of the ligands, we will analyze the structure and distribution of natriuretic peptide receptors in lower vertebrates, as well as those of rats with essential and salt-sensitive hypertension, and discuss the evolutionary aspects of the natriuretic peptide systems in mammals and fishes. Emphasis is placed on our series of studies with eel receptors that revealed (i) interesting variations in the pattern of intra- and inter-molecular disulfide bonding; (ii) dense chondrocyte localization of NPR-C, which opened a new field of study for natriuretic peptides and bone metabolism; and (iii) the presence of a new receptor subtype, NPR-D, which is abundant in the brain and a member of the receptor subfamily with a short cytoplasmic C-terminal tail.Key words: chloride cell, evolution, natriuretic peptide, osmoregulation, receptor.
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18

BREDESEN, DALE E., PATRICK MEHLEN, and SHAHROOZ RABIZADEH. "Apoptosis and Dependence Receptors: A Molecular Basis for Cellular Addiction." Physiological Reviews 84, no. 2 (April 2004): 411–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00027.2003.

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Bredesen, Dale E., Patrick Mehlen, and Shahrooz Rabizadeh. Apoptosis and Dependence Receptors: A Molecular Basis for Cellular Addiction. Physiol Rev 84: 411–430, 2004; 10.1152/physrev.00027.2003.—Classical signal transduction is initiated by ligand-receptor interactions. We have described an alternative form of signal transduction that is initiated by the withdrawal of ligands from specific receptors referred to as dependence receptors. This process is widespread, featuring in developmental cell death, carcinogenesis (especially metastasis), neurodegeneration, and possibly subapoptotic events such as neurite retraction and somal atrophy. Initial mechanistic studies of dependence receptors suggest that these receptors form complexes that include specific caspases. Complex formation appears to be a function of ligand-receptor interaction, and dependence receptors appear to exist in at least two conformational states. Complex formation in the absence of ligand leads to caspase activation by a mechanism that in at least some cases is dependent on caspase cleavage of the receptor itself, releasing proapoptotic peptides. Thus these receptors may serve in caspase amplification, and in so doing create cellular states of dependence on their respective ligands.
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Woodcock, E. A., S. L. Land, R. K. Andrews, M. Linsenmeyer, and D. M. Woodcock. "A low-affinity, low-molecular-mass endothelin-A receptor in neonatal rat heart." Biochemical Journal 304, no. 1 (November 15, 1994): 113–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3040113.

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Endothelin receptors with endothelin-A (ETa) specificity were present in neonatal rat ventricle. However, in both receptor-binding studies and studies of inositol phosphate accumulation, these receptors had lower affinity for endothelin-1 than ETa receptors on isolated neonatal cardiomyocytes or adult left atria. Receptors in the three myocardial preparations were cross-linked to 125I-endothelin-1 and their molecular masses measured using SDS/PAGE. Receptors on left atria and neonatal cardiomyocytes had the expected molecular mass of 48 kDa, whereas the receptors in neonatal ventricle were smaller (38 kDa). Despite this, neonatal ventricles contained ETa receptor mRNA which was not different in size from that in the isolated cells (4.5 kb). Thus the 38 kDa ETa receptor present in neonatal ventricle appears to be transcribed from full-length ETa receptor mRNA and is possibly formed by processing of the 48 kDa receptor.
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20

Brooks, Charles L. "Molecular Mechanisms of Prolactin and Its Receptor." Endocrine Reviews 33, no. 4 (August 1, 2012): 504–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2011-1040.

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Prolactin and the prolactin receptors are members of a family of hormone/receptor pairs which include GH, erythropoietin, and other ligand/receptor pairs. The mechanisms of these ligand/receptor pairs have broad similarities, including general structures, ligand/receptor stoichiometries, and activation of several common signaling pathways. But significant variations in the structural and mechanistic details are present among these hormones and their type 1 receptors. The prolactin receptor is particularly interesting because it can be activated by three sequence-diverse human hormones: prolactin, GH, and placental lactogen. This system offers a unique opportunity to compare the detailed molecular mechanisms of these related hormone/receptor pairs. This review critically evaluates selected literature that informs these mechanisms, compares the mechanisms of the three lactogenic hormones, compares the mechanism with those of other class 1 ligand/receptor pairs, and identifies information that will be required to resolve mechanistic ambiguities. The literature describes distinct mechanistic differences between the three lactogenic hormones and their interaction with the prolactin receptor and describes more significant differences between the mechanisms by which other related ligands interact with and activate their receptors.
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Montell, Craig. "Drosophila sensory receptors—a set of molecular Swiss Army Knives." Genetics 217, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/iyaa011.

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Abstract Genetic approaches in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, have led to a major triumph in the field of sensory biology—the discovery of multiple large families of sensory receptors and channels. Some of these families, such as transient receptor potential channels, are conserved from animals ranging from worms to humans, while others, such as “gustatory receptors,” “olfactory receptors,” and “ionotropic receptors,” are restricted to invertebrates. Prior to the identification of sensory receptors in flies, it was widely assumed that these proteins function in just one modality such as vision, smell, taste, hearing, and somatosensation, which includes thermosensation, light, and noxious mechanical touch. By employing a vast combination of genetic, behavioral, electrophysiological, and other approaches in flies, a major concept to emerge is that many sensory receptors are multitaskers. The earliest example of this idea was the discovery that individual transient receptor potential channels function in multiple senses. It is now clear that multitasking is exhibited by other large receptor families including gustatory receptors, ionotropic receptors, epithelial Na+ channels (also referred to as Pickpockets), and even opsins, which were formerly thought to function exclusively as light sensors. Genetic characterizations of these Drosophila receptors and the neurons that express them also reveal the mechanisms through which flies can accurately differentiate between different stimuli even when they activate the same receptor, as well as mechanisms of adaptation, amplification, and sensory integration. The insights gleaned from studies in flies have been highly influential in directing investigations in many other animal models.
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Koehler, Melanie, Anny Fis, Hermann J. Gruber, and Peter Hinterdorfer. "AFM-Based Force Spectroscopy Guided by Recognition Imaging: A New Mode for Mapping and Studying Interaction Sites at Low Lateral Density." Methods and Protocols 2, no. 1 (January 8, 2019): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mps2010006.

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Ligand binding to receptors is one of the most important regulatory elements in biology as it is the initiating step in signaling pathways and cascades. Thus, precisely localizing binding sites and measuring interaction forces between cognate receptor–ligand pairs leads to new insights into the molecular recognition involved in these processes. Here we present a detailed protocol about applying a technique, which combines atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based recognition imaging and force spectroscopy for studying the interaction between (membrane) receptors and ligands on the single molecule level. This method allows for the selection of a single receptor molecule reconstituted into a supported lipid membrane at low density, with the subsequent quantification of the receptor–ligand unbinding force. Based on AFM tapping mode, a cantilever tip carrying a ligand molecule is oscillated across a membrane. Topography and recognition images of reconstituted receptors are recorded simultaneously by analyzing the downward and upward parts of the oscillation, respectively. Functional receptor molecules are selected from the recognition image with nanometer resolution before the AFM is switched to the force spectroscopy mode, using positional feedback control. The combined mode allows for dynamic force probing on different pre-selected molecules. This strategy results in higher throughput when compared with force mapping. Applied to two different receptor–ligand pairs, we validated the presented new mode.
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Naval, Javier, Diego de Miguel, Ana Gallego-Lleyda, Alberto Anel, and Luis Martinez-Lostao. "Importance of TRAIL Molecular Anatomy in Receptor Oligomerization and Signaling. Implications for Cancer Therapy." Cancers 11, no. 4 (March 29, 2019): 444. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers11040444.

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(TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is able to activate the extrinsic apoptotic pathway upon binding to DR4/TRAIL-R1 and/or DR5/TRAIL-R2 receptors. Structural data indicate that TRAIL functions as a trimer that can engage three receptor molecules simultaneously, resulting in receptor trimerization and leading to conformational changes in TRAIL receptors. However, receptor conformational changes induced by the binding of TRAIL depend on the molecular form of this death ligand, and not always properly trigger the apoptotic cascade. In fact, TRAIL exhibits a much stronger pro-apoptotic activity when is found as a transmembrane protein than when it occurs as a soluble form and this enhanced biological activity is directly linked to its ability to cluster TRAIL receptors in supra-molecular structures. In this regard, cells involved in tumor immunosurveillance, such as activated human T cells, secrete endogenous TRAIL as a transmembrane protein associated with lipid microvesicles called exosomes upon T-cell reactivation. Consequently, it seems clear that a proper oligomerization of TRAIL receptors, which leads to a strong apoptotic signaling, is crucial for inducing apoptosis in cancer cells upon TRAIL treatment. In this review, the current knowledge of oligomerization status of TRAIL receptors is discussed as well as the implications for cancer treatment when using TRAIL-based therapies.
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Chao, W., and M. S. Olson. "Platelet-activating factor: receptors and signal transduction." Biochemical Journal 292, no. 3 (June 15, 1993): 617–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2920617.

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During the past two decades, studies describing the chemistry and biology of PAF have been extensive. This potent phosphoacylglycerol exhibits a wide variety of physiological and pathophysiological effects in various cells and tissues. PAF acts, through specific receptors and a variety of signal transduction systems, to elicit diverse biochemical responses. Several important future directions can be enumerated for the characterization of PAF receptors and their attendant signalling mechanisms. The recent cloning and sequence analysis of the gene for the PAF receptor will allow a number of important experimental approaches for characterizing the structure and analysing the function of the various domains of the receptor. Using molecular genetic and immunological technologies, questions relating to whether there is receptor heterogeneity, the precise mechanism(s) for the regulation of the PAF receptor, and the molecular details of the signalling mechanisms in which the PAF receptor is involved can be explored. Another area of major significance is the examination of the relationship between the signalling response(s) evoked by PAF binding to its receptor and signalling mechanisms activated by a myriad of other mediators, cytokines and growth factors. A very exciting recent development in which PAF receptors undoubtedly play a role is in the regulation of the function of various cellular adhesion molecules. Finally, there remain many incompletely characterized physiological and pathophysiological situations in which PAF and its receptor play a crucial signalling role. Our laboratory has been active in the elucidation of several tissue responses in which PAF exhibits major autocoid signalling responses, e.g. hepatic injury and inflammation, acute and chronic pancreatitis, and cerebral stimulation and/or trauma. As new experimental strategies are developed for characterizing the fine structure of the molecular mechanisms involved in tissue injury and inflammation, the essential role of PAF as a primary signalling molecule will be affirmed. Doubtless the next 20 years of experimental activity will be even more interesting and productive than the past two decades.
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Pardeshi, Sushma, Anupama Kumar, and Rita Dhodapkar. "Molecular Imprinting: Mimicking Molecular Receptors for Antioxidants." Materials Science Forum 675-677 (February 2011): 515–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.675-677.515.

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Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have been demonstrated to be a promising class of biomimetic materials that can be tailored to meet specific end use recognition requirements. Molecular imprinting is achieved by the interaction, either covalent or non-covalent between complementary groups in a template molecule and functional monomer units through polymerization. MIPs have been widely employed for divers applications such as chiral separation, chemical sensing, catalysis, drug screening, chromatographic separations and solid phase extraction. During respiration and metabolism, human body produce free radicals as by products, which can damage genetic material, lipids and proteins leading to several fatal diseases such as Cancer, Cardio-vascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Immune dysfunction etc. Antioxidants define a family of natural or synthetic nutrients in food, which acts as free radical scavengers. They are present in complex matrix such as herbs, fruit pulp in small concentration, either combined or in free form. Although several techniques have been developed for their detection, (e.g. HPLC, Thin layer chromatography, Capillary gas chromatography, Supercritical fluid chromatography), to achieve highly specific and sensitive analysis, high affinity, stable and specific recognition agents are needed. In this review, special attention is paid to the MIPs based analytical methods for antioxidants, focusing on solid phase extraction, chromatographic and non chromatographic separations and sensing approaches as well as on novel approaches for the discovery of new imprinted materials for antioxidants.
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Norel, R., H. J. Wolfson, and R. Nussinov. "Small Molecule Recognition: Solid Angles Surface Representation and Molecular Shape Complementarity." Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening 2, no. 4 (August 1999): 223–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1386207302666220204193837.

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Abstract: Here we examine the recognition of small molecules by their protein and DNA receptors. We focus on two questions: First, how well does the solid angle molecular surface representation perform in fitting together the surfaces of small ligands, such as drugs and cofactors to their corresponding receptors; And second, in particular, to what extent does the shape complementarity play a role in the matching (recognition) process of such small molecules. Both questions have been investigated in protein-protein binding: "Critical Points" based on solid angle calculations have been shown to perform well in the matching of large protein molecules. They are robust, may be few in numbers, and capture satisfactorily the molecular shape. Shape complementarity has been shown to be a critical factor in protein­ protein recognition, but has not been examined in drug-receptor recognition. To probe these questions, here we dock 185 receptor-small ligand molecule pairs. We find that such a representation performs adequately for the smaller ligands too, and that shape complementarity is also observed. These issues are important, given the large databases of drugs that routinely have to be scanned to find candidate, lead compounds. We have been able to carry out such large scale docking experiments owing to our efficient, computer-vision based docking algorithms. Its fast CPU matching times, on the order of minutes on a PC, allows such large scale docking experiments.
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Santiago, Luis, and Ravinder Abrol. "Understanding G Protein Selectivity of Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors Using Computational Methods." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 21 (October 24, 2019): 5290. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20215290.

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The neurotransmitter molecule acetylcholine is capable of activating five muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, M1 through M5, which belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These five receptors share high sequence and structure homology; however, the M1, M3, and M5 receptor subtypes signal preferentially through the Gαq/11 subset of G proteins, whereas the M2 and M4 receptor subtypes signal through the Gαi/o subset of G proteins, resulting in very different intracellular signaling cascades and physiological effects. The structural basis for this innate ability of the M1/M3/M5 set of receptors and the highly homologous M2/M4 set of receptors to couple to different G proteins is poorly understood. In this study, we used molecular dynamics (MD) simulations coupled with thermodynamic analyses of M1 and M2 receptors coupled to both Gαi and Gαq to understand the structural basis of the M1 receptor’s preference for the Gαq protein and the M2 receptor’s preference for the Gαi protein. The MD studies showed that the M1 and M2 receptors can couple to both Gα proteins such that the M1 receptor engages with the two Gα proteins in slightly different orientations and the M2 receptor engages with the two Gα proteins in the same orientation. Thermodynamic studies of the free energy of binding of the receptors to the Gα proteins showed that the M1 and M2 receptors bind more strongly to their cognate Gα proteins compared to their non-cognate ones, which is in line with previous experimental studies on the M3 receptor. A detailed analysis of receptor–G protein interactions showed some cognate-complex-specific interactions for the M2:Gαi complex; however, G protein selectivity determinants are spread over a large overlapping subset of residues. Conserved interaction between transmembrane helices 5 and 6 far away from the G-protein-binding receptor interface was found only in the two cognate complexes and not in the non-cognate complexes. An analysis of residues implicated previously in G protein selectivity, in light of the cognate and non-cognate structures, shaded a more nuanced role of those residues in affecting G protein selectivity. The simulation of both cognate and non-cognate receptor–G protein complexes fills a structural gap due to difficulties in determining non-cognate complex structures and provides an enhanced framework to probe the mechanisms of G protein selectivity exhibited by most GPCRs.
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Portoghese, Philip S. "Molecular recognition at kappa opioid receptors." Pure and Applied Chemistry 73, no. 9 (September 1, 2001): 1387–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac200173091387.

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Structure­activity relationships are rarely straightforward, and often are more complicated than they appear. For this reason, the use of site-directed mutagenesis as a complementary tool to analyze structure­activity relationships has been invaluable. Here, we illustrate how site-directed mutagenesis has led to greater insight into the molecular basis for molecular recognition of norbinaltorphimine and to the design of novel kappa antagonists. Given the paucity of high-resolution crystal structures for membrane-bound receptors, the use of a coordinated "two-dimensional" paradigm that involves molecular modification of both the ligand and the receptor, affords a useful approach to the study of molecular recognition. This paradigm has led to the design of highly potent and selective kappa opioid receptor antagonists that are derivatives of the delta opioid receptor antagonist, naltrindole.
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Indik, ZK, JG Park, S. Hunter, and AD Schreiber. "The molecular dissection of Fc gamma receptor mediated phagocytosis." Blood 86, no. 12 (December 15, 1995): 4389–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood.v86.12.4389.bloodjournal86124389.

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Because hematopoietic cells express multiple Fc gamma receptor isoforms, the role of the individual Fc gamma receptors in phagocytosis has been difficult to define. Transfection of Fc gamma receptors into COS-1 cells, which lack endogeneous Fc gamma receptors but have phagocytic potential, has proved valuable for the study of individual Fc gamma receptor function. Using this model system, we have established that a single class of human Fc gamma receptor mediates phagocytosis in the absence of other Fc receptors and that isoforms from each Fc gamma receptor class mediate phagocytosis, although the requirements for phagocytosis differ. In investigating the relationship between structure and function for Fc gamma receptor mediated phagocytosis, the importance of the cytoplasmic tyrosines of the receptor or its associated gamma chain has been established. For example, two cytoplasmic YXXL sequences, in a configuration similar to the conserved tyrosine-containing motif found in Ig gene family receptors, are important for phagocytosis by the human Fc gamma receptor, Fc gamma RIIA. Fc gamma RI and Fc gamma RIIIA do not possess cytoplasmic tyrosines but transmit a phagocytic signal through interaction with an associated gamma subunit that contains two YXXL sequences in a conserved motif required for phagocytosis. The human Fc gamma RII isoforms Fc gamma RIIB1 and Fc gamma RIIB2 do not induce phagocytosis and have only a single YXXL sequence. Cross-linking the phagocytic Fc gamma receptors induces tyrosine phosphorylation of either Fc gamma RIIA or the gamma chain, and treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors reduces both phagocytosis and phosphorylation of the receptor tyrosine residues. Activation of protein tyrosine kinases follows Fc gamma receptor engagement of IgG-coated cells. The data indicate that coexpression of the protein tyrosine kinase Syk, which is associated with the gamma chain in monocytes/macrophages, is important for phagocytosis mediated by Fc gamma RI and Fc gamma RIIIA. Furthermore, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase is required for phagocytosis mediated by Fc gamma RIIA as well as for phagocytosis mediated by Fc gamma RI/gamma and Rc gamma RIIIA/gamma.
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Wajant, Harald. "Death receptors." Essays in Biochemistry 39 (October 1, 2003): 53–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bse0390053.

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Death receptors [Fas/Apo-1/CD95, TNF-R1 [tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 1], DR3 [death receptor 3], TRAIL-R1 [TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor 1], TRAIL-R2, DR6, p75-NGFR [p75-nerve growth factor receptor], EDAR [ectodermal dysplasia receptor]] form a subgroup of the TNF-R superfamily that can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) via a conserved cytoplasmic signalling module termed the death domain. Although death receptors have been recognized mainly as apoptosis inducers, there is growing evidence that these receptors also fulfil a variety of nonapoptotic functions. This review is focused on the molecular mechanisms of apoptotic and non-apoptotic death receptor signalling in light of the phenotype of mice deficient in the various death receptors.
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Lovejoy, David A., Belinda S. W. Chang, Nathan R. Lovejoy, and Jon del Castillo. "MOLECULAR EVOLUTION OF GPCRS: CRH/CRH receptors." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 52, no. 3 (April 7, 2014): T43—T60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/jme-13-0238.

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Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) is the pivotal neuroendocrine peptide hormone associated with the regulation of the stress response in vertebrates. However, CRH-like peptides are also found in a number of invertebrate species. The origin of this peptide can be traced to a common ancestor of lineages leading to chordates and to arthropods, postulated to occur some 500 million years ago. Evidence indicates the presence of a single CRH-like receptor and a soluble binding protein system that acted to transduce and regulate the actions of the early CRH peptide. In vertebrates, genome duplications led to the divergence of CRH receptors into CRH1 and CRH2 forms in tandem with the development of four paralogous ligand lineages that included CRH; urotensin I/urocortin (Ucn), Ucn2 and Ucn3. In addition, taxon-specific genome duplications led to further local divergences in CRH ligands and receptors. Functionally, the CRH ligand–receptor system evolved initially as a molecular system to integrate early diuresis and nutrient acquisition. As multicellular organisms evolved into more complex forms, this ligand–receptor system became integrated with the organismal stress response to coordinate homoeostatic challenges with internal energy usage. In vertebrates, CRH and the CRH1 receptor became associated with the hypothalamo-pituitary–adrenal/interrenal axis and the initial stress response, whereas the CRH2 receptor was selected to play a greater role in diuresis, nutrient acquisition and the latter aspects of the stress response.
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32

Gesek, F. A., and K. E. White. "Molecular and functional identification of beta-adrenergic receptors in distal convoluted tubule cells." American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology 272, no. 6 (June 1, 1997): F712—F720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1997.272.6.f712.

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Renal nerve stimulation or circulating catecholamines activate the beta-adrenergic receptors that mediate direct effects on tubular transport. Three subtypes of beta-adrenergic receptors have been characterized: beta 1, beta 2, and beta 3. beta-Adrenergic-receptor effects on Na+ and Ca2+ transport in distal convoluted tubules (DCT) have not been established. The focus of this study was to 1) identify the subtypes of beta-adrenergic receptors in DCT cells and 2) examine functional responses to beta-receptor activation on adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) formation and Na+ and Ca2+ entry. To determine the subtypes of beta-receptors present, RNA isolated from immortalized mouse DCT cells was reverse transcribed, and the cDNA was amplified using primers designed to reported sequences for beta 1-, beta 2-, and beta 3-receptor subtypes. Products of the appropriate sizes were obtained with beta 1- and beta 2-primers. No product was observed with primers to the beta 3 sequence. Receptor products were confirmed by sequencing and are identical to reported mouse beta 1- and beta 2-receptor sequence. Receptor binding of[3H]dihydroalprenolol was 123 +/- 13 fmol/mg protein, and a 3:1 ratio of beta 1- to beta 2-receptors was observed with DCT cell membranes. Isoproterenol, a beta-receptor agonist, increased cAMP formation 8.5-fold. Pretreatment with the antagonist propranolol abolished agonist-induced cAMP accumulation. Isoproterenol significantly increased 22Na+ uptake to 345 +/- 23 compared with a basal rate of 256 +/- 12 nmol.min-1.mg protein-1 and was blocked with propranolol and beta 1- and beta 2-selective antagonists. Isoproterenol had no effect on 45Ca2+ entry into DCT cells. In summary, DCT cells express three times more beta 1- than beta 2-receptors and express no detectable beta 3-adrenergic receptors. beta-Receptors couple to adenylyl cyclase, and activation of beta-adrenergic receptors increases Na+ but not Ca2+ entry in DCT cells.
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33

García, Yaima Henry, Orlando Reyes Zamora, Rosalba Troncoso-Rojas, Martín Ernesto Tiznado-Hernández, María Elena Báez-Flores, Elizabeth Carvajal-Millan, and Agustín Rascón-Chu. "Toward Understanding the Molecular Recognition of Fungal Chitin and Activation of the Plant Defense Mechanism in Horticultural Crops." Molecules 26, no. 21 (October 28, 2021): 6513. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216513.

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Large volumes of fruit and vegetable production are lost during postharvest handling due to attacks by necrotrophic fungi. One of the promising alternatives proposed for the control of postharvest diseases is the induction of natural defense responses, which can be activated by recognizing molecules present in pathogens, such as chitin. Chitin is one of the most important components of the fungal cell wall and is recognized through plant membrane receptors. These receptors belong to the receptor-like kinase (RLK) family, which possesses a transmembrane domain and/or receptor-like protein (RLP) that requires binding to another RLK receptor to recognize chitin. In addition, these receptors have extracellular LysM motifs that participate in the perception of chitin oligosaccharides. These receptors have been widely studied in Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) and Oryza sativa (O. sativa); however, it is not clear how the molecular recognition and plant defense mechanisms of chitin oligosaccharides occur in other plant species or fruits. This review includes recent findings on the molecular recognition of chitin oligosaccharides and how they activate defense mechanisms in plants. In addition, we highlight some of the current advances in chitin perception in horticultural crops.
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34

Stephenson, F. A. "Structure and trafficking of NMDA and GABAA receptors." Biochemical Society Transactions 34, no. 5 (October 1, 2006): 877–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bst0340877.

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The fidelity of synaptic function is dependent on the expression of the appropriate neurotransmitter receptor subtype, the targeting and trafficking of receptors to synapses as well as the regulation of the actual number of receptors at synapses. GABAA (γ-aminobutyric acid type A) receptors and NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors are both examples of ligand-gated, heteromeric neurotransmitter receptors whose cell-surface expression is dynamic and tightly regulated. NMDA receptors are localized at excitatory synapses. These synapses are highly structured but dynamic, with the interplay between NMDA receptors and NMDA receptor-associated scaffolding proteins regulating the expression of functional cell-surface synaptic and extrasynaptic receptors. Based on current information, inhibitory synapses seem to be less ordered, and a GABAA receptor equivalent of PSD-95 (postsynaptic density-95), the scaffolding molecule pivotal to the organization of NMDA receptor complexes at synapses, is yet to be validated. In the present paper, processes regulating the trafficking, assembly and molecular organization of both NMDA receptors and GABAA receptors will be discussed.
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35

Kim, Jong-Hoon, János Marton, Simon Mensah Ametamey, and Paul Cumming. "A Review of Molecular Imaging of Glutamate Receptors." Molecules 25, no. 20 (October 16, 2020): 4749. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204749.

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Molecular imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a well-established and important in vivo technique to evaluate fundamental biological processes and unravel the role of neurotransmitter receptors in various neuropsychiatric disorders. Specific ligands are available for PET/SPECT studies of dopamine, serotonin, and opiate receptors, but corresponding development of radiotracers for receptors of glutamate, the main excitatory neurotransmitter in mammalian brain, has lagged behind. This state of affairs has persisted despite the central importance of glutamate neurotransmission in brain physiology and in disorders such as stroke, epilepsy, schizophrenia, and neurodegenerative diseases. Recent years have seen extensive efforts to develop useful ligands for molecular imaging of subtypes of the ionotropic (N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), kainate, and AMPA/quisqualate receptors) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (types I, II, and III mGluRs). We now review the state of development of radioligands for glutamate receptor imaging, placing main emphasis on the suitability of available ligands for reliable in vivo applications. We give a brief account of the radiosynthetic approach for selected molecules. In general, with the exception of ligands for the GluN2B subunit of NMDA receptors, there has been little success in developing radiotracers for imaging ionotropic glutamate receptors; failure of ligands for the PCP/MK801 binding site in vivo doubtless relates their dependence on the open, unblocked state of the ion channel. Many AMPA and kainite receptor ligands with good binding properties in vitro have failed to give measurable specific binding in the living brain. This may reflect the challenge of developing brain-penetrating ligands for amino acid receptors, compounded by conformational differences in vivo. The situation is better with respect to mGluR imaging, particularly for the mGluR5 subtype. Several successful PET ligands serve for investigations of mGluRs in conditions such as schizophrenia, depression, substance abuse and aging. Considering the centrality and diversity of glutamatergic signaling in brain function, we have relatively few selective and sensitive tools for molecular imaging of ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Further radiopharmaceutical research targeting specific subtypes and subunits of the glutamate receptors may yet open up new investigational vistas with broad applications in basic and clinical research.
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Egan, Terrance, Jane Cox, and Mark Voigt. "Molecular Structure of P2X Receptors." Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 4, no. 8 (April 1, 2004): 821–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1568026043451005.

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37

Hongmao Sun and David Fry. "Molecular Modeling of Melanocortin Receptors." Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 7, no. 11 (June 1, 2007): 1042–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/156802607780906573.

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38

Arnaud-Neu, Françoise, and Marie-José Schwing-Weill. "Calixarenes, new selective molecular receptors." Synthetic Metals 90, no. 3 (November 1997): 157–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0379-6779(98)80001-5.

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39

Matsuda, Lisa A. "Molecular Aspects of Cannabinoid Receptors." Critical Reviews™ in Neurobiology 11, no. 2-3 (1997): 143–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/critrevneurobiol.v11.i2-3.30.

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40

Bandoli, Giuliano, Marino Nicolini, Henri Lumbroso, Antonio Grassi, and Giuseppe C. Pappalardo. "Molecular determinants for drug-receptors." Journal of Molecular Structure 160, no. 3-4 (September 1987): 297–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-2860(87)80070-4.

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41

Schottelius, Margret, and Hans-Jürgen Wester. "Molecular imaging targeting peptide receptors." Methods 48, no. 2 (June 2009): 161–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymeth.2009.03.012.

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42

Jacobson., Kenneth A., Daniel L., Boring Xiao-duo Ji, William Barrington, Vickram Ramkumar, and Gary L. Stiles. "Molecular Probes for Adenosine Receptors." Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 52 (1990): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-5198(19)32889-6.

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43

Yamamura, H. I., E. Varga, X. Li, T. Burkey, R. Quock, E. Malatynska, R. Knapp, et al. "Molecular Pharmacology of Opioid Receptors." Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 73 (1997): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-5198(19)33779-5.

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44

Nakanishi, Shigetada. "Molecular physiology of glutamate receptors." Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 67 (1995): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-5198(19)35554-4.

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45

Enz, Ralf, and Garry R. Cutting. "Molecular composition of GABAC receptors." Vision Research 38, no. 10 (May 1998): 1431–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00277-0.

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46

REISINE, TERRY, and GRAEME I. BELL. "Molecular Biology of Somatostatin Receptors*." Endocrine Reviews 16, no. 4 (August 1995): 427–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/edrv-16-4-427.

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47

Strasser, Ruth H., Renate Ihl-Vahl, and Rainer Marquetant. "Molecular biology of adrenergic receptors." Journal of Hypertension 10, no. 6 (June 1992): 501–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004872-199206000-00001.

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48

Hollmann, Michael, Jim Boulter, Cornelia Maron, and Stephen Heinemann. "Molecular Biology of Glutamate Receptors." Kidney and Blood Pressure Research 17, no. 3-4 (1994): 182–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000173813.

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49

Pilpel, Yitzhak, Alona Sosinsky, and Doron Lancet. "Molecular biology of olfactory receptors." Essays in Biochemistry 33 (December 1, 1998): 93–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bse0330093.

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50

Bates, Michael D., Jay A. Gingrich, James R. Bunzow, Pierre Falardeau, Allen Dearry, Susan E. Senogles, Olivier Civelli, and Marc G. Caron. "Molecular Characterization of Dopamine Receptors." American Journal of Hypertension 3, no. 6_Pt_2 (June 1990): 29S—33S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajh/3.6.29s.

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