Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Mines and mineral resources Environmental aspects South Australia'

One of the greatest challenges facing the world today is integrating industrial activities such as mining with environmental integrity and social concerns. Monitoring is fundamental to environmental management, both to assess the adherence to standards and to allow environmental managers to learn from practical experiences. However, a problem arises when the regulatory authorities cannot keep up with their mandate of enforcement and compliance monitoring. This research examined how the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) implements the concept of sustainable development in the mining sector of the Eastern Cape (EC) and, more specifically, the extent to which the Mine Environmental Management (MEM) section is able to effectively monitor compliance of mining operations with environmental legislation. This was the first systematic compilation of statistical data for the DME, and presents the first study in the EC regional office in terms of environmental sustainability. Results indicate that there has been a sustained increase in mining activity over the past three years, possibly as a result of the boom in the construction industry and the accelerated road maintenance and improvement programmes in the Eastern Cape. Mining applications received by the DME have increased by 47% from 2006 to 2007 (January-May) and by a further 100% from 2007 to 2008. In addition to the increasing number of mining concerns being established, 98 mining concerns will need to apply for the conversion of their old order rights to new order rights by the 1st May 2009. Mining in the province is predominantly small scale with mining permits (mined areas less than 1.5Ha) making up 52.3% of all applications, with larger mining concerns contributing 29.3% and prospecting contributing the remaining 18.4%. In terms of compliance inspections, the EC regional office is required to conduct 120 environmental compliance inspections annually in terms of contributing to sustainable development. The MEM section exceeded this target since 2003. However, when the number of operational mines is considered, 120 inspections per year equates to one mine being visited, on average once every four years (based on 2008 data). Based on projected figures (number of compliance audits and number of operational mines) for 2009, the DME’s target of 150 inspections for 2009/10 combined with the limited staff D. Watkins – MBA Dissertation 2008 capacity will, at best, mean that mines would be inspected once in seven years. However, the target of 150 inspections will not actually even cover the expected number of EMP evaluation inspections. This has serious implications in terms of regulating the compliance of the mining concerns with their EMPR’s. The low level of compliance monitoring can be directly related to staff capacity and logistics problems at the regional office as well as provincial targets being based on staff capacity rather than the number of operational mines. Thus, considering potential environmental damage associated with mining operations and the capacity constraints of the MEM to conduct frequent compliance audits, it is likely that mining operations will have negative implications for sustainable development in the region. Currently there are many challenges facing the DME in terms of contributing positively to sustainability in the mining sector and there is a need to base future actions on the idea of continuous improvement and ultimately progress.

Thesis (LLM) -- University of Limpopo, 2012
The study focuses on rehabilitation, since absence of proper rehabilitation process result in indelible damage to the environment. South Africa, like many other countries, is faced with many environmental problems caused by mining. These problems are particularly caused by, inter alia, abandoned mining areas without rehabilitation, inadequate environmental impact assessment after closure, inadequate financial provision for rehabilitation, and lack of monitoring and aftercare system after post mine closure. The study found that many Companies ignore laws governing prospecting, extraction and rehabilitation. The main purpose of this research is to investigate and recommend guidelines in the rehabilitation process so as to instil respect for the environment. The study therefore recommended strict legislation relating to environmental protection against mining.

South Africa has less than 1 percent of the global land surface, yet it is ranked highly in terms of remaining mineral resources. Mineral wealth has not translated into a better life for all. Poverty, however, abounds; particularly in the rural areas and this study seeks to identify a solution or partial solution to this situation. The study combines two critical areas, Mineral Based Rural Development, and Mineral Based Enterprise Development and draws from it a model for Mineraldriven Rural Economic Development viable for all parts of South Africa. This study comprised research on a national scale and thus covered a section of each of South Africa‟s nine provinces. It investigated the conditions in rural and urban centres, and geologically, it traversed examples of Archaean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic formations. The field visits deliberately set out to look at some of the lowest value commodities; typically the only minerals available to the surrounding rural communities. This was done to see if a case could be made for even the lowest value commodities which are often found furthest from the large markets. This study indicates that for a rural area to be able to compete nationally or internationally, it is important to be competitive so that the area can participate in the economy. The creation of regional competitive areas allow for the focusing of strategies and funding for targeted rural projects. Enterprises, typically the product of entrepreneurial activity, are required to increase economic intensity and activity. xxvii The goal of poverty reduction, has been identified by government so that enterprises, as products of economic development, can be focused on the situation. Interviews conducted by the researcher indicated that part of the problem to overcome is the bureaucracy created by government which hinders enterprise development. Recommendations are made that government should exempt rural enterprises from some of the compliance hurdles. This will serve to accelerate rural development. An important aspect of urban enterprises is that they have access to labour without too many problems. Thirteen developed or developing corridors were visited of the five types of development corridors identified. It was found that those in areas of high poverty (for example the corridors of the Eastern Cape) are difficult to develop and make self-sustaining. The corridors linked to any point of Gauteng (Johannesburg or Pretoria) are more robust, although the relatively short length of the corridor is not an indicator of effectiveness. The key recommendations made include the completion of a national rural mineral-asset audit; the use of the information to demarcate rural-regions that can be developed as nationally and internationally competitive regions; the establishment of a rural Resource and Training Academy(ies) so that skills are developed close to areas where they will be deployed; provision of an easier way to launch mineral-based rural enterprises and incentivise these for accelerated development; and the development of an indigenous body of knowledge to mine small scale deposits

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Ecosystems, and the very services and resources that they provide, are fundamental to our existence. Regardless, mankind shows scant regard for the biotic and abiotic components of the environment that serve as both sources and sinks for anthropocentric demands, practices and behaviours. Of these vital resources, perhaps the one that is most under threat is water which while crucial for growth and development around the globe, is rapidly becoming a scarce commodity. In South Africa - already a water-scarce country - this situation is further compounded by mining practices that are not only unsustainable, but also largely unregulated from an environmental perspective. Mining activities have resulted in the mass exposure of iron pyrite and heavy metals, both underground and on the surface. Upon exposure to weathering, the iron pyrite gives rise to sulphuric acid, which, in turn results in the mobilisation and concentration of toxic metals. Although this is a geological phenomenon, the increasing concentrations of toxic metals as a result of mining have exposed the Gauteng province to enormous environmental, social and economic risks. Concerning the risks, the research highlighted the following: - Although comprehensive research has been found relating to the physical attributes of acid mine drainage (AMD), very little is known of the health aspects associated with AMD. Of immediate concern is, the subsequent environmental and health implications stemming from the association between living organisms and heavy metals. - In the absence of such information, the credibility of current solutions is thus questionable. Of the solutions that have been proposed, most have been reductionist in approach and have only focused on dealing with the surface decant of contaminated water from predominately non-functioning mines. The health risks associated with radioactive and highly toxic waste have been down played or simply ignored (Albrecht, 2011). - The absence of a comprehensive solution also raises questions as to the assessment and decision-making process utilised to date by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA). - Both government and the private sector have allowed the AMD threat to amplify over the years. Their inaction has been facilitated by the poor enforcement of legislation and, clever manoeuvring by mining companies, in what can only be described as a mutually beneficial relationship between government and the mining industry. In stark contrast to the inaction of government and the private sector, environmental activists have been very vocal in calling for a solution to a number of the risks associated with AMD. This, together with the recent decant of AMD in the Western Basin, has culminated in a public outcry and prompted calls for a solution to the AMD threat. Government's response to this was a narrow and incomprehensive solution, which only served to further frustrate the different stakeholder groups. Where stakeholders have different themes as to the implications and thus solutions to the AMD threat on the Witwatersrand (as driven by the profiles of the different stakeholder groups), an appropriate solution will only be realised by adopting the following recommendations: - Government must show the necessary political will, to fully engage the threat of AMD and address their poor track record as regulator - their credibility has been skewed through their vested interests in the mining industry. - Having taken ownership of the AMD threat on the Witwatersrand, government must move to avert any immediate risks to human well-being. - Under governments' leadership, the capacity of all stakeholders must be addressed to facilitate a participatory trans-disciplinary review of the assessment mechanisms and facts, in order to reach a mutually acceptable solution(s) to the social and environmental impacts associated with mining activities - a solution that will ensure future environmental integrity, social development and economic growth.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ekosisteme, en die dienste en hulpbronne wat dit voorsien, is grondliggend aan die mensdom se bestaan. Tog toon die mensdom weinig respek vir die biotiese en abiotiese komponente van die omgewing, hoewel ons met ons behoeftes, praktyke en gedrag daarop staatmaak én daaraan afbreuk doen. Van hierdie lewensnoodsaaklike hulpbronne is die mees bedreigde waarskynlik water, wat – hoewel dit vir groei en ontwikkeling wêreldwyd van deurslaggewende belang is – spoedig besig is om ʼn skaars kommoditeit te word. In Suid-Afrika, wat in elk geval ʼn waterarm land is, word hierdie toedrag van sake vererger deur mynboupraktyke wat nie net onvolhoubaar is nie maar ook ongereguleerd. Mynboubedrywighede het gelei tot die massablootstelling van ysterpiriet en swaarmetale, sowel ondergronds as op die oppervlak. Wanneer ysterpiriet chemies verweer, vorm dit swawelsuurwater, wat op sy beurt toksiese metale mobiliseer en konsentreer. Hoewel dít ʼn geologiese verskynsel is, het hierdie verhoogde konsentrasies as gevolg van mynbou die Gautengprovinsie aan enorme omgewings-, maatskaplike en ekonomiese risiko’s blootgestel. Wat die risiko’s betref, beklemtoon hierdie studie die volgende: - Hoewel omvattende navorsing oor die fisiese kenmerke van suur mynwater (“acid mine drainage” – AMD) onderneem is, is weinig bekend oor die gesondheidsaspekte wat daarmee gepaardgaan. Wat tot dusver van onmiddelliker belang was, was die omgewings- en gesondheidsimplikasies wat daaruit voortvloei wanneer lewende organismes aan swaarmetale blootgestel word. - In die afwesigheid van sodanige inligting is die geloofwaardigheid van huidige oplossings dus twyfelagtig. Die meeste van die oplossings wat voorgestel is, is reduksionisties van aard en beklemtoon slegs die hantering van besoedelde water wat op die oppervlak uit hoofsaaklik onaktiewe myne sypel. Die gesondheidsgevare wat met radio-aktiewe en hoogs toksiese afval gepaardgaan, word geheel en al onderspeel of bloot misgekyk (Albrecht, 2011). - Die gebrek aan ʼn omvattende oplossing laat ontstaan ook vrae oor die beoordelings- en besluitnemingsprosesse wat die Departement van Waterwese oor die jare sowel as meer onlangs gevolg het. - Sowel die regering as die privaat sektor het toegekyk hoe die bedreiging deur suur mynwater oor die jare vererger. Dié gebrek aan optrede is aangehelp deur swak wetstoepassing sowel as slimmer bewimpeling deur mynboumaatskappye in wat eenvoudig as ʼn wedersyds voordelige verhouding tussen die regering en die mynboubedryf beskryf kan word. In skrille kontras met die regering en privaat sektor se traagheid het omgewingsaktiviste nog nooit geskroom om hul stem te verhef en op oplossings vir baie van hierdie risiko’s aan te dring nie. Dít, tesame met die onlangse uitvloei van suur mynwater in die Westelike Kom, het op openbare protes uitgeloop en aanleiding gegee tot oproepe om ʼn oplossing vir die bedreiging van suur mynwater. Die regering se antwoord hierop was ʼn eng, beperkte oplossing wat die verskillende belangegroepe slegs verder frustreer het. Aangesien belangegroepe (in ooreenstemming met hul uiteenlopende profiele) verskillende aspekte van die implikasies van – en dus ook die oplossings vir – die bedreiging van suur mynwater aan die Witwatersrand beklemtoon, sal ʼn toepaslike oplossing gevind word slegs deur die volgende aanbevelings te aanvaar: - Die regering moet die nodige politieke wil toon om die bedreiging van suur mynwater ten volle die hoof te bied, en moet daadwerklik verbeter op sy swak prestasiegeskiedenis as reguleerder, waarin hy heelwat geloofwaardigheid ingeboet het vanweë regeringsbelang by die mynboubedryf. - Nadat die regering sy verantwoordelikheid rakende die bedreiging van suur mynwater aan die Witwatersrand aanvaar het, moet hy dringend optree om enige onmiddellike gevare vir menslike welstand te voorkom. - Onder leiding van die regering moet die vermoëns van alle belanghebbendes betrek word ten einde ʼn deelnemende, kruisdissiplinêre beoordeling van die meganismes en feite te onderneem, om sodoende (ʼn) wedersyds aanvaarbare oplossing(s) vir die maatskaplike en omgewingsimpak van mynboubedrywighede te bedink – ʼn oplossing wat die integriteit van die omgewing, maatskaplike ontwikkeling en ekonomiese groei sal verseker.

The Mining industry in South Africa is viewed as the backbone of the country’s economy, while benefiting from this engine of economic development, its impact on the environment and health has been of a major concern to different stakeholders. The majority of people acknowledge the role of mining in the economy and the country. Others put more emphasis on public health and the environment. The aim of the study was then to assess the impact of environmental pollution and public health on the Sasolburg community from a developmental perspective. The present study can be described as a quantitative descriptive survey that uncovered serious levels of pollution in Sasolburg that had dire health consequences for people involved. The findings of the study indicate that residents live with the constant smell of a variety of chemical pollutants released both by normal production and by periodic incidents. They experience chronic respiratory symptoms, burning eyes, hearing deficiency and skin irritations. The study revealed that environmental pollution consequences affecting residents are inversely related to distance from the mines. The results obtained in this study are evidence that environmental pollution in the Sasolburg area is a definite risk to the health of people living within the surrounding area. Although indicating the need to carry out a comprehensive study, the results call for immediate action to prevent continued public over-exposure to environmental pollution.

M.Sc. (Environmental Management)
South Africa is exceptionally rich in biodiversity. South Africa has been recognized as the third most biologically diverse country in the world, and has three globally recognized biodiversity hotspots; namely the Cape floristic, the Succulent Karoo and the Maputaland-Pondoland regions (NSBA, 2004). South Africa’s seas straddle three oceans, and provide a range of habitats from cool water kelp forests, to tropical reefs and deep ocean abyss (NSBA, 2004). Unfortunately, due to various pressures, many ecosystems are in trouble: 34% of terrestrial systems, 82% of river signatures, 65% of marine biozones and 8 estuarine types are threatened (NSBA, 2004). Mining has been identified as one of the sectors impacting negatively on biodiversity; the other significant pressures being agriculture, afforestration, urban and industrial development, extractive fishing, alien invasives and climate change (NSBA, 2004). The concept of ‘biodiversity offsets’ is relatively new and there are only generic methods whichare ill suited to determine appropriate biodiversity offsets in the South African context. The rationale for biodiversity offsets in South Africa is two-fold: firstly, South Africa contains biodiversity that is unique globally; secondly, its ecosystems underpin socioeconomic development and delivery of important services such as the reliable supply of clean water, ecotourism and coastal protection. Land-intensive development poses a significant threat to the countries remaining biodiversity. South African policies have, over the past few years, increasingly prioritised the conservation of biodiversity and important ecosystem services (Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2007). The motivation for this is a decline in global biodiversity (WWF & ZSL, 2012). Land use changes are the main motivation for identifying the need for creating a system within the planning process that tackles unavoidable and residual impacts to biodiversity. The implementation of EIA in South Africa in terms of the National Environmental Management Act (No. 107 of 1998) allowed for the formal evaluation of impacts to habitat, wildlife and other natural considerations to be done as a prerequisite for developers to receive approval for a project to go ahead (BBOP, 2000). The aim of this study was to compare the current South African biodiversity offset approach to that of offset banking and no net loss or net gain principles as a feasible and beneficial alternative. A structured interview process was conducted to ascertain current understanding and perceptions relating to biodiversity offsets, biodiversity offset guidelines and regulations, offset banking, relevant experience and perceptions to determine the current level of understanding in the mining sector and with environmental consultants. This aided in determining whether biodiversity offset practices in its current form in South Africa were understandable, can be implemented effectively and achieves the rationale of biodiversity offset banking.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Johannesburg 2017.
The development of the economy of South Africa and many other countries has been highly dependent on mining industries. Minerals such as gold, platinum, diamond and many others have been mined and continue to be mined. Despite the importance of these minerals, their processing comes with social and environmental problems. During the processing of these minerals, trace elements such as copper, chromium, nickel, mercury, uranium, molybdenum and many others are released as wastes into the environment either, directly or indirectly. The release of the elements into the soil is of concern due to the possibility of groundwater system contamination. The presence of these elements in the groundwater system poses serious challenges to the wellbeing of life forms, due to their toxicity, when they exceed threshold limits. From the processing plants, these elements could be released onto the soil, and mobilise to groundwater, increasing the already existing environmental crisis due to water pollution. Once these elements are in the water, access to living organisms becomes easier through the food chain. Some of these elements are not biodegradable and thus persist in the environment as well as in the bodies of living organisms. They can cause serious health problems because of their toxicity effect. In humans, these elements can be carcinogenic, and also cause chronic disorders, kidney failures, defects in infants, bone and vascular diseases which could also be lethal. It is therefore of importance that these elements are neither bioavailable nor bioaccessible to living organisms. When these elements are mobile in the soil, the probability of reaching groundwater increases. Water, an important natural resource should always be protected from such pollutants. The demand for unpolluted water has been rising every year in the world due to increasing population, extended droughts and improper disposal. This research was dedicated to determining the behaviour of elements in an agricultural soil impacted by mining activities. Agricultural soils are sometimes exposed to pollutants that could originate from dust fallout or precipitation; fertilisers and manure; pesticides; and water used for irrigation. Understanding the iv processes that control the distribution of these pollutants in agricultural soils is an important risk assessment measure, considering that such pollutants have the potential of being taken up by crops and vegetables or transported to groundwater. In this study, a soil on a farm that grows vegetables for commercial purpose. Cabbage, spinach, carrots and potatoes are some of the vegetables grown on the plot and sold to markets in Pretoria and Johannesburg. The plot is in the vicinity of smelting operations in the North West Province. The mobility of trace elements in the soil can be controlled, depending on the type and properties of soil. Hence in this research, the ability of the soil to adsorb elements entering the soil is studied. The batch experimental work was performed to determine the effect of pH, initial concentration (5 - 100 mg/L), competing ions (Fe3+, Ca2+, Co2+, Mg2+, K+, Ni2+ and Zn2+), fertilisers (ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate and calcium chloride) and plant exudates (acetic acid, citric acid and oxalic acid as well as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) which is often used as proxy organic ligand (found in manure)) on the adsorption of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) and chromium (Cr) onto an agricultural soil. The PHREEQC geochemical modelling code was used to complement experimental methods in predicting processes and to further assess the leaching behaviour of the elements. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were used to determine the mineralization of the soil. The structural features of the soil were determined using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and the element content was determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The point of zero charge (PZC) of the soil was found to be 8.3 and the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of 51.6 meq/ 100g. In the absence of fertilisers and plant exudates, the soil exhibited a similar high adsorption for elements at all initial concentrations by all the elements. Most (> 90%) of the elements were adsorbed within the first 3 minutes of contact with the soil. Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubinin-Radushkevich adsorption isotherms were used to describe the experimental data for the elements. Kinetic rates were modelled using pseudo first-order and pseudo second-order equations. Pseudo v second-order gave the best fit for all the elements (R2 >0.999) indicating chemisorption. The effect of pH on Cd and Cu was insignificant however, the adsorption of Cr decreased with pH. The presence of competing ions decreased the adsorption of cadmium more than that of the other analyte elements. The soil was generally effective in adsorbing and retaining the elements. However, the retention was highly dependent on elemental speciation and prevailing conditions e.g. pH (as in the case of Cu and Cr). Such changes in conditions would have implications for groundwater quality. The effect of plant exudates and EDTA was studied and the results showed that low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) viz acetic acid (AA), citric acid (CA) and oxalic acid (OA) and EDTA significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the adsorption capacity of the elements onto the agricultural soil. AA had the least effect on the adsorption capacity of the elements whereas OA and EDTA strongly prevented the adsorption of the elements. Moreover, some of the elements which were already in the soil including those which were not under study such as Ca and Mg were desorbed from the soil by OA and EDTA. Thus, the mobility of the elements was increased by the presence of plant exudates, increasing groundwater contamination and consequently threatening the health of living organisms. Agrochemicals such as fertilisers, stabilizers and pesticides are constantly applied to agricultural soils to improve the fertility of the soil for better crop production however; their presence may affect the mobility and bioavailability of elements in the soil. The effect of ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate as well as calcium chloride on the adsorption of Cd, Cu and Cr onto an agricultural soil was studied. The effects of initial concentrations of the elements (5 – 50 mg/L), concentrations of fertilisers (0.01 – 0.1 mol/L) and pH (3 - 8) on the adsorption of Cd, Cu and Cr were studied. The initial concentration of the elements and the concentration of fertilisers had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on the adsorption capacities of Cu and Cr at pH 5. But, ammonium nitrate and calcium chloride decreased the adsorption capacity of Cd. The adsorption of Cd onto the soil was reduced as the concentration of fertilisers increased. The adsorption of Cd was lower than that of Cu and Cr at all pH values. The agricultural soil was found to vi be an effective adsorbent in preventing the mobility of Cu and Cr in the presence of fertilisers but not for Cd whose adsorption was significantly affected by the presence of ammonium nitrate and calcium chloride. A continuous flow fixed-bed column script with specified conditions simulating the natural environment was utilised in PHREEQC for column studies. The geochemical computer model PHREEQC can simulate solute transport in soil surfaces. The effect of initial concentration (100 and 300 mg/L) of the elements, column bed depth (5 and 10 cm) and pH (3, 5, 7 and 10) were considered in this study. The adsorption capacity was affected by initial concentration of the elements since the breakthrough curves at higher analyte concentrations were reached at lower pore volumes than at low concentrations. This can be attributed to the fast occupation of active sites of the soil at higher concentrations. The results from PHREEQC indicated that the conditions used would lead to the oxidation of Cr3+ to Cr6+ leading to the formation of HCrO4- and Cr2O72- which were not favoured for adsorption by soil surfaces due to high solubility. This could have potential implications on the quality of groundwater in regions with similar conditions. Thus, the leaching of Cr6+ onto the agricultural soil will be high in areas where remediation techniques are not applied. The changing of bed depth from 5 to 10 cm did not have an effect on the adsorption of the elements. The ability of the soil surfaces to adsorb Cd and Cu even at lower bed depth implies that the soil will be effective in preventing the leaching of the elements to groundwater due to strong surface interactions of the elements with the soil. The results from PHREEQC showed that the adsorption of Cd and Cr onto the soil surface was not affected by pH. The results for Cr were contradicting with those obtained from laboratory experiments which could be due to the conditions used in PHREEQC. The change in the speciation of Cu at basic conditions decreased the ability of Cu adsorption onto the soil surfaces. The Cu2+ was converted to Cu(OH)2 which were large in size and thus only a small amount could be adsorbed since the other adsorption sites were covered by the large species. This research had notable outputs in the form of publications which will form an important repository of information.
LG2017

Thesis (MPH.) --University of Limpopo, 2006
Studies conducted on people who reside next to dust producing mines and industries show major health risks. Air pollutants from the mine and industries are inhaled by exposed miners and people who live in the vicinity (Steenland, 1995). Aim The aim of the study is to investigate non-occupational exposure to silica dust at gaMaja village in Polokwane, Limpopo Province. Methodology Study design For this study a cross sectional descriptive study design was used. Study site The study was conducted at gaMaja village near Polokwane in the Limpopo Province Sampling A total sample of 200 villagers participated in the present study. vi Data Collection Two hundred questionnaires were used to collect survey data and were coupled with four dust deposition gauges. The four gauges were mounted at four different positions in the village and were left for six hours. Data Analysis Questionnaires were analysed using SPSS computer software to determine silica-related illnesses and indicators of exposure to silicosis susceptibility. Dust samples from dust deposition gauges were analysed using a Varian 110 atomic absorption spectrometer for determination of silicon. Results The majority of both male and female participants reported that they do not wheeze (81.4%) or bring out phlegm from their chest (71.4%) as compared to those who reported episodes of cough (48%). Gauges were able to identify exposure to a particular pollutant, silica dust, and were successful.Discussion Data from questionnaires revealed that villagers do not show signs and symptoms related to silicosis, however, that does not rule out infection in a long run. The results from dust samples that were collected reveal that there are traces of silica (crystabolite) in the village of gaMaja. Dust samples were collected during normal production at the mine in the middle of summer. Conclusion Findings from this study show that people residing next to dust producing mines and industries are at high risk of health hazard. Mining companies and policy makers should take note of the findings while planning preventive strategies for reduction of air pollutants.

The original aims of this project were to investigate the potential for phytoremediation, with emphasis on metal accumulation, of three contrasting industrial processing wastes. These were tailings material (PT) from the decommissioned Pering Pb/Zn Mine (Reivilo, North West Province, South Africa (SA)), smelter slag (SS) from the Samancor Mnsmelter (Meyerton, Gauteng, SA) and electro-winning waste (EW) from MMC (Nelspruit, Mpumalanga, SA). It became evident, however, early in the project, that the use of metal hyperaccumulating plants was not a viable technology for these wastes. The project objectives were thus adapted to investigate alternative remedial technologies. The use of endemic and adapted grass species was investigated to revegetate the PT. In addition, chemically-enhanced phytoremediation was investigated to induce metal hyperaccumulation by grasses grown in the PT (Part 1). Revegetation of the SS and EW were not considered feasible, thus land disposal of these two Mn-rich processing wastes was investigated (Part 2). Part 1 - Revegetation of tailings from Pering Mine The PT was found to be alkaline (pH > 8.0), and consisted mainly of finely crushed dolomite. It was generally nutrient poor with high amounts of readily extractable Zn. It also had a very high P-sorption capacity. Seven grass species (Andropogon eucomus Nees; Cenchrus ciliaris L.; Cymbopogon plurinodis Stapf ex Burtt Davy; Digitaria eriantha Steud; Eragrostis superba Peyr; Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter and Fingeruthia africana Lehm) were grown in PT treated with different rates of inorganic fertiliser under glasshouse conditions. The fertiliser was applied at rates equivalent to 100 kg N, 150 kg P and 100 kg K ha-1 (full), half the full rate (half) and no fertiliser (0). Seed of C. ciliaris, C. plurinodis, D. eriantha, E. superba and F. africana were collected from Pering Mine. Seed of A. eucomus was collected from the tailings dam of an abandoned chrysotile asbestos mine. These were germinated in seedling trays and replanted into the pots. A commercial variety of E. tef was tested, but due to poor survival this species was subsequently excluded. The foliage and root biomass of the grasses and concentrations of Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Pb and Zn in the foliage were determined. The yield of all the grasses increased with an increase in fertiliser rate, with a significant species by fertiliser interaction (p = 0.002). The highest yield was measured for C ciliaris, followed by D. eriantha (4.02 and 3.43 g porI, respectively), at the full fertiliser application rate. Cymbopogon plurinodis was the third highest yielding species, while the yields of E. superba and F. africana were similar. There were positive linear correlations between foliage yield and fertiliser application rate for all grasses. The root biomass of the grasses also increased with an increase in fertiliser application rate. The interaction between grass species and fertiliser level had a non-significant (p = 0.085) effect on the yield of grasses, though there were significant individual effects of species (p < 0.001) and fertiliser (p < 0.001). Digitaria eriantha had the highest root biomass at each fertiliser application rate, followed by C plurinodis and C ciliaris. Similarly to foliage yield, there were positive linear correlations between root biomass and fertiliser application level. Positive, linear correlations were found between foliage yield and root biomass, though the strength of these varied. The weakest correlation was found for D. eriantha (R2 = 0.42) but this was attributed to a moderately high variance in foliage yield and roots becoming potbound. Generally, nutrient concentrations were within adequacy ranges reported in the literature, except for P concentrations. This was attributed to the high P-sorption capacity of the PT. Zinc concentrations were higher than the recommended range for grasses, and also increased with an increase in fertiliser application rate. This was attributed to the high available Zn concentrations in the PT and improved growth of the grasses at higher fertiliser application rates. It was recommended that C ciliaris and D. eriantha be used for revegetation due to high biomass production and that E. superba be used because of rapid growth rate and high self-propagation potential. Both C plurinodis and F. africana can also be used but are slower to establish, while A. eucomus was not a suitable species for revegetation of the PT. Inorganic fertiliser improved the growth of all these species and is recommended for the initial establishment of the grasses. An experiment was conducted to investigate the potential of inducing metal hyperaccumulation in three grass species (C ciliaris, D. eriantha and E. superba) grown in the PT. Grasses were grown in fertilised tailings for six weeks, then either ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or diethylentriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) was added to the pots at rates of 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 g kg-I. Grasses were allowed to grow for an additional week before harvesting. The concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn were determined in the foliage. The interactive effect of species and chelating agent on the uptake of Cu was marginally significant (p = 0.042) and non-significant for Pb and Zn (p = 0.14 and 0.73, respectively). While the addition of the chelating agents resulted in an increase in Pb uptake by the grasses, it did not induce metal hyperaccumulation in the grasses. This was attributed to the ineffectiveness of the chelating agents in the PT in the presence of competing base cations (mainly Ca). The use of this technology was not recommended. Part 2 - Land disposal of Mn-rich processing wastes Chemical characterisation of the SS showed that it was an alkaline (pH > 9.5), Mn-rich silicate (glaucochroite), that generally·had low amounts of soluble and readily extractable metals. Acidic extractants removed high amounts of Mn, Ca and Mg, attributed to the dissolution of the silicate mineral. The EW was highly saline (saturated paste EC = 6 780 mS m,l) with a near-neutral pH. It had high amounts of soluble Mu, NHt+, S, Mg, Ca and Co. The primary minerals were magnetite, jacobsite (MnFe204) and gypsum. The effect of SS and EW on selected chemical properties of six soils was investigated by means of an incubation experiment, and their effect on the yield and element uptake by ryegrass was investigated in selected soils under glasshouse conditions. Five A-horizons (Bonheim (Ba), Hutton (Hu), lnanda (la), Shortlands (Sd) and Valsrivier (Va» and an Ehorizon (Longlands (Lo» were treated with SS at rates of 30, 60, 120,240 and 480 g kg'l and EW at rates of20, 40,80,160 and 320 g kg'l. Soils were incubated at field capacity at 24 QC and sampled periodically over 252 days. The soil pH, both immediately and over time, increased, while exchangeable acidity decreased after the addition of SS to the soils. The pH at the high rates of SS tended to be very high (about 8). The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soils also increased with an increase in SS application rates and over time. The most marked changes tended to occur in the more acidic soils (e.g. la). In the soils treated with EW, there was generally an increase in the pH of the acid soils (e.g. la) while in the more alkaline soils the pH tended to decrease (e.g. Va), immediately after waste application. There was a general decrease in pH over time, with a concurrent increase in exchangeable acidity, due to nitrification processes. The EC of all the soils increased sharply with an increase in EW application rate, attributed to the very saline nature of the EW. Water-soluble Mn concentrations in the soils treated with SS tended to be below measurable limits, except in the acid la. Iron concentrations decreased with an increase in SS application rate and over time for all soils. The water-soluble concentrations of Mn, Ca, Mg and S increased sharply with an increase in EW application rate in all soils. There was also a general increase in Mn concentrations over time. Iron concentrations tended to be low in the EW-treated soils, while Co concentrations increased as EW application rate increased. Exchangeable (EX, 0.05 M CaCh-extractable) concentrations of Fe, Co, Cu, Zn and Ni were low in the SS-treated soils. The concentrations of EX-Mn tended to increase with an increase in SS application rate in the la soil, but generally decreased in the other soils. There was also a decrease over time, attributed to the high pH leading to immobilisation of Mn. The EX-metal concentrations of the EW-treated soils were generally low, except for Mn. The concentrations of EX-Mn increased sharply as EW application rate increased. The contribution of EX-Mn was calculated to range from 209 to 3 340 mg Mn for EW rates of 20 to 320 g kg-I, respectively. In the Lo soil the expected amount of Mn was extracted at the different EW application rates. In the other soils the EX-Mn concentrations were typically higher than expected. This was attributed primarily to the dissolution ofMn from the EW due to the interaction between soil organic matter and the EW. There was generally an increase in EX-Mn concentrations over time, attributed to the decrease in pH of the soils treated with EW. The above-ground biomass production of ryegrass grown in Lo and Hu soils treated with SS increased at low application rates, but decreased again at the highest rates. The reduction in yield was attributed to an increase in soil pH leading to trace nutrient deficiencies. At the lower SS application rates, nutrient concentrations of the ryegrass tended to be within typical adequate ranges reported in the literature. Of concern was the elevated Mn concentration in the ryegrass foliage, though no toxicity symptoms were seen. This was attributed to the dissolution of the silicate mineral due to soil acidification processes and the possible ameliorating effect of high Ca and Si concentrations on Mn toxicity. The growth of ryegrass was generally poor in the Hu soil treated with EW and it did not survive beyond germination in the Lo soil treated with EW. In the Hu soil plants grew well in the 20 and 40 g kg-I EW treatments, but died at the higher rates. In both cases mortality was thought to be due to the high salinity that resulted in toxicity and osmotic stress in the newly germinated seedlings. The improved growth at the lower rates ofEW, in the Hu soil, was attributed mainly to increased N availability. The concentrations of Mn in the foliage were elevated in the soils treated with EW. A pot experiment was conducted to test the effect of applying either humic acid (HA) or compost (at a rate of 20 g kg-I) with lime (at rates of 0, 5 and 10 Mg ha-I) on the growth and nutrient uptake of ryegrass grown in the Hu soil treated with EW at rates of 0, 10, 20 and 40 g kg-I. A basal P-fertiliser was also applied in this experiment. The highest yields were measured in the treatments receiving either HA or compost at the highest application rate ofEW. The addition oflime did not improve the yield of the HA treatments, but did in the compost treatments. Generally, nutrient concentrations were adequate. The Mn concentrations were markedly lower than expected, and this was attributed to the formation of insoluble Mn-P compounds due to the addition of fertiliser. The effect of either HA or compost on Mn concentrations was not marked, but lime reduced Mn uptake. A leaching column experiment showed that, generally, the Mn was not readily leached through a simulated soil profile, though the addition of compost may enhance mobility. There was also evidence to indicate an increase in salinity and that Co concentrations of the leachate may be a problem. These data suggest that soil organic matter may be a very important factor in determining the release of Mn from the wastes, notably the EW. The land disposal of the SS and EW was not recommended at the rates investigated here, as both showed the potential for Mn accumulation in above-ground foliage, even at low application rates, while high application rates negatively impacted on plant growth. It appears that P-compounds may be beneficial in reducing Mn availability in the EW, but further testing is required.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

M.Sc. (Environmental Management)
Any change in land-use goes hand-in-hand with changes in the prevailing ambient conditions such as a change in the prevailing environmental noise and ground vibration levels. This increase may have an impact on the health and well-being of people and may furthermore result in structural damage to houses. The level of exposure will depend on the type of activity, distance from the source and the attitude of the people exposed to the land-change activities. The main objective of this research was to identify, compare and determine what the impact of mine establishment could have on a residential area some 900m from the mine footprint area. The results of the survey would assist management in employing engineering control measures which would control the exposure levels. Mines are generally established in frontier regions where there are already formal and informal residential areas. These residential areas are usually in rural districts with low prevailing ambient noise levels or, if in fact perceptible, insignificant ones at the most. This study dealt with the evaluation of physical aspects such as environmental noise and ground vibration levels and the determination of exposure levels, an issue of environmental impact and of concern to public health. The village which is being exposed to increased noise and ground vibration levels is a formal housing area with infrastructural components such as roads, water and electricity connections. The exposure levels before and during the construction phase gave an indication of the positive or negative exposure levels that the people were enduring during the establishment phase of the mine...

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Environmental Sciences) at the School of Geography, Archaeology & Environmental Studies , Johannesburg, 2017
There is a growing interest in the reclamation of the old gold mines’ tailings dumps in Johannesburg city region driven by the economic value of the remaining gold resource. This reclamation activity is accompanied by various rehabilitation methods to reduce issues such as acid mine drainage and wind pollution. The impact of land use and land cover change (LULCC) can have an enormous impact on land development and planning. Monitoring of LULCC is very important in the planning and decision making processes. Remote sensing (RS) as the source of basic data for monitoring change is very highly recommended as tool to monitor changes occurring in the Johannesburg City Region as a result of rehabilitation and reclamation of the gold mines’ tailings deposits. The main aim of the study is to understand how the reclamation and rehabilitation of the historical tailings dumps in Johannesburg are changing land use patterns of the city and its precincts. The objectives are to quantify the changes in land use and land cover as the results of mining rehabilitation using Landsat earth observation data over a period of 30 years at five years intervals and; to recommend on how the land cleared of waste dumps could be used for looking at the surrounding environment spatially. Various Geographical Information Systems techniques are applied here for change detection analysis and monitoring of potential changes in urban dynamics patterns. The results show rate of rehabilitation and reclamation to be slow, taking several years to see a meaningful change. There is some form of bias towards transforming the reclaimed land into industrial zones as opposed to other activities. The success of tailings dumps rehabilitation through revegetation process is highlighted.
MT 2018

Climate change has come to be understood as a deleterious phenomenon, which threatens business, society and ecological systems, thus making it imperative to understand its impact on human, social and economic activities as well as the impact of these activities on climate change. Against this background, this research sought to determine climate change intervention strategies in the mining supply chain in general, specifically focussing on opencast mining contracting and plant hire companies’ practices. This focus on the mining industry was driven by its importance in South Africa and globally, despite its significant direct and indirect contribution to climatic changes. The mixed-methods multiple case study focused on the climate change management of the Mutual Construction Company Group of Companies (MCCGC), an open cast toll mining firm and equipment supplier. Limited to two sites, Pilanesberg Platinum Mines (PPM) and Tharisa Minerals (Tharisa) Mines, the researcher gathered data through interviews, questionnaires, observations and document review. Data was analysed through deductive content analysis. The research made three major findings: (i) the MCCGC, like its principals PPM and Tharisa, does not have an explicit climate change management strategy. Instead, climate change is managed indirectly through implicit strategies seeking to manage environment, health and safety concerns of the mines, (ii) as a contractor, the MCCGC has had to adopt PPM and Tharisa’s implicit approach to climate change management strategies to meet contractual obligations, instead of an explicit approach and, (iii) the MCCGC and its principals’ commitment to environment, health and safety management, and implicitly climate change management, is not mere rhetoric but is being put into practice. The research concluded that MCCGC’s lack of expressed climate change management intentions and practices exposed the firm to climate change risks, most notably financial risks and reputation risks. Financial risks arise from possible ex post climate change liability. In addition, MCCGC is risking its contract tenures, particularly if the two mines change ownership and the new owners insist on an explicit rather than implied climate change strategy with all its suppliers. Reputational risks arise from the possible failure to attract new clientele and investors who may perceive MCCGC as a risky partner, due to an inept climate change intervention strategy
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

This study focuses on Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) in the three basins of the Witwatersrand’s goldfields in the Vaal River System in South Africa. AMD has become a highly contested issue. A difference in its definition exists between two groups of role-players identified in the study: government and consultants/activists/NGOs. This study unpacks the differences in the way AMD is defined, the situation of AMD in each of the three basins and the socio-economic implications caused by AMD. A crucial finding was that these definitions determine how the issue is understood and what solutions these role-players propose. The main purpose of the study was to determine whether the South African government’s policy response was appropriate given the socio-economic impacts of AMD and imperatives of sustainable development. This study concluded that, in the policy, there was no clear indication as to what the socio-economic impacts are, and limited attention was therefore given to these impacts.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development Studies)

Whilst the mining industry has stimulated the economic growth of South Africa, its activities have also impacted on the social and environmental well-being of the communities and ecosystems in which it operates. Environmental degradation often severely affects the livelihoods of people in rural areas, who are often impoverished. Hondeklip Bay, a small fishing community in the Northern Cape, has been affected by the mining activities of the adjacent Hondeklip Bay Mine. The purpose of this paper is to identify whether impoverished residents affected by the detrimental effects of mining activity have rights to enforce the protection of their environment. These environmental rights pertain to an environment that is safe and not harmful to one's health and well-being. Environmental obligations of the mines as illustrated in terms of applicable legislation, and legal recourse available to the residents affected by the infringement of their environmental rights are furthermore explored.
Jurisprudence
LL.M

Countries and governments around the world have accepted the scientific argument on the prevalence and the possible effect of global warming and climate change on the environment, world economy and ultimately human life (Nhamo, 2011). Amongst all industrial corporations, the mining industry is the biggest environmental polluter due to its extractive nature and energy intensive operations. However because of its economic importance, it cannot be abandoned, instead it needs to find a win-win situation, where it continues to succeed but minimizes environmental damage. This thesis aims to examine the possible impact of clean technology on the sustainability of South African gold mining sector. Specifically, the study aims to determine the drivers behind the move towards clean technologies and methods, identify challenges and opportunities associated with this transition at Harmony Gold’s Kusasalethu mine. This was achieved through using Kusasalethu as a case study to which investigations of the effectiveness of clean technology and methods were carried out. The case study was multidimensional; exploring the effect of clean technology on energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission (GHG), water consumption, cyanide management and Kusasalethu’s financial performance. While the case study was largely qualitative it involved quantitative data analysis that had to be triangulated with other data sources and data gathering instruments to achieve legitimacy. This meant that the study had to adopt the mixed research methods. The instruments used included; key informant interviews, and document analysis, structured questionnaire and a set of open ended questions that served as interview guide. The qualitative data were analyzed by means of coding, descriptions, typologies, taxonomies and visual representations, whilst quantitative data were processed through Microsoft Excel to generate various forms of descriptive statistics. The findings indicate that resource consumption (energy, water, cyanide) depends on the mine design and gold output rate. Clean technology implementation at Kusasalethu helped the mine reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions. However scope 2 (indirect GHG emissions associated with energy consumption) is also determined by coal production technologies and methods used by coal mines. Although data on Kusasalethu water and cyanide management and related technologies was not available, the aggregate data for all Harmony Gold mines indicated higher annual water and cyanide consumption during 2010 and 2012. In terms of Kusasalethu’s financial performance and clean technology adaptation, acquisition of clean technologies increased capital expenditure temporarily. However, the positive effects of the clean technology transition and implementation minimized operational cost and increased operational profit greatly. Although adopting clean technologies calls for increased capital expenditure, this study reveals that this expenditure pays off in lower operation costs for the mine and the environment benefits through lower GHG emission. However, clean technologies are yet to impact significantly in lowering water and cyanide consumption levels as they do with energy consumption. The study concluded that clean technology and methods played a positive role on Kusasalethu’s environmental impact and financial performance by reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions. Though, more need to be done in terms of water and cyanide management.
Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Management)